eChapters

Introduction

The people in Kolli Hills were more traditional in nature believing the fith and practices of the local communities. They happened to manage their livelihood through agriculture and maintained an indigenous life with their own knowledge system. They used to maintain the longstanding traditions from their ancestors and spread the knowledge in different spheres of livelihood. Such socially generated knowledge is popularly called as local knowledge. The ongoing practice of using such knowledge for indigenous communities established the belief that such knowledge used in atraditional manner was fruitful for the people. The concept of indigenous knowledge gained its worldwide recognition through the United Nations Conference on Environment and Education in 1992, World Conservation Strategy of International Union and Conservations of Natural Resources in 1980, Brundtland Commission, and World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. These events recognized the existence of indigenous knowledge in every country, society, culture. Since India has a long history and much enriched culture there is abundant reservoir of indigenous knowledge in every part of the country. Similarly Kolli Hills of Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu, is a historical land having enriched cultural heritage which has varied communities and immense resources. Its flora and fauna are vast and varied in nature. The tribal communities, of this Kolli Hills, “Malayali” appear to live on their own knowledge system. The paper is intended to unfurl the essence of Indigenous Tribal Agricultural Practices (ITAPs) in Kolli Hills and the rationality analysis ITAPs in the study area. According to Grenier (1998) indigenous knowledge is the traditional knowledge of the local community existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area.

Fisheries
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Agricultural Tools
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Management Practices
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Protection Measures
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Medicinal Plants
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Post Harvest Methods
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Seed Storage Structures
Seed Storage Structure
Kuluppai / Kulumai (Mud Pot)
Th. Gopalakrishnan, 52 years old is residing in A.Edayapatti village in Manapparai taluk of Trichy district. He is educated up to 10^th standard and has agriculture as his primary occupation. He possesses a post harvest storage structure called ‘kuluppai/kulumai’.

It is a storage structure used to store grains, which is suited to all ecosystems. This structure is invented by ancestors and maintained for more than 100 years until now. 

Traditional Varieties

The genus Dioscorea comprises of approximately 600 species and sustains livelihood around the globe. Air yam, aerial yam, bitter yam, cheeky yam, potato yam, and parsnip yam are all names for Dioscorea bulbifera L., a traditional medicinal plant native to Asia, Northern Australia, America, and tropical Africa. It’s been used in traditional medicine for a long time and has a lot of potential.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial herbaceous climber that can reach a height of 10-20 metres and has multiple fibrous roots. The leaves are alternating, broadly cordate, and bright green in colour, with rounded basal lobes arising from one of them. Aerial tubers (bulbils) are circular, smooth-surfaced tubers that grow freely in leaf axils. Annual stems emerge from a tuberous, woody rootstock. These stems either creep along the ground or climb up the surrounding vegetation. Dioscoreaceae subfamilies are distinguished by the presence of bisexual and unisexual blooms. Seeds are trilocular, dark brown, and somewhat winged (1.2-1.6 by 0.5 cm).

Floral characteristics

Flowers are grouped in spikes that are hanging, axillary, solitary, or fascicled. The seeds are winged at the base, while the capsules are oblong and winged. The fruit has three valves and the perianth is tubular. From September to November, the plant blooms and bears fruit.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

3.1. Reserve Bank of India

Established in April 1, 1935 as per RBI Act, 1934.

Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) organized in 1935 coordinated Bank’s operations with State Co-operative Banks and other banks and organization dealing with agricultural credit

Financing agriculture by commercial banks is looked after by Department of Banking Operations and Development (DBOD)

While, ACD continued to take care of co-operative credit

Introduction 
Rural entrepreneurship is not only important as a means of generating employment opportunities in the rural areas with low capital cost and raising the real income of the people, but also its contribution to the development of agriculture and urban industries Building capacity of Rural Agri-prenuers are a promising solution for unemployment (Renuka, 2020), migration, economic disparity, reduce poverty, development of rural areas and backward regions. Most of the rural populace is associated with agriculture and allied activities as pedigree occupation. However, to be commercially viable, these units need to sharpen their skill sets to thrive as a successful venture. India is home to about 700 tribal groups with a population of 104 million, as per 2011 census. This indigenous people constitute the second largest tribal population in the world after Africa. Tribal population of Jammu & Kashmir is among the nascent Tribal Groups joining the main stream of planned development, to which they have brought a distinct and colourful cultural variety. Their economy is closely linked with the forests and they are living a substandard life because of their primitive mode of livelihood. Majority of them are placed below the poverty line, possessing meagre assets and are exclusively dependent on wages, forest produce and farming, that too in a traditional way which leads to non remunerative returns. The peculiar aspect of tribals of our state is their scattered population who inhabit the difficult and remote geographic terrains which poses a severe threat to their speedy development. In J&K state the following communities have been declared as scheduled tribes 1. Balti, 2. Beda, 3. Bot, Bota, 4. Brokpa, Drokpa, Dard, Shin, 5. Changpa, Garran, 6. Mon, 8. Purigpa, 9. Gujjar, 10. Bakerwal, 11. Gaddi and 12. Sippi.

Mass contact method in extension education involves reaching a large audience or community through various communication channels to disseminate information, raise awareness, and promote behavior change. Unlike individual or group contact methods that involve direct interaction with specific individuals or small groups, mass contact methods are employed to reach a broader audience efficiently. These methods leverage mass media, such as radio, television, newspapers, social media, and public events, to deliver educational messages and engage with the target population.

Objectives

1. Dissemination of Information: To provide accurate and relevant information on agricultural practices, technologies, health, education, and other relevant topics to a wide audience.

2. Awareness Building: To raise awareness about important issues, challenges, and opportunities within the community, encouraging informed decision-making and action.

3. Behavior Change Promotion: To promote positive behavioral changes, such as adopting improved agricultural practices, adopting healthy behaviors, and participating in community development initiatives.

4. Community Mobilization: To mobilize community members to participate in extension programs, community projects, and collective action for social and economic development.

5. Knowledge Sharing: To facilitate the sharing of knowledge, experiences, and best practices among community members, extension agents, and stakeholders.

The chemistry of humic substances is the least comprehended in the field of Soil Science. The many important functions of humus will remain obscure if the structural chemistry of the humic and fulvic acids is not known. A variety of functional groups have been reported in humic substances. However, considerable disagreement still exists in respect of the exact amounts present and, in some cases, proof of existence is lacking.

Some important structural groups of organic molecules are given below:

The ease with which a text can be read is referred to as readability. Complexity, recognizability, legibility, and typography are all possible inclusions. Sentence length, syllable density, and word familiarity are common considerations in readability algorithms.

It refers to how easily a reader can comprehend a written content. The complexity of a text’s vocabulary and syntax, as well as how it is presented, determine how easily it may be understood in natural language (such as typographic aspects like font size, line height, and line length).

Why is readability important?

1.0. Objectives

• To produce proficient and smart readers
• To develop constructive comprehension of texts
• To impart the techniques of a fusion of knowledge and skills and train learners accordingly
• To develop strategies to get the crisp of the meaning of paragraphs and pages.
• To practice reading comprehension

1. Introduction

Libraries play an important role in developing reading habit among students. The Academic library specially means to support the teaching learning process and is focus to work on curriculum based education system. Inculcating reading habit among students in academic Library is a challenge. Our College SMRK BK AK Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nashik is dedicated towards the Women’s Education has accepted this challenge and established Book Club to inculcate reading habit among students. Reading Drive is one of the unique practices run in our college from 2014. Every year more than 200 students enrolled under the Book Club and read the books other than academics. Under this club, we take various activities such as Book Review Competition, Book talk, Books Exhibitions on Various Occasions, Digital Exhibition of Book Reviews submitted by students, New Arrivals Desk, Ask a Librarian and execute this Reading Drive.

After successful recording of the electrocardiogram, the next step is its reading, analysis, interpretation and report writing. It is the most important part of electrocardiography. Patients details ( name, species of animal, breed, age ,sex, owners’ name and address with E-mail and mobile number) and date of tracing are to be mentioned in the electrocardiograph prior to actual recording of the electrocardiogram or can be jotted down on the ECG strip after completion of recording as per available facility in the electrocardiographic machine. Clinical complaints and observations should be kept in mind while interpreting the electrocardiogram.

37.1. Aim

To prepare ready to serve drink from fruits.

37.2. Theory

Ready to serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix total soluble solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready to serve beverage. Mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink are the commercial products available in the market.

Sweetened fruit juice is categorized as ready to serve beverage in which the minimum juice content shall be 85% with a minimum TSS of 10%, while unsweetened juice is a natural juice having 100% fruit juice with natural total soluble solids. These are preserved by heat processing method. Sweetened apple, pear juices are commercially manufactured.

There are several fungicidal molecules available in the market, some of which are specific for certain diseases/pathogens while others are broad spectrum and can be used against a range of diseases. However, for proper control measures a knowledge of disease specific fungicide are very important. Ready-Reckoner for disease specific fungicide (Table 4) makes available the option for selection of alternative fungicide in the management of specific disease.

The application of insecticide to control a particular crop pest should have options of the pesticides, as some may be less effective than other due to various reasons.

1. Introduction

There is a general consensus that fruit and vegetable consumption is a key factor for a balanced diet. Globally, majority of people consistently are consuming less than the daily recommended fruit and vegetable requirement. Even in developed nations e.g., Australia, Canada, Europe, UK and USA, researchers have concluded that there is large gap between actual and recommended consumption of both fruits and vegetables despite decades of concern and publicity while resultant outcomes were short-lived. In a study from 52 low and middle-income countries 77.6% of men and 78.4% of women consumed less than the minimum recommended servings of fruits and vegetables. Same study reported 74% low fruit and vegetable consumption among adults in India (Hall et al., 2009). In India, recent studies on the fruit and vegetable intake amongst urban residents was reported as 265 g per day as against 400 g per dayof fruits and vegetables excluding potatoes and other starchy tubers, that is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008).

Epidemiological studies conducted in recent years have indicated a positive correlation between the consumption of fruits and vegetables and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Health-promoting functional characteristics of vegetables are mainly attributable to their functional bioactive constituents. These effects can be listed as antioxidant activity, cholesterol-bindingcapacity, antidiabetic activity and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. Studies conducted in cell culture models and animal models have revealed that bioactive compounds of plant foods, including soybean, hawthorn fruit, tea, buckwheat, oats, onion, garlic, almond, and vegetable juice, composed of tomato watercress, parsley, carrots, celery, lettuce, beets and spinach, have cholesterol-lowering activity (El-Shatanovi et al., 2012; Vadivel et al., 2011).

1. Introduction

Extrusion is one of the most preferred ways for creating the indulgence called ready-to-eat (RTE) snack foods with diverse shapes, sizes, colours and also nutritional and functional values which appeal to the diverse group of consumer with varied choices. In this chapter ready-to-eat extruded and puffed snacks are the focus covering the technology involved, criteria for ingredient selection, design of experiment, process modelling, effects of extrusion on physical, nutritional and functional quality of the snack; a few relevant case studies are also discussed.

1.1 Market for RTE snack foods

Indian cooking and lifestyle have undergone tremendous changes in the last 15 years. There are many major factors impacting this change which include, liberalization policy, dual income, separate living of couples, innovative kitchen applications, media proliferation, etc. The cooking style and eating habits in India varies drastically from southern part to northern part of the contry. Due to lifestyle pressure nowadays people prefer easy short way of cooking food rather spending too much time on cooking. Rapid urbanisation is also one of the reasons for people to buy such products. Snack foods comprise a very large variety of items including potato chips, crackers, nuts and extruded snacks, among others (Harper, 1981). Snack food extrusion includes subjecting selected raw material to a variety of complex physical processes to yield snacks with varied shapes and textures (White, 1994).

The RTE market in India was expected to expand to reach Rs. 2,900 crore by 2015, according to an analysis done by Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG). The products may vary from noodles, pasta, masala packages, stuffed paratha, etc. and many more. There are many regional players who are making foray into ready-to-eat segment. Many national and international players like Nestle, Pepsico, ITC, Haldirams, Cavinkare, are already in Indian market with their products.

1. Introduction

1.1 Malnutrition

The term malnutrition generally refers both to under nutrition and over nutrition, but in this guide we use the term to refer solely to a deficiency of nutrition. Many factors can cause malnutrition, most of which relate to poor diet or severe and repeated infections, particularly in underprivileged populations. Inadequate diet and disease, in turn, are closely linked to the general standard of living, the environmental conditions, and whether a population is able to meet its basic needs such as food, housing and health care. Malnutrition is thus a health outcome as well as a risk factor for disease and exacerbated malnutrition, and it can increase the risk both of morbidity and mortality (Ogunrinade, 2014). A term used to refer to any condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients for proper function. A person cannot properly digest or absorb nutrients from the food they consume, as may occur with certain medical conditions (Medicine, 2015). Malnutrition may range from mild to severe and life-threatening. It can be a result of starvation, in which a person has an inadequate intake of calories, or it may be related to a deficiency of one particular nutrient (for example, vitamin C deficiency).

Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more than one third of all child deaths, although it is rarely listed as the direct cause. Lack of access to highly nutritious foods, especially in the present context of rising food prices, is a common cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices, such as inadequate breast feeding, offering the wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child gets enough nutritious food, contributes to malnutrition (WHO, 2015).

Pooled estimates report the prevalence of malnutrition among community-dwelling older adults of 6% and among hospitalized older adults of 39%. In developed countries, treatment of malnutrition is relatively inexpensive and effective: energy and protein supplementation using commercial “sip feeds” results in both weight gain and reduced mortality (Pereira et al., 2015). In 2013, one in four children under age five worldwide had stunted growth. Between 2000 and 2013, stunting prevalence globally declined from 33 to 25 %, and the number of children affected fell from 199 million to 161 million. In 2013, about half of all stunted children lived in Asia and over one third in Africa (UNICEF, 2015). Malnutrition may be several types as follows:

6.1 Introduction

There are a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic fiber-optic sensors which use absorption spectroscopy indirectly for the detection of various chemical species. These include pH, metal ions, oxygen in water etc. In such sensors a suitable reagent is immobilized on a solid support. The support can be the core of the fiber or some optical material attached at the end of the fiber. Further it is optically transparent to allow transmission of the light signal from the interface and should remain inert to the chemical reaction being analyzed. The analyte (or the chemical species) when comes in contact of the reagent affects the absorption properties of the reagent. In other words, in these sensors, the reagent acts as a chemical transducer for analytes that are not directly measurable by optical techniques. Following conditions for the use of reagents in sensors must be met:

Real-time crop monitoring for efficient climate guidance extends beyond monsoon-dependent regions and holds significant importance in a global agricultural context. While the fundamental technologies and principles remain similar, the specific applications and benefits are tailored to the diverse agricultural systems and climates worldwide.
10.1. Global Applicability Across Diverse Agricultural Systems
• Rain-fed Agriculture (Beyond Monsoons): In semi-arid and arid regions globally, where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable, real-time monitoring of soil moisture and plant stress through remote sensing and ground sensors is crucial for optimizing the limited water resources and implementing drought management strategies (Fig.10.1).
• Irrigated Agriculture: Even in systems relying on irrigation, real-time monitoring helps optimize water usage based on actual crop needs and prevailing weather conditions, preventing over-irrigation and conserving water, a critical resource globally.
• Temperate and High-Latitude Agriculture: In these regions, real-time monitoring can track temperature fluctuations, frost risks (as you researched previously), and the impact of shorter growing seasons on crop development, allowing for timely interventions like frost protection or adjustments to planting schedules.
• Tropical Agriculture: Beyond monsoons, tropical regions often face challenges like high humidity and pest/disease pressure. Real-time monitoring of leaf wetness and other microclimate factors aids in targeted pest and disease management, reducing the need for broad-spectrum applications.

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) stands out as a highly potent technology within the realm of molecular biology. With PCR, particular sequences present within a DNA or cDNA template can undergo replication, termed “amplification,” increasing their quantity manifold, ranging from thousands to millions. This process entails the utilization of sequence-specific oligonucleotides, a DNA polymerase capable of withstanding high temperatures, and thermal cycling.

Real Time PCR, a variant of the standard PCR technique, serves as a prevalent method for quantifying DNA or RNA within a sample. Through the use of sequence-specific primers, the quantity of copies of a specific DNA or RNA sequence can be assessed. This is achieved by monitoring the amount of amplified product at each stage throughout the PCR cycle. Earlier cycles exhibit amplification if a particular sequence (DNA or RNA) is abundant in the sample, while amplification in later cycles indicates scarcity of the sequence.

The growing adoption of Generative AI in academic institutions has moved the technology from experimental applications toward practical implementation across teaching, learning, research, student support, and university operations. This chapter examines real-world applications and institutional case studies that demonstrate how GenAI can be incorporated into higher education and other academic environments. Key applications include AI tutoring and learning support, curriculum and course development, assessment and feedback, research assistance, student-success services, and institutional operations. AI writing coaches can provide individualized guidance, while dialogic mathematics and coding assistants can support problem-solving without simply providing answers. Educators can use GenAI to develop learning objectives, case studies, examples, question banks, rubrics, multimedia scripts, synthetic datasets, and practice environments. The chapter also considers institutional experiences with AI policies, academic integrity, accessibility, privacy, and professional development. Successful implementations generally combine technological capabilities with human review, clear institutional guidelines, and AI literacy. Case studies demonstrate both the potential and limitations of GenAI, emphasizing that effective adoption requires contextual evaluation rather than technology-driven implementation alone. The chapter provides practical insights for institutions seeking evidence-based and responsible approaches to educational transformation through generative AI.

5.3.1. Main components

Shear tube: It absorbs heavy shocks and protects the components of rear transmission and main transmission from breaking.

Crown wheel and pinion: It transmits the drive from the main shaft to the rear axle shaft and inverts the direction of rotation to 90° from the main shaft. It reduces the speed and multiplies the torque.

Rear axle: It is a semi floating type. It transfers the drive from the sun gear to the rear wheel.

5.3.2. How does it work?

The drive from the main shaft of the gear box is taken to the rear drive shaft through the coupler planetary. Depending on the position of the high–low gear and lever which moves the coupler, power is transmitted directly or through epicyclic gear train. The drive from the rear drive shaft is transferred to a safety coupling also known as shear tube. The coupling is a safety device. In case the rear wheels encounter any shock loading, the coupling breaks and disconnects the gear box from the rear transmission. This prevents damage to costly parts in the transmission, clutch and engine. Power is transmitted from safety coupling to a pinion which has a spiral bevel gear at one end. The bevel pinion is supported on two tapered roller bearings carried in a housing which is mounted in the centre housing.

Theory

Research: The word research is composed of two words “Re” and “Search”.
“Re” - ‘Again or over again or a new’ 
“Search” - ‘To examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’. 
Research is a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies. 
Science: It is a systematized knowledge derived through observation, experimentation or any other systematic method or procedure in order to determine the nature of phenomenon or process being studied or the causes behind specific events.

Introduction

Milk is a natural food source of mammals. Animals produce milk to feed their young-ones until they are ready for solid feed. Cow milk contains protein, vitamins and minerals which are essential for the overall growth of the body. Cow milk contains a lot of nutrients and it has great role for overall health. Cow milk helps to boost the immune system of humans. Cow milk has a high content of calcium and minerals which plays a key role in maintaining bone density. Because of its high calcium content, cow’s milk is also considered great for teeth health. Cow milk has all essential amino acids which are required for growth and development of body. It is very beneficial for children as it helps to grow with physically and mentally. Cow milk help to reduce weight loss as it loaded with protein which is essential for weight loss. Calcium and vitamin D of milk increases the metabolic rate of the body. A better metabolic rate helps in burning calories faster. Drinking cow milk regularly helps in maintaining the blood sugar levels in the body. Cow’s milk has essential minerals and vitamins that help in processing the food normally and helps to maintain the insulin and glucose level.

Buffaloes thrive best in the areas of moderate rainfall as they require plenty of water for their daily bath. They live on coarser grass and even then are heavy yielders of milk. Buffalo species is thought to have originated in India. Indian buffaloes are the descendant of Bos arni found in north-eastern parts of India, especially in Assam & surrounding areas. There are two main types of buffaloes in India: River and Swamp types. However, both are called Bubalus bubalis. Most of the buffaloes in India are river types, though swamp varieties are also found in certain parts of the country, especially in eastern parts. Buffalo is our main milch producing species, that’s why the contribution of buffaloes to the total milk production is larger than that of cattle. India is the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds. Buffalo has the major share in milk production in India. It is one of the major way for doubling the income of farmer by mix farming. Buffaloes are more resistant to many diseases as compare to cattle. Everyone know that, buffaloes milk are superior than cattle milk, hence fetching more price.

Seed rearing in coldwater and hill stream fisheries focuses on nurturing fish from the egg stage to a certain juvenile size, suitable for stocking in natural water bodies or for further cultivation. This process often includes artificial breeding techniques and aims to support fish population enhancement and the sustainability of fisheries in these sensitive ecosystems. Common species reared in these regions include Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salmo trutta), Mahseer (Tor species), and Snow Trout (Schizothorax species). These fish are native to the high-altitude rivers, lakes, and streams of the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan areas, particularly in states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir. These species are highly valued for both ecological balance and economic benefits. Rearing them successfully requires moving hatchlings through the fry and fingerling stages under carefully controlled environmental conditions. These coldwater species flourish in well-oxygenated environments with water temperatures between 10°C and 18°C. Their development is strongly influenced by altitude, steady water flow, and simulated natural habitats. The fish are typically raised in raceways, tanks, concrete troughs, or flowthrough systems. These systems ensure a continuous flow of clean water, which is vital for preserving water quality and supporting the delicate physiology of coldwater fish. Feeding is a key part of early development. After yolk-sac absorption, larvae are introduced to high-quality powdered feeds or live food like daphnia and tubifex worms. For species such as Mahseer, semi-natural hatcheries and earthen raceways with gently flowing, clean water and gravel beds are ideal.

Introduction

Poultry includes all that birds which are domesticated for commercial purpose i.e. chicken, duck, quails, turkey, geese, pigeon, emu, ostrich and other domestic birds. Indians represent a major success story of poultry industry. While agriculture production has been rising at the rate around 2 percent per annum over the past 2 to 3 decades but at the same time poultry industry has been rising at the rate of around 8 percent. There is no religious issue regarding consumption of eggs and chicken and are accepted by all communities and are available at the most reasonable price. In last two decades, the egg production has gone to 70 billion from few millions and the broiler production has gone to 3.8 million tones.

In Jammu and Kashmir, 84% off the population is mostly non-vegetarian. The peoples of J & K, consumed 121 crore eggs and 7.4 crore kg poultry meat per annum. From the last decade, poultry sector has tremendous growth in Jammu & Kashmir. Poultry farming has come up in a immense way in Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur, Pulwama, Srinagar and Budgam districts with large number of educated unemployed youth taking poultry farming as a sustainable means of earning their livelihood. More than 8000 youths in J & K have been engage poultry farming for self employment till date. It is high time to take several measures to increase local production so as to achieve independency in J &K youths. Most of the imports of poultry meat and eggs come from the Punjab and Haryana state. Nearly 90% of the poultry farmers of the borders belt of the Punjab are dependent on the supply to J & K, as there is huge demand of poultry products throughout the year in the J & K. Indian Nutritional Academy; Hyderabad has suggested consumption of 182 eggs per head per annum as standard. The national availability is 63 eggs while in J & K, it is only 38 eggs.

Commercial poultry farming in India has creating profitable business opportunity for entrepreneurs. Poultry farming business can provide a great employment source for the job seeking people. This is such as business in India that can never dry up. All types of poultry product have a great demand inside the Indian market. Highly productive local and foreign breeds are available for commercial production. Requirement of initial investment for poultry farming is not too high. You can start small scale production and elaborate it gradually. Bank loans are available throughout the country. Numerous farms are available and can easily learn about poultry farming from those established farmers, KVKs, Universities.

Rearing post-larvae (PL) shrimp involves transitioning them from the larval stage to juveniles, typically done in specialized tanks or ponds. PL are stocked at densities of 75–100 per liter in indoor tanks, while outdoor tanks can accommodate higher densities. They are fed with live zooplankton, such as Artemia nauplii. Proper water quality, including dissolved oxygen and low ammonia, is crucial, with regular water changes and removal of waste. The tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, is one of the fastest growing species among cultured shrimps. The species is euryhaline and can even tolerate near freshwater conditions. In India, shrimp culture has been followed as a traditional activity since ages. However, it made a phenomenal growth during the 1990s due to the adoption of scientific practices. Farming of tiger shrimp is generally practiced in the tidal flats and other areas adjacent to the coastal waters. The steady demand in the global market and high economic return has attracted farmers to adopt tiger shrimp culture. India is endowed with a long coastline and hence offers scope for large exploitation of marine wealth. Till a few years back, fishermen in India were involving themselves in traditional marine fishing. In the seventies, fishermen started concentrating on catching prawns, more commonly known as ‘shrimps’, due to high profitable return on the same on account of their export value. Brackish water prawn farming started in a big way during 1991–94, especially in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The estimated brackish water area suitable for undertaking shrimp cultivation in India is around 11.91 lakh hectares, spread over 10 states and union territories— West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Of this, only around 1.2 lakh hectares are under shrimp farming now, and hence a lot of scope exists for entrepreneurs to venture into this field of activity. The following table gives the state-wise potential and present level of development.

Introduction

Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial. Due to its good economic prospects, goat rearing under intensive and semi-intensive system for commercial production has been gaining momentum for the doubling the income of the farmers. There is good encouragement from governments with providing subsidies on especially stall fed goat farming. Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing healthy meat. Goats also play major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Goats are among the main meat producing animal in India, whose meat (chevon) is one of the choicest meats and has huge domestic demand. High demand of goat and its products with potential of good economic returns have been deriving many progressive farmers, business, professionals, ex-servicemen and educated youths to take up the goat enterprise on a commercial scale. The emerging favorable market conditions and easy accessibility to improved goat technologies are also catching the attention of entrepreneurs.

Sheeps were first domesticated by human being, many thousands of years ago for their wool, meat and skins. It provides a source of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive building to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. Sheep are economical convertor of grass into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats; sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different source of income to the shepherd. The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the reasons for food grain surplus (7.5 marks, CSE 2019)

2. What are the reasons for good grain surplus in India? Write the steps taken by the government to save the food grains. (12.5M, CSE 2015)

Reason for Grain Surplus

Green Revolution

• Introduction of high yielding varieties of Rice and Wheat

• Green Revolution was made possible through the use of

Abstract

Potato in India was introduced as a long day temperate crop which found suitable climate in the higher hills of the country. Since then it is grown widely in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Plateau and the Himalayan regions in north and the Nilgiris hills in south of India. The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla has developed 49 potato varieties by the conventional breeding for suitable cultivation of potato in different potato zones of India. A number of technologies for ware- and quality seed- potato production, storage and processing have been developed/standardized for adoption by the end users. These technologies have contributed immensely towards multiple increase in area, production and productivity of potato during last sixty years. Apart from conventional tools, modern biotechnological tools like whole genome sequencing technology, transgenics technology, molecular markers, RNAi and microarray technology have are also being employed in potato improvement.

INTRODUCTION
 
In India tremendous progress has been made in agriculture. In absence of check on population growth, it may cross 1.5 billions by 2030. As a consequence per capita availability of land 0.13 ha will further reduce to 0.1 hectare in 2020 A.D. The demand of growing population for food and fibre require country to produce higher yields from presently cultivated land. Currently an average of 2790 calories of food available each day for every human on the planet, (23 per cent more than in 1961 and enough to feed every one). The production targets and required yield to feed the ever increasing current population with present available resources will require the growth rate of 2.35 and 2.2 per cent in rice and wheat, respectively and as high as 4.45 and 3.38 per cent for pulses and oil seeds, respectively. This requires national average yield to be increased by 30-50 per cent, which is not a cakewalk. India will require producing additional 5-6 million tones annually to keep pace with ever-increasing national food and nutritional requirements. Recurrent famines, starvation death and lack of resources led to green revolution, which as of now has turned our begging bowl to agriculturally advanced cereal exporting country.

Advancements on sugar processing

India has popped out as one of the largest sugar processing country throughout the world. Through the collaboration of research and development carried out in the field of sugar processing, this industry has witnessed the vast changes in term of technology. Important considerations such as productivity improvement and cost reduction were the main objectives in the field of sugar processing. Sulphur dioxide was earlier used but afterwards lime treatment in clarified juice helped in the processing of white sugar from sugar cane. Since then the continuous progress and improvement has been made and advanced techniques are introduced for manufacturing of sugar with modern tools.

Ramjeawon (2004) reported that farmers and agriculture workers grow sugar cane and beet root for sugar production,providing about 20 kg per capita and that is equivalent to almost 13 percent energy requirement. Fechter et al. (2001) reported that production of the white sugar was focused more on juices rather than molasses which were taken as the raw material. Various processes such as ultra-filtration, de-mineralization and de-colorization were used for the production of white sugar. The traditional refining process wascheaper, and effective in terms of purification and juice purification was the method used for the processing of white sugar directly from the sugar cane. Crystallization was one of the process which is used for increasing the recovery of sucrose and it reduces the molasses production. Chromatography was used in the sugar industry for the separation of sucrose. Another method was ion exchange demineralization which was used in the sugar industry for the removal of minerals from the liquid sugar. Later adsorption has been incorporated to be used de-odorization and de-pigmentation. Membrane filtration is latest technique used in the process which was used for maintaining the quality of white sugar by removing unwanted particle from the juice. Velásquez et al.,(2018) reported that thermal processes are also used for the production of sugar from sugar cane. Non centrifugal cane sugar processing is used for this purpose and the product is obtained by evaporating the sugarcane which has the unique flavor and aroma. Later the product is used as the sweetener and has a traditional characteristics flavor and optimum nutrition.

Introduction 
A broad definition of bioprocessing is the process of creating a valuable product from a live source. The system’s most important element is that the source organism is living and sensitive to its surroundings. Accordingly, the framework states that it will respond to relatively small changes in its physico-chemical environment by modifying its physiology to maximise efficiency. The use of entire cells and enzymes to catalyse bioprocesses in industrial settings is becoming more popular these days than conventional chemical synthetic methods. Among the many benefits of biotransformations in this context are their extensive substrate portfolio (including liquid, solid, and gas waste), one-pot reactions in mild circumstances and environmental friendliness. However, a number of drawbacks, including the unstable nature of biocatalysts and subpar performance in specific reaction conditions, the low solubility of some substrates in the reaction medium, substantial production expenses brought on by intricate downstream processing and product isolation and the lack of expertise in microbiology or bioprocess design, frequently make it difficult to scale up bioprocesses from the lab to the manufacturing facility. There is a growing need for innovative bioprocesses that can get over the aforementioned obstacle in industrial and environmental biotechnology in order to create effective, sustainable, and affordable processes. As a result, the industrial sector requires new methods that use biocatalysts that are highly active and stable under a variety of reaction conditions (typically accomplished through metabolic engineering), boost feedstock utilisation by using inexpensive waste resources, use green chemistry solutions that enable the use of fewer toxic solvents and reagents, or develop cost-effective biorefinery concepts that can transform industrial waste and byproducts into products with added value, thereby establishing new value chains. Figure 1.1 shows the three stages of a typical bioprocess: upstream processing, bioreaction and downstream processing which includes separation and purification steps. Every stage of these phases offers multiple chances to enhance a certain bioprocess.

Preamble

The recent advances in embryo transfer protocols have placed these techniques as widely adopted means of developing experimental models to understand complex biological processes such as feto-maternal dialogue, fetal programming and maternal effects on early development. This has noticeably widened the scope of embryo transfer programs which are now not only limited to transferring the genetically superior embryos from donors to recipients for faster genetic improvement, or as only the therapeutic tools in human medicine, but has embarked these techniques as basic research tools in biological research. It is however critical to achieve effective synchronization between donors and recipients along with optimal superovulation in donors to get more number of transferable embryos and subsequently greater conception rates of recipients. For transfer, the embryos are collected Day 6 or 7 post insemination of donors. An overall discussion of sequential steps to achieve successful embryo transfer along with recent advances in the subject area and its possible future scope is discussed in this chapter.

Abstract

The extensive use of antibiotics has raised serious health concern throughout the world due to development of resistance in microbes towards many classes of antibiotics. The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) in microbes and lack of novel classes of antimicrobial agents have raised an immediate need to identify new agents with novel mode of action. In addition to novel agents, inhibitors of efflux pumps are being now viewed as one of the most viable management strategy for treating MDR infections. In this concern, plants have always been a source of inspiration for novel drugs.

Introduction
The safety of meat and its derivatives is a paramount concern in the dynamic realm of food trade. Consumers demand food products that are not only affordable and possess an extended shelf life but are also of high safety standards. Consequently, meat inspections require strict adherence to good manufacturing practices and safety labelling that aligns with regulatory standards. Food-borne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp., are responsible for numerous illnesses, thereby exerting a significant impact on public health and the economy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), food contaminated with pathogens, chemicals, and allergens results in 600 million cases of food-borne illnesses and approximately 400,000 deaths globally each year. Furthermore, 56 million individuals die annually, with about 7.7% of the global population affected by foodborne diseases. Meat and meat products are essential sources of nutrients for humans, providing high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, and minerals. However, due to their high-water activity and nutrient content, they also create a conducive environment for spoilage microorganisms and food-borne pathogens. Until a few decades ago, the meat industry was largely dominated by the unorganized sector, with limited access to knowledge that could enhance productivity. However, in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, meat entrepreneurs have succeeded in increasing productivity, although they have faced challenges in ensuring product quality that aligns with the legislative standards of numerous developed and developing countries. The use of antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promoters in animal food production has been a contentious issue, as their unauthorized application has inadvertently contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the food chain. Recently, the United States Trade Representative’s office estimated that international trade has expanded significantly since the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. The establishment of the WTO in 1995 further facilitated trade in animal-origin foods and live animals between nations. However, the emergence and re-emergence of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria have become a significant concern in this new pattern of food trade. Some of these pathogens are so virulent that they were not previously reported. According to a 1998 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the annual cost of foodborne illnesses in the United States is nearly 10 billion US dollars. The bacterial pathogens most commonly associated with illnesses from beef products include Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. Interest in Escherichia coli O157: H7 increased following a highly publicized food poisoning outbreak linked to undercooked beef patties in the United States in 1993, although it was largely confined to North America until the mid-1990s. Similarly, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT-104 has spread widely since it was first identified in the United Kingdom. In India, the incidence of Salmonella in red meat was recorded at up to 9%. These potentially harmful bacterial pathogens can reside on the hides or in the intestinal tracts of foodproducing animals or may originate indirectly through cross-contamination or the processing environment. Other emerging foodborne diseases include Listeriosis, which has spread throughout France and Canada, where meat and meat products have been implicated as sources of Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, Staphylococcal food poisoning or food intoxication syndrome, first reported in 1894, has become a global issue in the meat industry.

Microbes present in the biofertilizer formulations help in microbial processes in the soil which augment the availability of nutrients to be taken up by plants. They are of different types based on their nature and function such as nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing, phosphate mobilizing or biofertilizers for micronutrients. Plants use different strategies for growth promotion at different stages of plant growth and development. Biofertilizers are mass multiplied cultures of specific beneficial microbial strains which improves the fertility of soil and productivity. The nutrients are added through natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphorus and synthesis of growth promoting substances to stimulate the plant growth. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.

11.1. Bio-enrichment of chemical fertilizers- A new approach

Yield response of different host plant depends on the mineral fertilizer and its fertilizer use efficiency. Generally, such fertilizers are low in efficiency due to environmental and soil factors. A large portion of synthetic fertilizers are lost due to fixation, leaching, run-off, erosion, volatilization, denitrification and precipitation without reaching plants. Hence, there is an economic loss and water and environmental pollution.

Microbial inoculants applied to the soil enhances the uptake of nutrient by plants and increase the efficiency of synthetic or organic fertilizers. In this context, it is possible to impregnate mineral fertilizers with specific microbial strain. A new approach is to incorporate the microbes or microbial compositions into fertilizer compositions.

Introduction
Metal-catalyzed C–N cross-coupling reactions are powerful synthetic methods for producing both simple and complex organic compounds, including natural products. These methodologies typically involve shorter reaction times and can achieve good to excellent yields with a broad range of reactions, exhibiting high regioselectivity in certain cases. The coupling of carbon and nitrogen to create organic compounds that contain nitrogen, such as urea and amides, is one of the most fundamental chemical reactions and plays a crucial role in human civilization. C–N coupling reactions have significant importance in industry, starting with the production of ammonia (NH3) through the Haber–Bosch process. Molecules containing C–N bonds are prevalent in a variety of organic materials, natural products, pharmaceutical compounds, and agricultural chemicals. This wide applicability makes them crucial chemicals, leading synthetic organic chemists to continuously seek out novel synthetic methods. In recent years, numerous synthetic strategies involving either transition metals or metal-free enzymes and biocatalysts have emerged. Additionally, new technologies, such as electroreduction, have been employed in these C–N coupling processes (Bariwal & Van der Eycken, 2013, Li et al., 2022, Yin et al., 2024, Rahman et al., 2022).
Common copper salts/complexes, and diamino ligands
Copper is commonly found coordinated by two, three, or four ligands, resulting in linear, trigonal planar, or tetrahedral geometries. Well-known and inexpensive copper halides, such as copper (II) glycinate, copper (II) acetylacetonate (particularly CuI), copper acetates, copper oxide, copper sulfate, and copper triflate salts, are widely used as catalytic systems in C–N bond-forming reactions. Additionally, other complexes such as Cu di-isopropyl salicylate (CuDIPS), copper phthalocyanine, and copper aspirinates have also been employed in these reactions. Copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reactions are well-established methods for forming triazoles via C–N bonds in one pot. These reactions often involve domino click chemistry and green approach methodologies, leading to the synthesis of biologically important triazoles. Copper salts in combination with diamine ligands are widely used in C–N bond-forming reactions through cross-coupling strategies. Some notable examples of such diamino compounds that can coordinate with copper are illustrated in Figure 1.

Introduction
In the realm of modern agriculture and plant breeding, the integration of advanced biotechnological tools has revolutionized the traditional methods of crop improvement. Traditional approaches to genetically improving horticultural crops that are primarily propagated asexually encounter multiple challenges. These include an extended juvenile phase, the absence of seeds, a high level of intraand interspecific incompatibility, frequent heterozygosity, seed sterility, and, most importantly, the restriction of certain valuable traits to wild species (Mehlenbacher, 1995). Conventional or classical breeding techniques rely on natural processes and traditional tools to develop new plant varieties or cultivars. However, these methods are often time-consuming, labor-intensive, and less efficient. The lengthy process, coupled with the challenges of maintaining desirable traits, makes it difficult to achieve rapid genetic improvements. As a result, there is a growing need for more advanced and precise breeding methods to enhance crop development (Jain and Kharkwal, 2004). A molecular marker is a specific DNA segment that signifies genetic variations at the genome level, aiding in genetic analysis and breeding (Dhutmal et al., 2018). These are composed of nucleic acids as well as proteins and used on basis of naturally occurring polymorphism (Thottappilly et al., 2000; Ahmad et al., 2020). These markers are closely related with the target gene and they act as sign or flags (Nadeem et al., 2018), aiding in the identification of specific regions associated with advantageous characteristics such as disease resistance, yield potential, nutritional content, and environmental adaptability (Meena et al., 2023).The advancement of high-throughput molecular markers and genetic maps has enabled the precise identification of genes responsible for agronomically important traits, potentially enhancing breeding through markerassisted selection (MAS). Compared to traditional breeding methods, MAS overcomes the challenges of phenotypic selection and significantly improves selection efficiency. This approach accelerates crop improvement by ensuring the effective transfer of desirable traits with greater accuracy and reliability (Wani et al., 2022). The incorporation of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and high-throughput genotyping platforms has also facilitated genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and the discovery of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) linked to important traits, further enhancing the resolution of genetic analysis. In recent years, molecular markers have been extensively used to characterize and enhance genotypic and phenotypic traits in temperate fruit and nut crops. Studies have focused on assessing genetic diversity in almonds, identifying genes responsible for red skin color in apples, developing sharka disease-resistant apricots, and sequencing the almond genome. These markers have been successfully used for genetic studies in many horticultural crops including vegetables (Gulsen et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2008 a and b; Schafleitner et al., 2013; Yadav et al., 2015; Sharma et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017 and Kumar et al., 2019) and flowering crops (Kumar et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2016 and Kumar et al., 2018a and b). These advancements highlight the crucial role of molecular markers in improving breeding strategies, accelerating genetic improvements

1. INTRODUCTION

Preservation of foods by drying is perhaps the oldest method known to mankind. Drying is a thermo-physical action and its principles are governed by heat and mass transfer laws inside and outside the product. The weight of the product is reduced to the extent of 1/4^th to 1/9^th of its original fresh weight. Drying of foods and biological products is a widely applied process for different purposes such as increasing the shelf-life, reducing packaging costs, lowering shipping wastes, encapsulating flavours, making food available during off-season, adding value by changing the phase structure of the native material and maintaining nutritional value. Drying or dehydration of fruits and vegetables can be accomplished with low capital while maintaining high quality and obtaining less perishable food products.

Introduction

Supplementary feeding is an essential practice in fish farming operation which accounts for over 60% in total input cost. The dependence of candidate species on balanced supplementary feed increases with increase in stocking population in ponds targeting per hectare higher production as the standing crop of cultured species exceeds the natural feeding capacity of ponds. Therefore, feeding of artificial feed balanced in all nutrients such as protein, lipid, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals containing optimum protein and energy ratio has assumed foremost importance in aquaculture industry. The use of balanced feed however, is directed towards optimum realization of genetic potentials of farmed species for survival, immunity, growth and reproduction (Mohanty, 2009). Consequent to researches done in India and abroad, a strong data base has been developed about the nutritional behavior of great majority of these cultivable fish and shell fish species and several feed formulations have been successfully undertaken. With optimum pond management, feeding of formulated balanced feed, it has been possible to increase aquaculture production as high as 15- 17 t/ha/yr for carps and 8-12 t/ha/yr in semi intensive prawn and shrimp farming in India (Mohanty, 2009).