eChapters

1. Farm is complex structure comprising living and non-living things.

2. The engineering components and structures aqua farm. basic necessities of an

3. Ponds, Water transportation systems - primary structures of an aqua farm.

4. Machineries, builtin structures and other peripheral accessories secondary structuresof an aqua farm.

5. Secondary structures may vary from one pond to another pond based on the

a. Type of culture

b. Method followed

c. Economic status of the farmer.

6. Site selection - Pre-requisites of a successful aquaculture farm.

7. Soil bottom must be impervious to prevent excessive seepage.

8. Fine textured soils - a high clay content.

9. Embankment ponds are also called as Hill/ Water shed ponds.

10. Excavated ponds are principally used for the commercial fish and shrimp production.

1. The process of removing heat from a substances under controlled condition known as refrigeration.

2. A refrigerator is a revised heat engine.

3. Whenever a force acts on body and the body undergoes a displacement is known as work.

4. The rate of doing work-power.

5. Unit of work kgf, Nm, joule.

6. 1 HP-736 watts.

7. Energy defined as the capacity to do work.

8. 1 bar- 105N / (m ^ 2)

9. Absolute pressure gauge pressure + atmosphere pressure.

10. The degree of hotness or coolness is known as temperature.

11. The level of intensity of the body - heat.

1. The process of directing or conducting the movement of vessel one place to another place is known as navigation.

2. Controlling the ship is known as seamanship.

3. VHF used up to 25 nautical miles.

4. Speed of sound wave 322m/sec.

5. Speed of radio wave 3x10 m/sec.

6. Navigation derived from latin word.

7. Earliest form of navigation is piloting.

8. Dead reckoning is rough method only.

9. Radio navigation also known as electronic piloting.

10. World chart produced by Gerardus Mercator.

1. Examples of grappling gears Clamps, Tongs and Raking devices.

2. Wounding gears with sharp projectiles Spears, Lances, Fish plummets, Fish comb, Arrows, Harpoons, Blow guns, Rifles.

3. Brail net-Large scoop net.

4. Jerk net a rectangular net kept under tension between two sticks which are pushed forward.

5. Collection of shells and corals for decoration and small fishes for aquarium is called as Aesthetic fishing.

6. Fish plummets are also called as plume lines or plumed lines.

7. The cross section of the two scam trawl during operation is elliptical.

8. Bridles-legs of trawl.

9. Sweep lines serve as false netting under water and vibrate in the water column.

10. The size of the trawl net is generally referred by the length of the head rope.

1. Chromatography Technique for the separation of one or more biological compounds from the mixture.

2. Chromatography - Mikhail Tswett (1906)

3. Distribution or partial coefficient is defined as the ratio of concentration of compounds in the mobile phase to that the concentration of compounds in the stationary phase.

4. Chromatography also used for the separation of the colorless compounds from a mixture.

5. Spectroscopy employs the interaction of light with matter.

6. Light is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) that exhibit discrete packets of energy is called as photons.

7. Jablonski diagram gives the electronic and vibrational state of the molecule.

8. Molecular structures responsible for the interaction with EMR are called as Chromophores.

9. Beer's law is valid for low concentrations only.

10. Prism splits incoming light into its components by refraction.

11. Grating splits the wavelengths by diffraction.

1. I Kilo joule - 10 joule.

2. 1 Mega joule -10º joule.

3. 1 Kilowatt hour-3.6*10 joule.

4. The heat engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

5. The machine which converts one forms of energy to another form is called as engine or prime mover.

6. Fahrenheit scale is called as British thermal unit and denoted by B.Th.U.

7. Internal combustion engines using coal gas as fuel was made by Frenchman Etienne Lenoir (1860).

8. Silent gas engine was developed by Germans Nileolansotto & Eugen Langen.

9. Rudolph diesel made the first diesel engine in 1894.

10. TDC is also called as inner dead centre.

1. Luther Gullick denoted the functional elements of the administration POSDCORB.

2. CIFNET Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical Engineering and Training. It was started in 1963. The head quarters situated in cochin.

3. CIFNET have two units one Chennai, another one Visag.

4. IFP-integrated fishery project was started in 1952.

5. During 2008 the FPT was renamed as NIFPHTT. It has situated in cochin.

6. FSI-fishery survey of India. It has head quarter in Mumbai.

7. CICEF-Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fishery. It is situated in Bangalore.

8. CICEF was renamed in 1983 as PISFH-pre investment of fishing harbor

9. NFDB-national fisheries development board.established in 2006. It has head quarters in Hyderabad.

10. CAA-coastal aquaculture authority established in 2005. It has head quarter in Chennai.

11. Coastal zone regulation notification - 1991.

Cacti are eulogized as ‘Plants of 21st century’. They have gained popularity due to many exciting shapes, blooms, ease of culture and long life without least care. Cacti are categorized as fleshy stem succulent with photo-synthetically active stem. Good for indoor decoration in pot, outdoor decoration, landscaping, public garden, rock garden, etc.
The family Cactaceae includes approximately 131 genera and 1,750 species. But different authors mention the number of genera differently between 30 to 200. Members are distributed chiefly in semi-desert or drier regions of tropical and sub-tropical America, and also in Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Mainly the Cactaceae are the succulents of New World. Main species of Old World is Rhipsalis. Some of the larger genera along with their number of reported species are Mammillaria (200-300), Opuntia (250), Echinocereus (75), Rhipsalis (60), Cereus (50), Cephalcereus (48), Echinopsis (35), Epiphyllum (21) and Pereskia (20).
The classification of the family Cactaceae remains uncertain as of August 2023. Since the mid-1990s, the system produced by the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study has been used as the basis of many published classifications. Hunt (2006) recognized Cactaceae family has 4 sub-families viz. Pereskioideae (the leaf cactus, 20 spp.), Opuntioideae (300 spp.), Cactoideae (1,000 spp.) and Maihuenioideae (2 spp.). Three tribes: Pereskieae, Opuntieae, Cereae. Tribe Cereae has 8 sub-tribes: Cereanae, Hylocereanae, Echinocereanae, Echiocactanae, Cactanae, Coryphanthanae, Epiphyelanae, Rhipsolidanae. The cacti of sub-tribe ‘Echinocereanae’ are commonly known as ‘Hedgehogs’.

Introduction
The study of energy flow through the ecosystem is known as Ecological Energetic. Ecological Energetic is the scientific discipline that investigates the movement ofenergy within an ecosystem. The process of energy transfer that takes place within a food chain is referred to as energy flow. The functioning of all species in an ecosystem is dependent on the energy they derive from the energy flow. The ecosystemsustains itself and achieves stability through the process of energy transfer.
Energy Transfer/Flow
Solar energy is the primary source of energy that enters the food chain at the level ofproducers, which are plants. Through the process of  photosynthesis, plants utilize solar energy to transform it into chemical energy, which is then used to produce various components of plants such as leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks, and roots. Plants are referred to as producers in the ecosystem because they have the ability to transformthe sun’s energy directly into their tissues, allowing them to thrive. Herbivores consume the plants as nourishment, so obtaining energy. A significant portion of this energy is expended on the metabolic processes of these organisms, including respiration, digestion, tissue growth, blood circulation, and body temperature regulation. Energy is also expended in activities such as foraging, seeking refuge,reproducing, and nurturing offspring. The predators rely on the herbivores as their source of food.

The economic dimension of natural feed management is fundamental to achieving sustainability in livestock farming, especially because feed representsthe most significant recurring expenditure in animal rearing. Through the adoption of farm-based inputs and time-tested traditional methods, natural feed management minimizes dependence on commercially manufactured feeds, thereby boosting the profitability of small and marginal farming enterprises. In contrast to intensive livestock systems that rely on costly, externally sourced feed, natural farming makes effective use of green fodder, crop residues, kitchen scraps, and locally available alternatives like azolla, moringa leaves, and oilseed cakes many of which are low-cost or readily accessible on the farm.
Significant cost reductions stem from practices such as reusing farm waste, relying on indigenous knowledge for formulating diets, and forgoing synthetic additives and antibiotics. For instance, preserving excess green fodder as silage or hay secures feed supplies for dry periods without resorting to market purchases. Additionally, natural supplements like fermented cow dung and urine mixtures (e.g., Jeevamrit), along with turmeric and neem leaves, offer economical substitutes for commercial growth promoters and veterinary drugs. These approaches contribute to healthier livestock, reduce veterinary interventions, and enhance product quality by avoiding chemical residues.

In India, the procurement and disposal of food grains are governed by several guidelines to ensure food security and fair market practices. Procurement is typically managed by government agencies like the Food Corporation of India (FCI), which purchases grains directly from farmers at minimum support prices (MSP) to stabilize market prices. Farmers are encouraged to sell their produce through designated government procurement centers, ensuring fair prices.
The quality of food grains is a key consideration in procurement. Grains are tested for moisture content, cleanliness, and pest infestation before being accepted. Once procured, the grains are stored in government warehouses, with regular inspections to prevent spoilage and pest damage. For disposal, food grains are distributed through public distribution systems (PDS) to ensure availability to consumers at subsidized rates. Any surplus grains may be sold in open markets, or occasionally exported, to maintain a balance in supply and demand. Effective management ensures food security and minimizes wastage.
PROCUREMENT POLICY OF WHEAT AND RICE
State Government agencies and the Food Corporation of India (FCI) are responsible for purchasing wheat and paddy within the designated period, ensuring that the products meet the prescribed Fair Average Quality (FAQ) specifications and are procured at the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for the Central Pool. This procurement supports the distribution of food under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) and other welfare schemes (OWS).
The Government of India (GoI), in consultation with State Governments and FCI, finalizes procurement estimates for wheat and paddy before each marketing season. These estimates are based on anticipated production, marketable surplus, and the agricultural crop pattern. The procurement of paddy and wheat is carried out under both the Decentralized Procurement System (DCP) and the Non-DCP system.

Branding and packaging play a pivotal role in the fish feed industry by helping companies differentiate their products, build market presence, and earn the trust of fish farmers. In a growing and competitive Indian market, branding enables manufacturers to create a distinct identity through logos, color schemes, quality marks, and promotional messaging focused on elements like scientific formulation, locally sourced ingredients, or eco-frWWiendliness. A well-established brand not only drives sales but also raises awareness among farmers about the advantages of using high-quality, nutritionally balanced feed over inexpensive, inferior options. Packaging, on the other hand, ensures both product protection and information delivery. It preserves feed quality by preventing moisture, contamination, and nutrient loss, thereby maintaining pellet strength and palatability. Properly labeled packaging provides vital details such as nutritional composition, manufacturing and expiry dates, feeding guidelines, batch information, and certifications from regulatory bodies like FSSAI or BIS. Attractive and clear packaging also helps farmers quickly identify the suitable feed for their fish species and rearing systems.

Technological advancements in aquafeed production are significantly reshaping the aquaculture landscape by enhancing feed utilization, sustainability, and nutritional performance while cutting costs and reducing ecological impact. One major innovation is precision feed formulation through artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, enabling species-specific diets tailored to growth stages and environmental conditions. This customized approach improves nutrient absorption, reduces waste, and boosts farm profitability. Modern processing methods such as extrusion and cold pelleting have further improved pellet durability, digestibility, and water stability—essential for use in systems like Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) and offshore cages. The transition from traditional feed ingredients to alternatives like insect meal, microbial biomass, algae, and single-cell proteins is also gaining momentum. These sustainable inputs not only offer high-quality nutrition but also lower the environmental burden associated with fishmeal and soy.

Government initiatives and institutions play a pivotal role in directing the regulation, development, and expansion of India’s fish feed industry. With aquaculture recognized as a key contributor to food security, rural income, and exports, the Indian government has rolled out multiple schemes and policies aimed at supporting sustainable feed production and maintaining quality standards. Entities like the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, NFDB, and state fisheries departments provide strategic policy direction, financial incentives, and skill-building programs to benefit both feed manufacturers and fish farmers. Subsidies for establishing feed mills, lowering input costs, and funding research contribute to reducing production expenses and promoting the adoption of science-based feeding techniques. Research institutions under ICAR, such as ICAR-CIFE, ICAR-CIFA, and ICAR-CIBA, are key players in advancing feed-related technologies. They work on developing improved feed formulations, identifying sustainable protein alternatives, and innovating feed processing methods. These institutions also conduct extensive training and extension activities to transfer technologies to the field. FSSAI ensures that feed quality and safety benchmarks are met, safeguarding the health of both aquatic species and end consumers.

This chapter introduces the complement system as an important component of innate and adaptive immunity. It explains the classical, alternative and lectin pathways of complement activation and identifies the molecules involved in each pathway. The formation and functions of C3 convertase, C5 convertase and the membrane attack complex are discussed. Questions address complement-mediated cell lysis, inflammation, chemotaxis and opsonization. The roles of C3b, C3a, C4a, C5a, properdin, factor H and other regulatory proteins are also examined. By covering the activation and regulation of complement, the chapter explains how this system enhances antibody activity and helps eliminate invading microorganisms

This chapter explores the four types of hypersensitivity reactions described under the Gell and Coombs classification. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, Type II cytotoxic reactions, Type III immune-complex disease and Type IV delayed hypersensitivity are examined in detail. The roles of IgE, mast cells, basophils, antibodies, complement and T lymphocytes are highlighted. Clinical examples include anaphylaxis, milk allergy, haemolytic disease, transfusion reactions, serum sickness, glomerulonephritis, farmer’s lung and the blue-eye condition associated with canine hepatitis. Diagnostic applications, including the tuberculin and Coombs tests, are also addressed. The chapter explains how exaggerated or inappropriate immune responses can damage tissues and produce disease.

This chapter examines immune-system failure arising from reactions against self-antigens or inadequate immune responses. It introduces immunological tolerance, central and peripheral tolerance, clonal deletion and clonal anergy. Important autoimmune diseases—including myasthenia gravis, Graves’ disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Sjögren’s syndrome—are considered. The chapter also discusses molecular mimicry and the production of autoantibodies. Primary, secondary and severe combined immunodeficiency disorders are differentiated, with examples such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome. Immune-privileged sites and immunological paralysis are also covered. These topics explain the mechanisms that normally prevent self-reactivity and the consequences that arise when immune regulation becomes defective.

Food preservation has evolved from traditional household practices to an interdisciplinary field incorporating microbiology, biochemistry, engineering, biotechnology, packaging, nanotechnology and digital intelligence. The book demonstrates that food stability can increasingly be achieved without excessive reliance on synthetic chemical preservatives. Effective preservation requires control of microbial growth, enzyme activity, oxidation, moisture, temperature and environmental exposure while protecting sensory and nutritional quality. Traditional practices remain scientifically valuable, while thermal, non-thermal, biological, packaging and digital technologies offer new possibilities. Future food systems will depend on carefully designed combinations of these approaches to improve safety, shelf life, sustainability, traceability and consumer acceptance while overcoming cost, regulatory and scalability challenges.

This chapter explains how representative soil samples should be collected, labelled, transported and prepared for analysis. It identifies essential sampling equipment, including spades, khurpis, augers, trays, sampling bags, markers and polythene sheets. The recommended procedure involves dividing land into uniform sampling units, collecting soil from several well-distributed locations and combining these portions into a composite sample. The chapter describes V-shaped sampling cuts, suitable sampling depths and sample reduction through quartering. It also lists the field information that should accompany each sample. Procedures for air-drying, grinding, sieving and mixing samples are presented, together with precautions for avoiding unusual areas and contamination.

In climatology, terms “Weather” and “Climate” have different connotations. Weather refers to the state of atmosphere at any given time denoting the short- term variations of atmosphere in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. Weather is highly variable. It is constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour and at other times from day to day. The aforementioned properties of the atmosphere are subject to constant change and their state at any time determines the state of the weather. However, weather elements are not separate rather they are closely related with each other.

David I. Blumenstock, an eminent climatologist has defined the weather in more restrictive sense. According to him, weather is the behaviour of the lower atmosphere with particular emphasis on the atmospheric behaviour which affect the lands and oceans and have a marked influence on the organisms that live upon the lands, within the waters of the earth or in the lower air. For the geographer, this definition of weather is more satisfactory. Since, he is interested more in the working of the lower atmosphere which affects the life of man as well as natural environment directly. Thus, we come across a great many varieties of weather covering a wide range of conditions.

The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred as Evaporation. In the meteorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture from a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather which exist in the vicinity of plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation and

2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporating surface like solar radiation.

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

Variation in field crops between years is associated with many factors. This is mainly due to weather, soil and management factors. There is complex reaction of weather variables among themselves as well as with other factors. Therefore, many attempts were made to study the effect of weather variable on crop yield through simulation modeling.

Crop yield is influenced by genetical (heredity), external (environmental) and management factors that occur during the crop growing period. The external environment is the climate which regulates and determines the growth and development and final output of crop plants. But, man has no control over weather, hence it is dominance over the success or failure of agricultural enterprises. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the weather induced variability in crop yield is as high as 50 per cent. Therefore, weather should be taken as one of the inputs in agricultural planning.

The communication system provides the forecaster with a large mass of figures; the next step is to put them into a suitable form for study. This is done by plotting the observations on a large outline map which in popular term is called a “Weather map” technically a “Synoptic chart” simplified synoptic charts appear in some newspaper.

A chart or map on which meteorological data presented and analysed is called a synoptic chart. Synoptic means having the same view point. The representation of the meteorological data in synoptic chart are atmospheric wind, temperature, pressure, cloud, precipitation, dew point etc., over a long area at a given local standard times.

1.1 DEFINITIONS
1. Forest
Forest is the homeland of trees. Because man must protect and maintain the life of the forest and because of this;  certain natural
calamities  and  bad  use  of  the  forest  constitute  severe danger to  the forest  and the  environment at large.  In  other to divert from these difficulties, man was bound to cultivate trees. This is silviculture. Silviculture then became a science and art.

This group includes a large number of bony fishes in which the primary upper and lower jaws are supplemented by the addition of membrane bones which forms secondary jaws. Hence they are called as teleostomi or perfect mouthed fishes.

All major groups of fresh water fishes lived successfully and flourished during the Devonian period which is also called as the “Age of fishes”. Teleostomii are characterized by a unique mechanism of opening the mouth by lowering the mandible through hyoid apparatus, therefore the skull is hyostylic or the amphistylic. Presence of an ossified operculum, an interhyal bone and the branchiostegal rays are the diagnostic features of this group.

In order to obtain maximum yield of fish from a lake or reservoir, it is essential to culture fast growing compatible species of different feeding habits is called as composite fish culture.

Any one kind of species cannot utilize the variety of food available in the pond. For a complete utilization of cheap natural food, pond fishes of different age groups or of different species may be selected for stocking. A combination of several compatible species with complementary food habits would make better use of the food resources of the pond as well as ecological potentials of the pond.

When fishes of different age groups and different species are cultured in same pond called as composite fish farming or mixed farming or polyculture. This is based on the principle that compatible species do not harm each other instead they utilize in the most efficient manner, all available food supply of the pond for maximum production of fish yield. There is no competition between different species on the other land they may be beneficial effect on the growth of others.

Fishes are used by human beings in different forms from time immemorial millions of human beings suffer due to hunger and malnutrition and fishes from a rich source of food, which has following importance:

1) Fish is an excellent food for mankind is more easily perishable than cattle, sheep and chicken.

2) Fish flesh is easily digestible by child and man.

3) Fish flesh has very great nutritive and medicinal values.

4) Fish flesh contains proteins, bass, vitamins, waters and minerals.

5) All the essential required amino acids are present in the fish flesh.

6) Fish flesh contains proteins about 13-20 % and it is easily digestible and nutritional.

7) Fish flesh is highly perishable commodity constituted as 60-80 % water.

8) Fish flesh contains about 1-8 % fats or oils and it is more important value of fishes.

Fish are of great economic value for man. In addition to it is an important item of food and provides several important by – products also which are as :

1) Fish oil

The most important fish by product industry is fish oil which acts as a vehicle for fat soluble vitamins i.e. A, D, E and K, and source of essential faty acids.

The oil of fish is categorized into two main types as the fish liver oil and fish body oil.

The oil abstained from the whole body of fish is called as body oil and is poor in vitamin contents.

The oil abstained from the only liver of the fish is called as the liver oil, and is good quantity of vitamins.

The body oil is less valuable as compared to the liver of the fish.

The per capita consumption of fish has been 3.2kg on an average up to 1992 as against estimated requirement of 11.0 kg pisciculture has the potentiality of popularity. Fish is rightly considered as the “Poor man’s diet”. It is almost zero carbohydrate food, good for diabetics and other such patients. Fish is a rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals. A special feature of fish flesh food is content of vitamin B12, which is almost absent in plant food and also a good source of calcium and vitamin A. Fish also contains polyunsaturated fatty acids which are known to provide protection against cardio-vascular diseases. This has got advantages over the other meat food.

Planktophagus fishes have higher protein contents then do fish with other feeding habits.

When flesh of fish is put to an analysis the following major components are observed.

The concept of Exclusive Economic Zone, popularly called as EEZ was born out of a conflict on fishing rights among coastal nations. Some nations found their waters being exploited by foreign countries equipped with better and more powerful fishing gear and craft more sophisticated navigational and fish detection systems than their own. In 1950 several such nations unilaterally established fishing limits in their coastal waters for exclusive fishing. In the beginning the limit was just twelve mile. Again in 1970 some more countries are added and then they unilaterally accepted the limit of 200 nautical miles.

The United Nations General Assembly convened during 1974-1982 conferences on the Third law of the sea. The United Nations convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) was the outcum of the deliberations after it was ratified by as many as 60 countries in 1994. According to the UNCLOS each coastal country shall have an EEZ of 200 nautical mile zone around the share with exclusive right to exploitation of marine resources. The UNCLOS also imposed certain responsibilities on them. Each Country shall have a duty to properly manage its resources. The resources not being fully tapped by a country other countries shall legally have the right to exploit such waters by use of trawlers. It was also stated that beyond the EEZ, the fisheries of the high seas shall be regulated by the Regional Fisheries Organizations. Thus straddling fish and migratory fish fisheries become the subject of not the coastal states but of the regional fisheries organizations. This agreement was reached in 1992 at the Rio-de-Janerio United Nations conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) which worked under the frame work of the UNCLOS. About 90% of the marine catch is taken in the EEZ many countries including India have yet to realize their full potential from their EEZ. A few countries have not accepted EEZ restriction like South Africa. A number of countries on other hand are almost optimally exploiting their EEZ such countries are New Zealand, Iceland and Canada. The EEZ is a common shared area among member countries of European common market (BCM)

Though India is one of the major fish producing countries in the world, it has no history regarding technical and academic training in fisheries. India has to tackle simultaneously the long range problem of establishing a regular fisheries educational system as one of its fisheries policies for ensuring a reserve of large number trained persons. The short range problem of providing specialized training to the large number of in service personal, who were not basically qualified in all aspect of fisheries had been planned. Therefore, the government of India and the state Governments had put in considerable effort to solve problem of shortage of technical person as by organizing a number of fisheries training institutions in the country at different levels. A few universities are also providing training in fisheries leading to degrees in fisheries.

The following are the main fisheries training institutions which are giving special training in fisheries in India:

A detailed treatment on the concepts of mutagenic effectiveness and efficiency was given by Konzak et al. (1965). They proposed the term “effectiveness” as a measure of gene mutations in relation to the dose and “efficiency” as an estimate of the mutation rate in relation to other biological effects induced, such as lethality, injury or sterility. To obtain high efficiency, the mutagenic effect must greatly surpass other effects in the cell, such as chromosomal aberrations, and toxic effects which generally lead to damage

Germination between M₁ and M₂ had a non-significant relationship in germination between M₁ and its corresponding M₁ progenies in M₂ (Table 27). Probably the reduction in the germination in M₁ might be very highly and significantly influenced by the conditions prevailing in germination and physiological disturbances that would be strictly associated in M₁ alone. Whereas the survival of the seedlings between M₁ and M₂ showed a strong positive relationship. The differential behaviour of the mutagens affecting germination and survival was also evident as discussed elsewhere.

However, seedling height on 10^th day sorted a differential relationship between M₁ and M₂. It was negative and non-significant. A non-significant relationship was exhibited for seedling height on 30^th day between M₁ and M₂ in all the doses. It may be interpreted that extent of physiological disturbances that occurred in the early stages and the extend of recovery mechanism that operated subsequently may be the major cause for this; not withstanding the haplontic and diplontic selection that operated in the biological system. Further the type of physiological disturbances happened, whether the enzyme systems affected or a substantial amount of toxic substances produced besides the genetical causes have not been studied in the present investigation. Moreover if the reduced growth was due to mitotic arrest in the meristamatic regions of the roots of M₁ plants, the disorder may not be completely inherited to its offspring’s (M₂ plants), in that sense selection at the cell level damages might occur in the M₁ itself and the selection for a cell with normal mitosis and extent of chromosomal damages that will be tolerated alone might be selected and hence the effect in M₁ need not be always related with M₂; it also depends upon the potency of the cell to recover from the mutagen induced damages. The ability of the cell in general, should be more in M₁ than in M₂ recover the disorder after several cell generations.

Polygenic characters exhibit a wide range of expression but the action of genes may be either additive or non-additive. According to Fisher et al. (1932), Smith (1936) Lush (1945), Panse (1946) and Mather (1949) the genetic advance can be achieved through selection of the heritable variation in only due to additive. So, selection for a particular character based on phenotypic variability without estimating the heritable part of it will not be successful. Heritability estimates along with genetic advance are normally more helpful in predicting the gain under selection than heritability estimates alone (Singh, 1997). Therefore, the heritability enters into every formula connected with breeding methods and many practical decisions are taken considering the heritability value.

The frequency distribution of the populations of M₂ and M₃ generation for each genotype was extracted according to Panse and Sukhatme (1961). Skewness and Kurtosis for all the characters were calculated as per the standard method. Skewness refers to the symmetry of the frequency distribution. A measure of skewness is obtained as making use of the second and their moments about the mean. It is defined as,

Wettable powder (WP): An insecticide formulation consisting of finely ground solid particles of active ingredient plus inert carrier; forms a suspension when added to water.

Waggle dance: A communication dance of honey bees. A form of recruitment in the honey bee in which direction and distance to a food source are indicated.

Waiting period: See time interval.

Waiting period: The prescribed period between last application of a pesticide to crop and harvest.

Warble: The swelling on the host body caused by the larva of a warble fly.

Warm-blooded (Homoiothermous): Animals in which body temperature normally does not change with changes in atmospheric temperature e.g.birds and mammals.

Warning: Signal word used to designate a moderately toxic pesticide; oral LD₅₀ = 50 to 500 mg/kg body formulated.

Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI and is named after Lord Kelvin (1824-1907). The temperature unit on this scale is the Kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K; the degree symbol was officially dropped from Kelvin in 1967). The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0 K.

Kelvin unit: magnitude was established at the International Conference on Weights and Measures in 1954. The triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water exist in equilibrium) was assigned the value 273.16°K (0.01 °C). The magnitude of a Kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the temperature interval between absolute zero and the triple-point temperature of water. The magnitudes of temperature units on the Kelvin and Celsius scales are identical (1 K, 1°C). The temperatures on these two scales differ by a constant 273.16.

Like many other beautiful plants, Bougainvillea has been chosen as the symbol of a host of countries, regions and municipalities. It is the National Flower of the Caribbean Nation of Granada and the United States territory of Guam. It is also the official flower of several counties in Taiwan and Malaysia. In the United States, Bougainvillea is the floral symbol of three California cities (Camarillo, Laguna Niguel and San Clemente). Bougainvillea spectabilis: Paper Flower; Common name: Bougainvillea; Scientific name: Bougainvillea spp.; Hindi: Baganvilas (Booganbel); Manipuri : Cherei; Bengali : Baganbilash; Marathi: Bougainvillea (Booganvel); Konkani: Bouganvila; Telegu: Bogam Malle (Kagithala Puvvu); Malaysia: Bunga kertas, buganvil, buginvila;  Indonesia: kembang kertas; China: Ye Zi Hua; Spain: Bouganvilla, Aka Buganvilla; Mexico and Philippines: Bugambilia; Honduras: Napoleon; Colombia, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama: Veranera; Colombia, Cuba, Panama, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Venezuela: Trinitaria; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay: Santa Rita; Northern Peru: Papelillo.

Bougainvillea is relatively pest-free. Worms, aphids, and moths might be an issue. Sometimes it gets attacked by spiders which can be controlled by using miticide and by the fungus Phytophthora which is checked by spraying Blitox (copper oxychloride) (Sharma 1996, Banerji 2010). Although it is normally pest-free plants, but may suffer from worms, snails and aphids. The larvae of some Lepidoptera species also use them as food plants, for example the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia). Leaf spot disease caused by Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in the U.S.A. (Sobers and Martinez 1966, Sobers and Seymour 1969). When compared to B. spectabilis, B. glabra has been reported to be resistant or only slightly susceptible to the leaf spot disease (Pal and Swarup 1974). Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in Colombo by Pardo-Cardona (1998) and in Indonesia by Kobayashi and Oniki (1994). The disease can be controlled by spraying copper Carbendazim at the rate of 1 g/l at an interval of 10-15 days. Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum in bougainvillea has been reported in Italy (Polizzi et al., 2010). Bacterial leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis has been reported in Brunei, Darussalam (Peregrine and Ahmad 1982, Sivapalan and Hamdan 1997) and U.S.A. (Walker 1991, Walker and Hodge 1991). This can be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride at the rate of 3 g/l at intervals of 10-15 days.

New varieties of bougainvillea have been developed in India at different research institutions, nurseries, botanical societies and also by individual efforts. Details have been mentioned above. New varieties developed at CSIR-NBRI need special mention. 

CSIR-NBRI has developed a number of new varieties by using various available breeding tools viz. through spontaneous mutation, classical breeding, chromosome manipulation and induced mutation (Banerji 2007, 2008, Banerji and Datta 1986, 1988, 1993, 1996, Banerji et al., 1987, Data and Banerji 1990, 1994a,b, Datta 1992b, 2004, Nath et al., 1983, Ohri 1995, Sharma 1996, Zadoo et al., 1975b, Jayanti et al., 2007, Roy et al., 2015).

Selection is an important tool for changing gene frequencies to better fit individuals for a particular purpose. It may be defined as a process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to others for the production of the next generation. Selection is of two kinds

An animal breeder usually interested in various economic traits and when wishes to improve them in the herd/flock, he has three general methods at his disposal. Tandom method, independent culling level method and  index selection method.

Tandom Method

It involves selection for one trait at a time and until it reaches at a satisfactory level, and then for a third trait etc. This method is applicable only when the different traits in question are entirely independent or positively genetically associated to each other. Its effectiveness decreases with the increase in number of traits. This method is least desirable of all the methods.

General Selection Procedures for Dairy Breeds
Selection of Dairy Cows
Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will beuseful for selection of a diary cow. Whenever an animal is purchased from cattle fair, it should be selected based upon its breed characters and milk producing.
History sheet or pedigree sheet which are generally maintained in organized farmsreveals the complete history of animal.The maximum yield by dairy cows are noticed during the first five lactations. So generally selection should be carried out during First or Second lactation and thattoo are month after calving.?Three successive complete milkings has to be done and an average of it will givea fair idea regarding production by a particular animal.
A cow should allow anybody to milk, and should be docile.?It is better to purchase the animals during the months of October and November.?Maximum yield is noticed till 90 days after calving.

Selection of Site and Land Preparation

Cashew is a hardy plant; it thrives well on wide range of soil. While selecting the land for cashew, soils with water logging and excessive salinity of alkalinity should be avoided. Otherwise, soil depth, slope, stoniness, soil fertility and water availability seem to impose very little limitation. For establishing new plantations, land preparation should begin with the first pre-monsoon rains. The area should be cleared of bushes and other wild growth before digging pits for planting.

Planting Season

Planting of soft wood grafts is usually done at the beginning of monsoon season (June-July). Therefore, land preparation such as clearing of bushes and other wild growth, digging of pits for planting, should be done during pre monsoon season (April-May).

Intercropping

Canopy of cashew to cover the entire area in about 8 to 10 years when grown under normal spacing of 8m x 8m in fertile soil. However, in marginal lands, it takes 10 to 12 years for the canopy to cover entire area. Cashew when grown in hilly regions there is a possibility of soil erosion and weed growth during initial years of planting (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000). Intercropping is the only available best options to prevent such erosions and conserve soil and moisture in hilly areas and to obtain sustainable income.

Recently, establishment of large plantations and adoption of systematic package of practices and intercropping is practiced to realize additional income in the initial years of cashew cultivations. When the cashew canopy starts touching the neighbouring trees possibility of intercropping is ruled out. Mixed cropping with other tree species is not widely accepted and even not advisable (Anon., 1997), though there are a few instances of growing casuarina as mixed crop in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa states (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000).

Introduction

Once the cashew fruits fallen, are collected, the nuts are to be separated from the cashew apple and sun dried for 2 to 3 days. This is very important in view of the quality of kernels obtained during subsequent processing. Raw nuts at the time of harvest will have moisture content ranging between 16 to 25 per cent; while sun dried nuts have moisture content of 8 to 10 per cent (Nagaraja, 2000). If the nuts are not dried and stored properly, it leads to fungal spoilage resulting in poor quality of kernels. Fungi such as Gonatobotryum, Helminthosporium sp., Corynespora sp., Alteraaria sp., Verticillium sp. and many species of Aspergillus have been isolated from stored cashew nuts (Joseph, 1981). In view of the occurrence of fungi, drying of the raw nuts before storage becomes absolutely essential. Maximum permissible moisture content of raw cashew nuts is 8.7 to 9.1% (Ohler, 1979). Okwelogu and Mackay (1969) have reported that high whole nut or kernel moisture percentages are closely associated with high shell moisture contents and for nuts whose moisture content is in equilibrium with the ambient relative humidity, the moisture content of whole nut and kernel could be predicted from that of shell with more than 99% accuracy. A higher kernel shell weight ratio has been shown to be inversely proportional to moisture content.

Abstract
Access to finance by the poor, disadvantaged and underprivileged group is a prerequisite of poverty alleviation on one hand and the economic growth on the other. In the struggle against poverty, the financial inclusion is a crucial element. For achieving economic power and self reliance, it is essential to ensure timely access to financial services and adequate credit when they are needed by vulnerable groups such as the weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost. Large sections of the rural population have no access to financial services and their only recourse is to borrow from moneylenders at the exorbitant charges causing exploitation. Therefore, financial inclusion, today, has become the national objective and major concern for the economic policy decision makers. The present study will focus on the major challenges and opportunities of financial inclusion in India.

Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Pulses are used as food and animal feed. India is the world’s largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses. Many exporting countries are dependent on India for marketing their pulses. Even though India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses still there is a gap of 2-3 million tonnes between the production and consumption of pulses in the country and the gap is met through imports.