eChapters

8.1. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE): The Tool, and Its Relation to Invasive Alien Species

Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is a diagnostic tool enabling a country to assess the weaknesses and strengths of its phytosanitary system in relation to its ability to fully implement the International Plant Protection Convention and other international phytosanitary obligations. PCE has also been applied as a cross-disciplinary tool among the sanitary, phytosanitary and food safety areas in the Andean subregion. Since “quarantine pests”, as defined by the convention, constitute a subset of invasive alien species, PCE results are already useful in relation to invasive alien species. PCE methodology has the potential to be further developed to cover a country’s needs in implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article XX of the International Plant Protection Convention establishes the agreement by contracting parties to promote the provision of technical assistance to facilitate implementation of the IPPC. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is the first tool approved by the Interim Commission of Phytosanitary Measures to address that commitment, assisting contracting parties to perform a needs assessment and identification of their constraints for achieving full implementation of the IPPC at the national level.

14.1 Introduction

An oil spill (or slick) is the intentional or unintentional release of oil into the natural environment as a result of human activity. The term often refers to marine oil spills where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters (Fig. 14.1).

Oil can refer to many different materials, including crude oil, refined petroleum products or by-products, oily refuse, oil mixed in waste, or oily ballast. Oil is also released into the environment from natural geologic seeps on the seafloor, as along the coastline. The fate, behavior, and environmental effects of spilled oil can vary depending upon the type and amount of material spilled. In general, lighter refined petroleum products such as diesel and gasoline are more likely to mix in the water column and are more toxic to marine life, but tend to evaporate relatively quickly and do not persist long in the environment. Heavier crude or fuel oil, while of less immediate toxicity, can remain on the water surface or stranded on the shoreline for much longer. Oil from the Exxon Valdez and Gulf War oil spills, while weathering over time, has persisted along the shoreline for years after the spill.

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann laid down the fundamentals of the then new doctrine of homoeopathy in organon of medicine. As observed by him in the 'Introduction⁷ to this work, till then no one had ever taught this homoeopathic mode of cure, no one had carried it out in practice.

Dr. Hahnemann was of the view that the art of the medical practice "should. Rapidly and mildly, effect an unalloyed and permanent cure, and restore to health by means of the smallest doses of a few simple medicines carefully selected according to their proved effect, by the only therapeutic law comfortable to nature, that is Similia Similibus Curentur".

Homoeopathy is based on the following principles:

"The physicians high and only mission is to restore the sick to health, to cure, as it is termed"

The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of health or removal and annihilation of the disease in its whole extent in the shortest, most reliable and most harmless way on easily comprehensible principles.

Unprejudiced observer of a sick person takes note of nothing in every individuars disease except the changes in the health of the body and of the mind, which can be perceived externally by means of the senses. "All these perceptible signs represent the disease in its whole extent, that is, together they form the true and only conceivable portrait of the disease"

Homoeopathic treatment is based on an overall understanding of the symptoms in the body and mind created by a sickness. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of the homoeopathic science of healing, after years of experiment and trial, came to finding that symptom - similarity is the curative method of medically curable diseases. In paragraph 25 of the 'Organon of Medicine⁷, he formulated the principle of 'like cures like' in these words: " Now, however, in all careful trials, pure experience, the sole and infallible oracle of the healing art, teaches us that actually that medicine which, in its action on the healthy human body, has demonstrated its power of producing the greatest number of symptoms similar to those observable in the case of disease under treatment, does also, rapidly, radically and permanently remove the totality of the symptoms of this morbid state, that is to say, the whole disease present, and change it into health; and that all medicines cure, without exception, those diseases whose symptoms most really resemble their own, and leave none of them uncured."

The aforesaid indicates the importance of symptoms in the diagnosis and treatment in homoeopathy. If a drug creates a symptom during the course of proving, then it can be cured by a potencised dose of the drug; whatever may be the name of the disease. For instance, in proving GLONOINE produces a bursting, throbbing sensation in the head in a healthy person. Conversely any surging of the blood to the head requires GLONOINE. This can happen in a sun - stroke, in high blood pressure, in cerebro - spinal meningitis. KALI BICROMICUM produces in proving, a tough, stringy discharge of mucus. In homoeopathy, KALI BICROMICUM cures a similar discharge whether from the nose inwards from mouth, from fauces, from pharynx, from larynx, trachea, bronchi, vagina, and uterus or from any mucus membrane. CACTUSGRANDIFLORUS produces in pure form and gross doses, constriction of the heat and a constriction, anywhere in the body, which is like an iron band being tightened. The same sensation of constriction leads us to the use of CACTUS in a homoeopathic dose and it need not be confined to the heart. There can be constriction of the scalp, in the oesophagus, in the chest, in the abdomen, bladder, uterus, vagina or rectum.

This is the commonest symptom of nearly all respiratory diseases and is indicative of an effort to expel a foreign substance causing irritation on any place in the cough reflex path.

The center is in the medulla close to the respiratory centers. This is activated reflexly by the afferent impulses traveling up mostly along the vagus and to a less extent, the vagus and the phrenic (to bronchi and diaphragm), the spinal accessory, intercostals and other nerves supplying the accessory muscles of respiration. The peripheral fibres of the vagus and the phrenic are also sometimes directly affected causing cough reflex.

The medullary center itself may also be excited or restrained by impulses from superior cerebella centers, so that cough may be induced or controlled by voluntary efforts.

Stress and depression can ruin your life and affect your health. Seeking support, being realistic and planning ahead can help ward off stress and depression.

For some people, the holidays bring unwelcome guests — stress and depression. And it's no wonder. In an effort to pull off a perfect Hallmark holiday, you might find yourself facing a dizzying array of demands — work, parties, shopping, baking, cleaning, caring for kids on school break or elderly parents, and scores of other chores. So much for peace and joy, right?

Holiday stress and depression are often the result of three main trigger points. Understanding these trigger points can help you plan ahead on how to accommodate them.

Here are the three issues that commonly trigger holiday stress or depression:

10.1 Introduction

Plant breeders come across two categories of characters (traits) for improvement, namely, qualitative characters and quantitative characters. Red vs white flower, round vs wrinkled seed, determinate plant growth vs indeterminate plant growth etc. are examples of qualitative trait differences. There is no overlapping of characters and no confusion during classification. Such trait differences are usually governed by one or two gene pairs, each with large effect that can be measured even in the presence of segregation at other loci and even in the presence of effects of environmental factors. These characters are very less influenced by the environmental factors.

On the other hand, most of the traits of economic importance like yield of fruits of vegetable and fruit crops, yield of vegetative parts in fodder crops, yield of lint in cotton, yield of grains in cereals, pulses, oilseeds etc., plant height, days to maturity etc. are examples of quantitative characters. Variation observed for such traits is continuous. Again, there is overlapping of trait differences. So, one cannot assign individuals to a specific class unambiguously. Such characters are influenced by environmental factors, such that phenotypes are not same when grown over locations and/or seasons.

When different plants/lines of a species exhibit trait differences, it is called variation. Variation is essential for any improvement in a crop. It may be present in the population to be improved or else it may be created by different means such as hybridization, mutation, polyploidy, domestication, plant introduction, somaclonal variation, genetic engineering etc. Now, we shall discuss the types and estimation of variation.

16.1 Introduction

Plant introduction is the process of introducing plants from their growing locality to a new locality. Introduction of plants from a foreign country is called foreign introduction or exotic collection. Introduction from one state to another within a country is called indigenous collection or indigenous introduction. With introduction, the process of acclimatization is associated. Acclimatization is the adaptation or adjustment of an individual plant or population of plants under the changed climate for a number of generations. Plant introduction is an oldest method of plant breeding. It is used in self-pollinated, cross-pollinated and asexually propagated crops. The material of seed-propagated crops is introduced in the form of seed and that of vegetatively propagated crops in the form of cuttings or propagules. The introduced material may be a new crop, a wild relative or a new cultivar of a crop already grown in the area. There are five important sources of plant collection, namely, (1) centres of diversity, (2) gene banks, (3) gene sanctuaries, (4) seed companies, and (5) farmers’ fields.

23.1 Introduction

An organism or individual having more than two basic sets of chromosomes is called polyploid and the condition is known as polyploidy. Polyploidy is an important tool to increase genetic diversity by altering the chromosome number (2x) and consequently the number of genes within a single cell. Polyploidy has been one of the important mechanisms in the evolution of many cultivated crop plants.

23.2 Types of Polyploidy

23.2.1 Autopolyploidy

The condition that arises due to multiplication of the same chromosomes of a single species is known as autopolyploidy (also called ‘simple polyploidy’ or ‘single species polyploidy’). Autopolyploids have generally larger leaves, stem and other vegetative parts and flower, fruit and seeds than their normal diploids.

24.1 Introduction

When crosses are made between two different species of a genus or between two different genera, they are known as distant hybridization (also called wide hybridization). It includes both interspecific and intergeneric hybridization. Thomas Fairchild (1717) was the first man to do distant hybridization. He produced a hybrid between two species of Dianthus, viz., D. caryophyllus and D. barbatus (Carnation and Sweet William). Intergeneric hybrid produced by Karpechenko, a Russian scientist, in 1928 is Raphanobarssica. It is the amphidiploid of cross between radish (Raphanus sativus) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Unfortunately, it had roots like cabbage and leaves like radish. Triticale was produced by Rimpau in 1890 itself. It is an amphidiploid obtained from a cross between wheat and rye (Triticum and Secale). Another example is Saccharum nobilisation involving Saccharum officinarum, S. barberi, S. sinensis, S. spontaneum. Wide hybridization has been used in the genetic improvement of some crops. It is an effective means of transferring desirable genes into cultivated plants from related species and genera.

25.1 Introduction

The method of selection in which a gene/QTL (Quantitative Trait Locus) is selected on the basis of the genotype of the molecular marker (also called DNA marker) linked to this gene/QTL is known as marker-assisted selection (also called marker-aided selection). The idea of marker-assisted selection (MAS) was first advocated by Tanksley (1983). MAS can be used in combination with the conventional breeding methods or novel breeding schemes could be devised to take full advantage of the marker data. MAS has been widely used for introgression of the desired genes and QTLs using backcross programmes.

25.2 Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MABC)

The backcross programme based on molecular marker is usually called marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC). MABC has three activities: (a) foreground selection, (b) background selection and (c) recombinant selection.

25.2.1 Foreground Selection

The use of molecular marker to select the gene/QTL being introgressed is known as foreground selection. The objective of foreground selection is to select the target gene, i.e., the gene being introgressed, without phenotypic evaluation for the trait governed by the target gene. Foreground selection for a gene/QTL will be highly desirable in a variety of situation, some of which are listed below:

26.1 Introduction

We have already discussed the basics of tissue culture techniques in Chapter 2. Plant tissue culture techniques in combination with recombinant-DNA technology are essential requirements for development of transgenic plants (will be discussed in next chapter). However, tissue culture techniques like anther, pollen, ovule and meristem culture can themselves be used for improvement of different traits or as an aid to conventional breeding methods. In recent years, isolated microspore culture has been preferred as a breeding tool and an experiment system for various genetic manipulations. Besides, using protoplast fusion and hybrid embryo rescue, distant hybridization has been successfully achieved in many crops. Protoplast fusion technique can be used for the transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility from one species to another in very short duration. Somaclonal variation generated during tissue culture can also be utilized for recovery of variants showing disease resistance or other desirable characters.

Definition – Components to be included – Parts of field diary – Field diary in social sciences.

The field diary is the basic document which contains all the data collected. Facts and interpretations are to be written separately and conversations to be noted in the vernacular languages. Two kinds of field notes are to be observed a) Taking notes on the spot b) Writing detailed diary.

Daily field diary

It is instructed to write the field diary everyday in which a) Detailed notes of observations b) Field notes on discussion and conversations c) Details of Interpersonal communication, gossips, fold history‘s similar events d) Specific details of special events Specific reference about the main field of study for instance, the details about the process of message diffusion, various kinds of channels of communication were described in detail.

Field diary for research process documentation

The most useful tool for a process documenter is a field diary. The documenter uses a field diary to record his or her observations and thoughts in an orderly fashion. Recording observations and impressions enables a researcher to pick up clues about how the system is operating. A field diary should help the investigator understand the systems physical and social setting. It should help describe who, what, why, where, when and how. Who refers to the people or system being studied. What concerns the information gathered. Why, where, when and how provide important details about the observation.

There is no special format in writing a field diary but entries should be written daily in chronological order so information is not forgetten or changed because of forgetfulness. The critical concern is that observations are recorded in a diary regularly.

Indexing is the act of describing or classifying a document by index terms or other symbols in order to indicate what the document is about, to summarize its content or to increase its findability. The function of indexing in libraries and information retrieval systems is to indicate the whereabouts or absence of items relevant to a request. It is essentially a time-saving mechanism. Theoretically, we can always find the relevant items by an exhaustive search through the whole collection (assuming that we can recognize what is relevant when we see it). Since this is economically impossible, the size of the store to be examined is reduced by classification, using this term in its very broadest sense, i.e., as the recognition of useful similarities between documents.

Indexing performs an indispensable service to the filing function. Index, is a reference list used for locating a particular document in the filing equipment. Similarly, while filing a document, the index aids tracing out the place where the particular paper should be filed. Particularly when a large number of files are maintained for various purposes, index is very essential.

Indexes are constructed, separately, on three distinct levels: terms in a document such as a book; objects in a collection such as a library; and documents (such as books and articles) within a field of knowledge. Subject indexing is used in information retrieval especially to create bibliographic indexes to retrieve documents on a particular subject. Examples of academic indexing services are Chemical Abstracts and PubMed. The index terms were mostly assigned by experts but author keywords are also common.

Reading is a means for language acquisition, communication and sharing information and ideas. Reading skill is considered to be most rewarding skill. Reading is not merely going through a book or a magazine or a journal. Reading is the process of gaining meaning from print. It Demands different types of skills depending on readers’ needs & requirements. Though lot of books discuss quite a number of reading skills-major part of reading skills - useful to students both for academic & professional purposes.

There are different types of reading.

They are:

1. Intensive reading

It’s a detailed reading. When we read our text books/newspaper/ report of great interest, we read sentence by sentence, trying to find out meaning of difficult words by reading in detail. Intensive reading has to be done when we do close texts or reading comprehension passages in exams or in classroom sessions.

2. Extensive reading

It contains longer texts. It should not be read sentence by sentence but we skip certain portions and find out overall meaning of text. When we read novels, magazines & newspapers, etc. we can do this type of reading. Extensive reading texts are generally meant for pleasure and they need overall global understanding.

3. Selective reading

Select to read news items that interest us. For many students sports page interests them. Within this column, another selection by reading about the game in which they are interested. Similarly scientists read topics which belong to their field. In these examples prior knowledge, technically called schema, acts. Sometimes people make a survey and find out what text is about. At times people make a survey when they do scanning.

Apomixis is an asexual method of reproduction through the seed. Apomictic reproduction is widespread and found in over 300 species of plants in 30 families. Interest in apomixis as a reproductive mechanism has increased as its potential and role are being recognized in genome preservation, polyploid build up, propagation of derivatives of wide crosses, permanent fixation of hybrid vigour, evolution, speciation and plant breeding .

Winkler (1906) defined apomixis as “the substitution for sexual reproduction of another asexual reproductive process that does not involve nuclear or cellular fusion.” One of the chief barriers to an understanding of the apomictic phenomenon has been the highly complex terminology as well as the differences of opinion among specialists as to the correct usage of these terms, probably because the phenomenon by itself is complex and in many ways quite different from that of amphimixis. Convincing evidence for the presence of apomixis can be obtained by tracing the steps that are involved in embryonic development. It should be amply clear that as the prerequisite for apomixis, fertilization does not take place at all in any form. Thus there is no normal development of embryo from the egg cell. However, the embryo may develop from an unfertilized egg cell other than the egg cell within the embryo sac.

Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals like maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives.

Self incompatibility in plants is a mechanism preventing the seed set by self pollination, and is probably way in which out crossing is enforced. Other factors may cause selfed seed may not to set seed due to embryo abortion, but SI is prezygotic and prevents embryo formation. SI is, therefore prevention of fusion of fertile male and female gametes after fertilization. Koelreuter first time in 18^th century reported S.I in Verbascum phoeniceum plants. In self-incompatible pollen grains fail to germinate on the stigma of the flower that produced them. Self incompatibility has been reported in more than 300 plant species belonging to 70 family of angiosperm. It is important out breeding device (cross pollination) for normal fruit set. It is maintained high degree of heterozygosity and can take place at any stage between pollination and fertilization.

The commercial exploitation of heterosis started only after the rediscovery of Mendel’s law of inheritance and consequent understanding of the theoretical basis of hybrid vigour. Heterosis is considered as a major revolution in classical plant breeding era. Utilization of heterosis has substantial influence in genetics to provide hybrid vigour, consequently high yielding hybrids in different crops and plants. Yield increase from heterotic hybrids due to the expression of heterosis is up to 30% superior to conventional varieties. The term heterosis was first used by Shull (1914) and represents the increase or decrease in fitness and vigour of the F₁ hybrid over the mean or mid parent values, produced by crossing two genetically different individuals for one or more traits. Generally, positive heterosis is desirable but in some cases like maturity duration and presence of toxic substances, negative heterosis is condiderable as desirable. Heterosis can be estimated in three different ways. When the heterosis is estimated over mid parent, it is called as relative heterosis or mid parent heterosis. Estimation of heterosis over better parent out of the two parents involved in the cross is referred as “Heterobeltiosis”, the term which was coined by Fonseca and Patterson (1968). “Standard Heterosis”, often called as useful heterosis which was coined by Meredith and Bridge (1972) and denotes the superiority of F₁ over the standard commercial check.

Polyploidy, the condition in which a normal diploid cell or organism acquires one or more additional sets of chromosomes. In other words, the polyploid cell or organism has three or more times the haploid chromosome number. Polyploidy arises as the result of total nondisjunction of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. The somatic chromosome number of any species, whether diploid or polyploidy is designated as 2n. The somatic cells of plants are diploid that they posses two complete set of chromosomes, one received from seed parent and another from pollen parent. The gametic chromosome number is said to be haploid and denoted by n. Haploid is defined as cell with gametic chromosome number. While monoploid has the basic chromosome number and represented by x.

Classification of Polyploidy

Polyploids are classified in to two groups, euploidy and aneuploidy. Euploidy have chromosome number which is an exact multiple of basic number. Euploidy includes monoploids, diploids and polyploids. In aneuplod individual with other than exact multiple of basic chromosome number or change in chromosome number which posses one or few chromosomes of the genome.

Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

Marker Assisted Selection [MAS] is defining as the indirect selection for a desired plant phenotype based on the banding pattern of linked molecular (DNA) markers. It is based to infer the presence of a gene from the presence of a marker which is tightly linked to the gene of interest and high heritability of the gene of interest. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is also known by other names as marker aided selection and marker assisted breeding (MAB).

The plan reviewing the arrangement of fruit plants in an orchard is known as the orchard layout. Although several systems of planting are followed to increase the production of orchard, selection of root stocks, soil, system of training pruning and cultivars are very important factor influencing designing of layout. However, improper system results in overlapping of plant parts, competition for water, light, nutrient and unequal distribution of water etc., which ultimately results in poor performance or fruit orchard.

Layout plan

The marking of position of the plant in the field is referred as layout. The layout plan of the orchard should be prepared carefully, preferably in consultation with horticultural experts or fruit scientists. The orchard layout plan includes the system of planning provision for orchard paths, roads, water channels and farm building. A sketch of the proposed orchard should be prepared before the actual planting is taken up.

Introduction

Fruits contain various beneficial compounds that possess biological activities and can be used as pharmaceutical nutraceutical products. Most of the fruits contain polyphenolic components that can promote antioxidant potential on human health. Wild Blueberries, strawberries, plums, oranges, grapes, cherries and mangoes are rich in antioxidant. Additionally, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and chemopreventive effects are associated with the various fruits. Besides polyphenols, other compounds such as xanthones, carotenoids, saponins also exhibit health effects. Fruit consumption is considerably increasing in the daily diet because they supply high levels of biologically active compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Fruits provide an optimal mixture of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols and carotenoids, vitamins, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates and anthocyanins. Diets rich in fruits may help to delay the ageing processes and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The combination of vitamins, minerals, phenolic, antioxidants and fibre seems to be responsible for these effects. The most dietary components in fruits acting as antioxidants are fibre, polyphenols, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid, D-limolene, epigallocatechin, gallate, soy protein, isoflavones, vitamins A, B, C and E (group of tocopherols), calcium, selenium, chlorophyllin, alipharin, sulphides, catechin, tetrahy-drocurecumin, seasaminol, glutathione, uric acid, indoles, thiocyanates and protease inhibitors.

Introduction

Biological activation of grain or germination is a natural, biological processing techniques and traditional method that can be used to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of grains. During biological activation of grains, extensive phytochemical changes were reported in a variety of food grains, which reflects a dynamic and complex nutrient flux including remobilization, degradation and accumulation. During this process many hydrolytic enzymes were activated to hydrolyze the starches, proteins and, non-starch polysaccharides, which results in more oligosaccharides and free amino acids. Many nutrients and bioactive compounds reportedly increase and then decrease as they are utilized by the growing plant, which results in degradation of the high molecular weight polymers for generation of bio-functional substances. The biological activation of grains also realizes a significant growth of nutritional value by increasing the bioavailability of nutritional compounds, vitamins, bio-elements and other biologically active substances due to the partial hydrolysis of starch, proteins, hemicelluloses and even celluloses. Biological activation triggers the enzymatic activity in grain and dormant hydrolytic enzymes are activated, breaking down starch, fibers and proteins and leading to an increase in the amount of digestible compounds along with improvement of functional properties without any chemical modification. Also, the activity of some anti-nutritional factors (enzyme inhibitors, haemagglutinins, anti-vitamins etc.) decreases or disappears during activation, allowing a complete valorization of biological compounds in grains. During biological activation hydrolytic amylase enzymes, proteolytic enzymes, and catalase were activated in grains, which enhances the starch degradation, a complex biochemical process and thus lead to the conversion of insoluble granules to soluble starch and dextrin. Apart from positive shifting in the level of nutrition, biochemical activities which occur during activation also generate bioactive components of health-promoting activities through the enzymatic actions that are antioxidants in nature, such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, tocotrienols and phenolic compounds, thus resulting in an increase of antioxidant activity.

Globalization of economies and liberalization of trade has led an urgent need for prioritizing the potential areas for investment in order to earn handsome amount of income. Even the entrepreneurs, small as well as marginal farmers aspire to take advantage of global opportunity. Diversification to horticultural crops has been found to be best option as they make more profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and conserve natural resources. Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 52 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. But unfortunately Indian farmers in general are small and marginal land holders with poor resources and realizing income mainly from cereal based production system, which is insufficient to improve their living standards. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor (www.indianbusiness.nic.in). GVA at Basic Prices for 2019-20 from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 per cent as compared to growth of 2.9 per cent in 2018-19. The GVA estimates of this sector are based on 1^st advance estimates of agricultural production during Kharif season of 2019-20 obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare. For Livestock sector, estimates of production of major livestock products (i.e. Milk, Egg, Meat and Wool) obtained from the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying and Fish production data obtained from Department of Fisheries have been used. The crops including fruits and vegetables account for about 56 per cent, the livestock products 30 per cent and forestry & fisheries 14 per cent share of GVA in total GVA of ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector [As per the estimates released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and programme Implementation, GoI, 2020]. Agricultural exports constitute a fifth of the total exports of the country. In view of the predominant position of the Agricultural Sector, collection and maintenance of Agricultural Statistics assume great importance. In 2018-19, India achieved a record food grain production of 285.17 million tonnes beating the previous year’s (2017-18) 285.01 million tonnes, according to data provided by Department of Economics and Statistics (DES). Also, agricultural profitability has increased over the last decade with record increases in MSPs (minimum support prices) for agricultural produce for all covered crops.

The present investigation entitled “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” was carried out during the year 2015. The sampling structure, experimental procedures and techniques adopted during the course of investigation have been described in this chapter.

3.1 Locale of study

The present study was conducted in Chenani block of Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir state. Mantalai, Kosar, Bupp and Bashath villages were randomly selected.

3.2 Climate and rainfall

The Jammu and Kashmir state is situated between 32⁰.17'–36⁰.58' North latitude and 37⁰.26´–80⁰.30´East longitude. The state is the northern most part of the India is girdled by Tibet to the east, China and Afghanistan to the north, to its west is Pakistan. To its south lies the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and have been divided into three agro climatic divisions’ viz. outer plain and outer hills, middle mountains and Kashmir valley and inner Himalayas (Ladakh). The outer plains and outer hills includes Kathua and Jammu districts, extends up to Shivalik hills in the north. According to NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) classification this state has been divided into four agro-climatic zones: Temperate, Sub-tropical, Intermediate and Cold-Arid zone. In summer hot dry winds from plains of Punjab make it very hot, dust storms are common with occasional rain. Rainfall occurs from July to September. Average rainfall is 1143 mm and temperature shoots up to 46⁰C during May to June. During December to February temperature is between 13.5⁰C to 20⁰C, rainfall is 150 mm and in upper reaches there is snow. In the region of middle mountains and Kashmir valley winters are very cold. There is snowfall during winter and subzero temperature. In valley, winters are long and summers are short but pleasant. Average rainfall is 732 to 854 mm. The maximum temperature hardly ever goes beyond 35⁰C. In region of inner Himalayas, days are hot and there are no clouds in the sky. Winters are very cold. Temperature falls as low as minus 23⁰C. The average rainfall is 976 mm and humidity level is very low.

9.1 Introduction

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. It is good source of vitamin A, B and fairly rich in vitamin C, minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron. Fresh fruit is used as dessert. Fruit is also used for juice, squash, jam, mixed jam and in canned form. Fruit core is used for preparing candy. Some cultivars of pineapple are used for extraction of fibre. The important pineapple growing states are Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

10.1 Introduction

Litchi is a delicious fruit and generally consumed as a table fruit. It is one of the most popular fruits in India. It is also recognized as “Queen of Fruits”. It is a subtropical evergreen fruit crop. Its climatic requirements are highly specific. Thus, its commercial cultivation is restricted to only a few subtropical countries of the world. The major litchi producing countries are China, India, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. In India, the important litchi growing states are Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Litchi makes an excellent canned fruit and highly flavoured squash is prepared from inferior fruits.

14.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as King of temperate fruits. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, potassium, vitamin B6 . Apple is rich in antioxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. It is recommended to reduce the incidence of dental caries. The phytonutrients and antioxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancers, hypertensions, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruit, e.g., juice, jelly, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice, cider and powder. It is widely cultivated in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan, Jordan etc.

15.1 Introduction

Pear is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. In the world pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc.

16.1 Introduction

Peach is one of the important fruits grown in warm temperate zones of the world. Fruits are rich in protein, sugar, minerals and vitamins. Peaches are highly valued as table fruit for their attractive colour and palatability. Canned peaches, dried frozen preserves, jams, nectar are principal processed products of peach. It is grown mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Nilgiri hills, Jharkhand and North-Eastern States.

20.1 Introduction

Arecanut (or betel palm) is chewed as narcotic either alone or more commonly along with betel leaf. Its nut has medicinal and pharmaceutical properties. About 1/10th of world population has a habit of betel chewing. Nut contains polyphenol (11-18 %) which includes flavonols like catechin, epicatechin, leucocyanidin, fat (9-15%), polysaccharides (17-25%), fibre and protein (6- 7.5%) and some minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron.

21.1 Introduction

Cashewnut or cashew is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. It is often referred to as ‘wonder nut’. It is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazelnut and walnut. The economic part is kernel which is a unique combination of fats (47%), protein (21%), carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Nutritionally it is equivalent to milk, egg and meat, it is good appetizer, an excellent nerve tonic, stimulant, body builder. India is the largest producer, processor and exporter; and second largest consumer in the world. Cashew is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra along the west coast and in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal along the east coast.

22.1 Introduction

Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage gaining further popularity as an important “health drink”. It is consumed as a morning drink by 2/3rd of world population. Tea was initially used as a medicine and subsequently as beverage and now has proven to be a potential raw material for pharmaceutical industry. Tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, ‘non-fermented tea’ or ‘green tea’ and ‘semi-fermented tea’ or ‘oolong tea’. Green leaves are also used as vegetables such as ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing tea’ in Thailand. Tea leaves have more than 700 chemical constituents among which flavonoids, amino acids, vitamins (C, E, K), caffeine and polysaccharides are important to human health. The stimulating effect of tea is due to caffeine (1.25-4.5%). Per cup value of caffeine in tea is three and half times less than that of coffee and is less harmful than coffee. Importantly, the vitamin C content in leaves is comparable to that of lemon.

23.1 Introduction

Coffee is the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Diagnostic Symptom

• Circular to oval, dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves.The spots enlarge into round to irregular spots with concentric rings and coalesce causing blighting and withering of leaves.

• These are surrounded by chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic center.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms can occur at both the seedling and plant developmental stages and appear as patches in the field

• It usually occurs near or at the reproductive stages (flowering to podfilling) of crop growth

Gummosis

Phytophthora spp

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Dark water soaked large patches appear on the basal portions of the stem near the ground level.

Purple blotch

Alternaria porri

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease symptoms occurs on leaf and flower stalks.

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

Stem gall

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptom appears in the form of tumor-like swellings of leaf veins, leaf stalks, peduncles, stems as well as fruits.

• Infected veins show a swollen hanging appearance to the leaves.

10.1. Phosphate Solubilisers

10.1.1. Aspergillus spp.

Several species of Aspergillus (Fig. 249) have been reported to be involved in the solubilization of inorganic phosphates such as A. flavus, A. fumigates, A. awamori. A. niger and A. terreus.

These fungi are able to solubilize inorganic phosphate through the production of acids viz. citric, gluconic, glycolic, oxalic acids and succinic acid.

Aspergillus fumigates isolated from compost has been reported to be potassium releasing fungus.

ABSTRACT

Ethical conduct of research is utmost important which form the basis of overall development of society. Academic institutions can play key role in promoting scientific integrity by creating awareness about scientific misconduct and can frame policies to curb scientific misconduct. As a part of course curriculum knowledge about various issues related to academic integrity can be easily passed to young researchers and students of the institution. Awareness programs can play significant role in promoting research integrity for which academic libraries can be the frontrunner. Librarians’ role is also changing as they have not limited themselves to traditional services but are also providing web based services to the users. They can support research community by providing services like reference management through the use of reference management tools and data management and preservation services. Faculty development programs are also helping the working librarians to update their knowledge. This article discuss about the concept of academic integrity and role of academic institution in promoting it in general and library in particular. PA U library faculty has taken a lead in raising the awareness of students and researchers about research and publication ethics by teaching this course to as part of the course curriculum to research scholars and post graduate students of the university. It is also facilitating teaching community and researchers in plagiarism checking of the manuscripts through the use of antiplagiarism software.

Keywords: Scientific integrity, Research integrity, Research ethics, User education and research ethics, User awareness programs.

ABSTRACT

Nowadays it is very important to evaluate research publications. They are evaluated by impact factors and citation indices. The research value of an author and journal is ascertained from several citation indices, from which it is known that what Impact of a research publication is in market. The h index is based on diagnostic importance or productivity so it confers a delegate index of scientific result. The h-index is used to measure of published work of a scientist or scholar as well as also assess the achievement of research groups. The present paper describe about the h-index. Specifically, it explains its origin, advantages, and disadvantages and how calculates individual’s h-index in different databases.

Keywords: Citation, Impact, H-Index, Research productivity, Scientific publications.

ABSTRACTS

Historiography deals with the idea of history writing in different timeframe in different environments and in this discourse historian plays significant role. Indian ancient past is a fertile ground to understand different socio-political aspects of the country from various standpoints. Remaining within the paradigm of historiography historian like Romila Thapar not only emphasizing to understand the past but also tries to disseminate these through their writings in different scholarly platform. Apart from her valuable writings in the form of books, her writings in different reputed journals also impress sizable generations of new scholars. In this study an attempt has been made to study her contribution in intellectual field through writing history of Indian past.

Keywords: History, Historian, Romila Thapar, Past, Historiography.

While fertilizer injectors that mixes fertilizer solutions with the irrigation water flow in the micro irrigation systems, a scientifically prepared fertigation schedule is the software that farmers need to implement a successful fertigation plan.

Though water soluble fertilizers are a special grade of fertilizers manufactured for fertigation per se; I have been assisting farmers to do fertigation with conventional fertilizers, those are familiar to them; like Urea for N, white muriate of potash (MOP) for K. Only in the case of P source they need to acquire water soluble special fertilizers like Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) or Phosphoric acid. Historically, fertigation by our small holder farmer began in India just by fertigating Urea alone. And applying P and K as direct dry application to the soil with Single Super Phosphate (SSP) or pink MOP, both are not water soluble. Gradually, when farmers realised that fertigation is giving them more yield of the crop and income they warmed up to the idea of full fertigation and demand for water soluble fertilizers like MAP, White Potash, SOP etc. grew.

5.1 A great deal of research

A great deal of research has been carried out on listening in communication. According to the researchers, listening comes at top of the list of the four forms of communication

Presentation takes place all the time in organization. We are required to make presentation in meeting, seminar, conference etc. The presenter should know certain techniques to make his presentation effective.

1 True vomiting is seen in

a) Pseudoruminants b) Monogastric animal

c) Ruminants d) All

1 Metabolic profile test to know the nutritional status of a dairy animal, by assessing the blood used components

a) Complete profile test b) Metabolic profile test

c) Compton metabolic profile test d) Dairy animal metabolism test

For the protection of all the factors of environment, laws were formed and amended from time to time as per the requirement. There are many acts according to the main factors and separate laws, for the enforcement. Also, the are some control acts, which can be implemented by states for the local environmental problems.