eChapters

Communication, as a fundamental aspect of human existence, has evolved significantly over time. Initially, it was primarily visual and verbal, but with the development of written scripts and digital technologies, these too became integral components of human interaction. Language has always been inherently complex, with individuals from different cultural backgrounds and belief systems encoding and decoding messages in diverse ways. This process involves giving meaning to and deriving meaning from various forms of communication.

Moreover, the medium through which communication occurs often imposes its own structural rules or "grammar." For instance, messages conveyed through audiovisual media or computer-mediated communication are often organized differently than those in traditional written or spoken forms. These structural differences can lead to variations in meaning depending on the context in which the communication takes place.

8.1. Classification

The ruminants belong to the Order Artiodactyla. The families in order of Artiodactyla include Camelidae, Tragulidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Antliocapridae, and Bovidae.

The family Camelidae includesGuanaco (Lama guanicoe), Llama (Lama glama), Alpaca or South American camelid mammal (Lama pacos), Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), and Bactrian or two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus).

The family Tragulidae includes Chevrotains originate from Africa (Hyumo schusaquaticus) and Chevrotains that originate from Asia (Tragulus species).

The family CervidaeincludesWhite tailed deer(Odococlius virginianus), Follow deer (Dama dama), Roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus), Axis deer (Axis axis), Reindeer (Rangiter tarandus), Musk deer (Moschus species) and Chinese water deer (Hydropotes species).

9.1. Classification: Order Perissodactyla

The order Perissodactyla, also known as odd-toed ungulates, is a group of herbivorous mammals characterized by having one or three toes on each foot. They are distinguished from even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) by this anatomical feature. Even-toed ungulates, such as pigs, cows, and deer, have an even number of toes (two or four) on each foot. Some of the well-known members of this order include horses, zebras, asses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.

The name “Perissodactyla” comes from the Greek words “perissos,” meaning “odd,” and “daktylos,” meaning “finger or toe,” referring to their unique foot structure. Unlike even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which bear weight on their third and fourth toes, perissodactyls primarily bear weight on their third toe.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes (Raintree, 1987)

Human societies over the ages have depleted natural resources in different ways and degraded their local environments. Indiscriminate cutting down of trees and accelerating the construction works lead to global warming and climate change. Climate scientists believe that human-induced deforestation is responsible for 18-25% of climate change. Accumulation of greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere is the main cause of global climate change. The concentration of these gases in the earth’s atmosphere is increasing, mainly due to deforestation and the combustion of fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide.

The earth receives heat energy constantly from the sun through radiation. Some of the heat is absorbed and some is reflected. Carbon dioxide works like an invisible blanket that wraps around the earth and traps the heat inside, similar to the function of a greenhouse. A greenhouse is a structure that is used in colder climates to grow plants. Even when outside temperatures drop below freezing point, greenhouses are still warm enough inside to grow plants. Greenhouses are made of glass, which allows solar radiation to enter. The heat is trapped inside the greenhouse, allowing plants to grow all the year round. Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere insulate it like a greenhouse, leading to a gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas, but there are others as well, including methane and nitrous oxide.

1. Introduction

Education is undergoing a digital transformation. The incorporation of digital technologies into the educational scene over the last two decades has radically changed the way we teach and learn. This transition has started a revolution with far-reaching repercussions, both positive and negative, for students, educators, and institutions alike.

The growing adoption of digital technologies in educational settings has created a world of possibilities. Online platforms, learning management systems, educational apps, virtual reality, and augmented reality are just a handful of the innovations that have transformed the educational experience. This comprehensive investigation tries to investigate the intricate and multifaceted impact of various digital technologies on schooling.

Developmental Anomalies

Persistent right aortic arch

This is a developmental anomaly of aorta in which the aorta develops from right arch present on right side of trachea and oesophagus. The ductus arteriosus forms a ring around trachea and oesophagus by connecting aorta and pulmonary artery. This ring causes partial obstruction of trachea and/or oesophagus.

Patent ductus arteriosus

The ductus arteriosus is a short blood vessel which connects pulmonary artery to aorta in foetal life for diversion of blood. Normally, soon after birth this duct is sealed and remains in the form of a ligamentum arteriosum. But sometimes this ductus arteriosus remains open and blood is continuously shunted between aorta and pulmonary artery, after leading to congestive heart failure, pulmonary hypertension and cyanosis due to mixing of venous and arterial blood (Fig. 3.1).

Understanding the chemistry of submerged soil in the field of Geology, Pedology, Agriculture and other allied sectors draws attention to the research on characteristic changes in soil under submergence. It has been reported that, about 72% of the earth’s surface is covered by submerged soils or sediments . Rice plants have unique adaptation capability to grow under submerged soil and in any type of soil (acid/alkaline) condition or land situation (upland/lowland). The knowledge on changes of important physical, chemical and biological properties under submergence have important role to play in understanding the mechanisms of availability of nutrients to the plants and sustainability of the crop during its growing period.

9.0 Submerged Soil

The soils which are saturated with water for a longer period of time in a year to make the soil a distinctive gley horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes are called submerged soil. About 72% of the earth’s surface is covered with soil –submergence or sediments.

9.1 Introduction

Almond is one of the major and oldest tree-nut crops of the world. It is a close relative of peach. It was bought to California in the 17th century by Spanish. In India it was first introduced into Kashmir during 16th century by Persian settlers. The tree bears a fruit called a drupe consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed inside. Almonds are generally cross-pollinated. Therefore, the common honeybee plays a vital role in the production of the nuts. A compound called ‘Amygdaline’ differentiates the bitter almond from the sweet almond. In the presence of water (i.e., on hydrolysis), amygdaline yields glucose and the chemicals, benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid (HCN). The salt of HCN known as cyanide is poisonous. The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet. Bitter almonds yield 4-9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond. Almonds are cultivated in many parts of the world, with the five leading countries being the U.S., Spain, Australia, Iran and Morocco.

12.1 Introduction

Walnut (Juglans regia L.), called “the magic tree” since ancient times, is one of the most economically significant and widely distributed cultivated species for its timber and nutritious nuts all over the world. It is an important source for food, medicines, phytotherapeutic products, raw material in the wood industry and biomass. The nuts are also known as “King of Nuts”. Walnut is known to be trees with a high market potential. Its nutritious nuts and good quality timber are highly valued and the market demand is correspondingly high. It is known for its high-quality nuts and timber. It makes it an economically and nutritionally important tree species. Almost all plant parts and their by products have been used in one or other way. It is the most widespread nut tree in the world (Sharma, 2022). It is relatively fast-growing reaching a total height of 18-30 m and a canopy width of 12-18 m. Roots are sensitive to oxygen depletion which can occur in wet conditions.

Dolichos bean, [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] var. typicus (2n=22) also known as Indian bean or sem is one of the vital leguminous vegetables grown in India for its tender green pods. Both pole types and bush types are commercially grown. It is predominantly cultivated in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and North-East India. Protein, minerals, vitamins and f ibers are abundant in Dolichos bean. Bush-type vegetable dolichos unlike the pole-type dolichos (which are generally grown during the winter season as they require short day) are thermosensitive and can be grown year-round.

Dolichos is a versatile and valuable leguminous crop, offering multiple benefits. It boasts a high protein content of 3.6% and fiber content of 1.8%. The dry seed is composed of a protein content ranging from 23.0% to 28.0%. The pods are abundant in phenols, with levels ranging from 1.7 to 9.67 mg/100 g, making them a valuable source of antioxidants. Furthermore, dolichos serves as an excellent source of amino acids, particularly lysine, along with vitamins such as A, C, and riboflavin, and essential minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, S, Na and P). The seeds of dolichos contain a flavonoid, kievitone, recognized for its potential in combating breast cancer. Additionally, the presence of tyrosinase in the seeds indicates promising possibilities for treating hypertension in humans. Dolichos beans are utilized for various medicinal purposes, acting as stomachic, anthelmintic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, digestive, febrifuge, and carminative agents. Furthermore, they are rich in bioactive compounds that offer significant benefits in treating specific ailments such as liver problems, diabetes and tumors.

Taxonomic keys are devices that make identification of taxa easy and enjoyable. A key is presentation of appropriate diagnostic characters in a series of attractive choices to facilitate identification of a specimen.

Key characters are the characters that are easily perceived of very low variability, usually present in preserved material. They are useful as convenient labels for distinguishing taxa by the process of classification. Many taxonomic characters such as chemical, chromosomal, physiological and behavioural may have high value of identification because they are inaccessible in preserved material. Ideal key characters apply equally to all individuals of the population. They are absolute, relatively constant and external so that they can be observed directly without special equipment.

Introduction

A Brief Overview of Industry 4.0

It is widely agreed that foundational technologies such as 5G, IoT, Robotics, Nano-Tech, Brain-Computer Interface (BCI), Neural Networks, Quantum Computing, Cost-efficient and low-emission Transportation, and Sustainable Power have coalesced to give birth to industry 4.0.

Industry 4.0, sometimes also designated as the fourth wave of Industrial Revolution, is all about transforming traditional manufacturing and related industrial practices through various digital technologies. It represents a paradigm shift characterized by the amalgamation of multiple technologies such as computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), convergence, artificial intelligence (AI), big data, and automation into a unified protocol for application in the industrial processes.

At its core, Industry 4.0 emphasizes the interconnectedness and intelligent communication between machines, products, and people. It revolutionizes production and operational methods by enabling machines to operate semi autonomously and make decentralized decisions. This allows for increased f lexibility, efficiency, and customization within manufacturing processes.

Key elements of Industry 4.0 include the digitization of manufacturing, smart factories, and the use of data-driven technologies to optimize production. It incorporates concepts such as predictive maintenance, where machines predict their own maintenance needs, and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), allowing devices and systems to communicate, analyze, and optimize processes in real-time.

Introduction

The Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0 is the aggregation of advanced digital technologies into manufacturing and production processes. These technologies include Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), and autonomous systems, which collectively facilitate smart manufacturing and interconnected industrial operations. When examining Industry 4.0’s wider ramifications, contradictions or fascinating facts surface. Its impact is widespread in society and the economy, even if it mostly concentrates on manufacturing. It may be seen in the service industry, urban development, and agriculture, among other areas (Ane & Yasmin, 2019; Kraus et al., 2022). Furthermore, the phrase encompasses not only the development of technology but also the evolution of organizational leadership and the significance of security and privacy in the digital era (Beattie & Wyer, 2019; ONIK et al., 2019). Overall, Industry 4.0 represents a transformative era where digital technologies are harnessed to create intelligent, interconnected systems that revolutionize traditional industrial practices.

Ringworm

Ringworm is a fungal disease of skin affecting animals characterized by popular skin lesions in circular form discharging serus exudate.

Etiology

• Microsporum canis- dogs

• M. gypseum- dogs, horse, pig

• Trichophyton verrucosum- bovines

• T. equinum- horses

Pathogenesis

The fungi enter in skin through abrasion and the hyphae appear in stratum corneum after germination and invade the hair follicles. The hyphae growth and spore formation in stratum corneum leads to hyperkeratosis and the fungus spreads centrifugally from the point of primary invasion leading to ring shaped lesion (Fig.8.1).

Tyzzer’s disease

Tyzzer’s disease is an acute infectious disease of laboratory animals including rats caused by Clostridium spp and Characterized by watery diarrhoea, necrotic hepatitis and death

Etiology

• Clostridium piliforme

• Gram positive, Spore forming, Anaerobe

Pathogenesis

• Horizontal transmission- faecal oral route

• Contaminated feed, water

• Bacteria in gut causing enteritis

1. Introduction

India has 536.76 million livestock as per 20th Livestock Census 2019. Livestock plays a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses especially for landless and marginal farmers; as well as an important role in the national economy. Livestock production and agriculture are closely related and vital for the overall food security. Agriculture diversification through animal husbandry is one of the primary factors of growth in rural incomes. A higher public investment in livestock sector is the need of the hour for doubling farmers’ income. Future economic growth would have to come from improvements in animal productivity. India is bestowed with a great degree of livestock biodiversity which can be elucidated in hosting more than 200 breeds across all the species. Along with producing A2 milk, desi cattle are renowned for withstanding heat, illness resistance, immunity to ticks and parasites and low maintenance requirements. The various indigenous breeds of agricultural animals are mostly the consequence of evolutionary processes. They were improved through field progeny testing & selection. Conservation and propagation of most precious high producing elite buffalo germplasm though the cloning technique is the contribution of the scientists to the buffalo rearing farmers of the country. The Indian Jamunapari goat is one of the ancestors of the American Nubian. Goat milk is an excellent source of vitamin A, is high in digestible protein, contains significantly lower levels of alpha-S1-casein, contains slightly less lactose, and has more non-digestible carbohydrates than cows’ milk.

13.1. Introduction

The Delphi technique is a systematic, interactive forecasting method that involves gathering expert opinions to make informed decisions, predict future trends, or address complex problems. The core idea behind this technique is to use the knowledge and insights of experts in a structured manner to produce well-informed and reliable outcomes. By combining expert judgment with iterative feedback, the Delphi method allows for deeper analysis, greater accuracy, and a better understanding of complex issues that cannot be easily solved through traditional data analysis or quantitative methods (Ismail and Taliep, 2023).

Originally designed for defence-related forecasting, the Delphi technique has since evolved into a versatile tool used across a wide range of fields, such as business, healthcare, education, public policy, environmental science, and social research. Its versatility stems from its ability to gather expert opinions in a manner that allows for rigorous analysis of complex issues, without the constraints of traditional group meetings or face-to-face discussions.

Pork production in India is limited, representing only 9% of the country’s animal protein sources. Production is concentrated mainly in the northeastern states of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. The contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution of pigs to Indian exports is very poor.

The chromosomes of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) are known to be prone to reciprocal chromosome translocations and other balanced chromosome rearrangements with concomitant fertility impairment of carriers. The domestic pig has diploid chromosome (2n) number 38. The domestic pig karyotype shows a tendency for balanced structural chromosomal rearrangements, such as reciprocal, Robertsonian, and tandem translocations, as well as inversions. There is extensive polymorphism in the heterochromatin, with G-C-rich heterochromatin located in centromere regions of biarmed chromosomes and less G-C-rich heterochromatin in the centromere regions of one-armed chromosomes.

The diploid chromosome number of the pig is 2n = 38, consisting of 18 autosomal chromosome pairs, which vary in length and morphology (12-bi-armed and 6 one-armed pairs), and two sex chromosomes, XX or XY. Robertsonian translocation is known to occur in the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. In these cases, the chromosomes fuse at the centromeric region, resulting in the production of two derivative chromosomes, a large bi-armed chromosome, and a secondary short chromosome often lost in subsequent cell divisions. Thus, the karyotype of a domestic pig carrying Robertsonian translocation has a distinct 2n = 37 diploid chromosome number, with the noticeable addition of a novel large bi-armed chromosome.

Using the FAO criteria, Bargur and Siri cattle breeds and Attapadi goat breeds were categorized under vulnerable status of risk; Krishna Valley, Mewati, Pullikulam and Punganur cattle breeds, Chilika and Toda buffalo breeds and Karnah and Poonchi sheep breeds under endangered status of under risk and Vechur cattle under critical status of risk. All these breeds need immediate steps for rescue by using suitable conservation methodology. Breed-wise census should be continued in future so that trends in breed populations may also be estimated for fine tuning of risk assessment of breeds.

Rate of inbreeding in Indian livestock breeds: The rate of inbreeding estimated for different breeds of cattle was well below 0.5% (needed for a breed ‘not at risk’) except for Mewati (1.193%), Pullikulam (0.72%) and Vechur (17.893%). The rate of inbreeding in buffalo breeds was also well below 0.5% except in Chilika buffalo, where it was 0.731%. The rate of inbreeding of these breeds may be reduced by increasing the number of breeding males and in Vechur also the breeding females. The rate of inbreeding in all the breeds of sheep (Indian or exotic), goat and pig were estimated to be less than 0.5%. In these species, a good balance of breeding males and females is always expected.

The biosphere or part of the earth and its atmosphere where life is found is made of different size of ecosystem regulated by solar energy. Ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component comprises closely interacting groups of flora and fauna having varying energy needs which comprise heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic and photoautotrophic microorganisms.

Biodiversity refers to the richness of life as manifested by their morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of microorganism and their interdependence in habitat. It is because of biodiversity that each ecosystem functions as the basic life support system of the planet earth. Biodiversity sustains the food and nutrition security of human beings and mediates the ecological process by resisting environmental perturbations in a given soil and climatic conditions.

Presently greater emphasis is being placed on the biodiversity of above ground biotic components belonging to plant and animal kingdom. The living organisms in soil and their diversity in relation to their contribution to sustainable agriculture often do not receive adequate attention. Without taking into considerations the magnitude and understanding of the global diversity will be fragmentary. However, management of below ground biodiversity is being focused presently by several national and international bodies.

Financial inclusion, which is the process of accessing and properly utilizing formal financial services, is an important factor in powering economic development and poverty reduction. Study undertakes a broad cross- country analysis of financial inclusion and its impact on social and economic factors. Applying data from respectable bodies like World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Eurostat and United Nations Development Programme, the study applies regression analysis and fixed effects models to determine how income, employment, income inequality, urbanization and human development affect financial inclusion. The outcomes show the complicated interplay between these actors and financial inclusion over various national situations.Financial inclusion is becoming a key component of equitable economic development and poverty alleviation worldwide. The importance of financial inclusion is undisputed, but its causes must be identified. This research article uses a comprehensive cross- country analysis to explain how various civilizations utilize financial services. The study will examine the relationship between financial inclusion and its key socio-economic factors— income levels, employment dynamics, income inequality, urbanization trends, and human development—to inform inclusive economic development policymakers, researchers, and practitioners. The data demonstrates that financial inclusion promotes economic development by helping people save, invest, and manage risk. Additionally, academics have focused on socio-economic issues including income distribution, urban-rural divide, and education level in shaping financial inclusion patterns within and within nations. These characteristics’ effects on financial literacy are yet unknown, thus more empirical study is needed to develop evidence-based policy.

Introduction

People visit tourist destinations for the purpose of enjoying the beauty, to relax and rejuvenate. One of the popular destinations chosen by all are hill stations. Darjeeling, also known as the Queen of Hills, is a popular tourist destination visited by six-hundred-thousand Indians and thirty-thousand foreigners annually (Bhattacharya, n.d.). The primary attractions that make Darjeeling worth visiting are the magnificent views of the Kanchenjunga range and the lush tea gardens. As a result of the advancement in technology, the luxury of travel is now feasible to all sections of society because of which tourism in India has rapidly expanded in the past three decades. This is the result of: great progress and advancement of the Indian economy, India’s roaring IT sector and promotion of “Unbelievable India” by the Tourism Ministry. Although tourism has significantly boosted revenue and employment, it comes with its downsides: the harm that it poses to the environment if it goes unchecked. Since the number of tourists is greater than the ability of the environment to cope up with, it puts tremendous pressure upon the environment which can have irreversible negative impacts

Introduction

Intellectual Property emerged in new type of property referring to creation of the mind in today’s globalized world. While IP such as copyrights, patents, and trademarks are centuries old, but the extension of IPRs to living beings and knowledge related to them is relatively recent. Similarly Intellectual Property Rights (hereafter IPRs) mean legal protection to protect data from new inventions. In exchange for being required to reveal the formula or strategy underlying the technique, these rights enable the owner to stop imitators from commercializing the inventions or processes for a limited time. Biological Diversity refers to all kinds of living organisms found in an area which maintain balance and support life hence may be called as the cornerstone of sustainability of all living creations i.e. the hallmark of the life of living beings since origin. In general, all organisms, including flora and living things, microbes, and their ecosystems, are together referred to as biodiversity.

Developing countries with agrarian economy have been facing challenges arising from climate change causes and consequences. The altered patterns of climate are affecting the yield potential of crops thereby affecting agricultural production, farmers’ income, and livelihoods. Out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, the 13th SDG on ‘Climate action to combat climate change and its impacts,’ emphasises the importance and urgency of addressing the effects of climate change in developing nations. It is projected that climate change would have the most detrimental effect on agriculture, the primary source of income for small and marginal farmers in developed nations (Azadi et al., 2021). Building the ability of small and marginal farmers will be crucial to global food security over the next decade (FAO, 2020). World Bank (2018) reported that 800 million South Asian population are at risk of experiencing a decline in their standard of living and incomes due to rising temperatures and more erratic rainfall hampering the agriculture production system. Millions of low-income smallholder farmers, particularly those who rely on agriculture for a living and an income in South Asia, would be directly impacted by a reduction in productivity leading to food supply shortages and price increases.

Entrepreneurship serves as a crucial element of economic development. In times of economic crisis, the significance of business development rises. Entrepreneurship has been linked to enhanced economic growth, greater wealth, and an elevated quality of life. In developing countries like India, the planning and implementation of entrepreneurship program development is essential for the standard of living of most of the backward areas due to their over-dependence on agriculture for employment (Uplaonkar and Biradar 2015). Entrepreneurship development therefore seems to be the best option to find job opportunities, generate income, reduce poverty and improve nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy.

Entrepreneurship refers to the ability to take big risks to make a profit, to succeed, to manage and organize a new business. Entrepreneurship is a process in which a person becomes aware of owning a business as an alternative and develops new ideas for business. In addition, they try to learn the whole process of becoming an entrepreneur, and an initiative has been taken to develop entrepreneurship. It shows the practical application of all qualities such as innovation, creativity and risk in a work environment. The development of agriculture requires innovations in agricultural business. Stabilizing innovations and increasing productivity is a long-term and difficult business.

Conventional crop breeding requires a substantial investment of time, space, and resources for the selection process and the subsequent crossing of desired plants. The time taken for the complete seed-to-seed cycle is a critical constraint in the advancement of plant research and breeding. The concept of speed breeding holds the promise of diminishing the duration necessary for the entire process of cultivar development, from creation to introduction and eventual commercial availability, thereby enhancing the improvement of both food and industrial crops. It revolves around optimizing conditions such as light intensity, temperature, and daylight duration (22-hour light, 22°C day/17°C night, and high light intensity). This approach enhances photosynthesis, triggering early flowering, and, in combination with yearly seed collection. The adoption of speed breeding shows promises in realizing nutritional security and promoting sustainable agriculture for the future rising population. The technique’s integration with advanced genomics and gene editing opens doors to precise trait incorporation. Moreover, speed breeding reduces resource consumption, aligning with sustainability goals. As local adaptations become feasible, it empowers diverse regions.

Epigenetics is a new field of research in plant biology, which aims to provide a powerful tool to improve crop productivity, adaptability, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the potential of epigenomics in plant breeding, providing breeders with an alternative to genetic engineering, addressing concerns related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture. In particular, epigenetic markers (epimarkers) are chemicals which regulate genes by sitting over the DNA sequence; they explore the consequences of thermal and ionic variation on the behavior of plant under stress conditions. Moreover, epialleles may be promising sources of new variation of traits that are controlled by genes that are not detrimentally regulated. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the current state of the art in epigenomic research, focusing on the impact of next-generation sequencing (NGS) on epigenomes, as well as the potential use of epigenetics in crop breeding.

Introduction

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations in the DNA sequence. It involves modifications of the DNA or associated proteins that can influence gene activity and expression. Most cells in an organism share the same genes, although they can be very diverse from one another. This is due to the fact that not all genes are active in all cells at the same time. The epigenetic context of a gene, or its accessibility to transcription, can tell whether the gene is likely to be active or not (Klemm et al. 2019). Indeed, the nuclear genome is found as a dense combination of long DNA strings wrapped around specialized proteins called histones to create nucleosomes (Samo et al. 2021). These nucleosomes can be further packed together to form even denser 3D formations that are sometimes visible under a microscope, giving rise to the term “chromatin”.

Introduction

Analysis of insecticide formulations are critical for the availability of quality insecticides in the market for ultimate benefit of farmers and ecosystem health. This chapter highlights the significance of comprehensive insecticide formulation analysis protocols, encompassing methods for determining active ingredient and assessing physical and chemical parameters. Employing advanced analytical techniques such as spectroscopy and chromatography for insecticide formulation analysis will eventually maintain the quality of insecticides for the sustainable management of pests.

In India, over 339 pesticides are registered that includes insecticides, fungicides, herbicides (DPPQS, 2024). The current market of non-genuine insecticide is INR 3,200 crores (USD 525 Million) which constitutes 25 per cent by value and 30 per cent by volume of the total domestic market of agrochemicals in India as per Industry reports, primary interviews, news articles and Tata Strategic analysis (FICCI, 2015). Monitoring registration and regulation of insecticides is governed by the Insecticide Management Bill 2020, which replaced the Insecticide Act 1968 (DPPQS, 2023). The Insecticide Act of 1968 established the Central Insecticide Laboratory, Faridabad, under section 16 with two regional insecticide testing laboratories at Chandigarh and Kanpur (DPPQS, 2023). Current Quality Control of Insecticides in States/UTs during the last five years shows that 68078 insecticide samples were analysed (DPPQS, 2023). In the beginning, these laboratories involved in analysing insecticide samples drawn by any officer or the body authorized by the Central or State Governments and submit certificates of analysis to the concerned authority. Regional Pesticide Testing Laboratories (RPTLs) had a huge target of analysis of 1550 samples per annum that necessitated the establishment of 71 State Pesticide Testing Laboratories (SPTL) spread across India of which 14 are NABL accredited (DPPQS, 2023).

Insecticide use for agriculture has increased along with food quality and quantity, but self-harm has also increased. Despite a high rate of insecticide poisoning and sometimes usage for homicide, little is known about insecticide management.

Insecticide poisoning kills up to 300,000 people around the world every year. According to hospital admission data, most estimates of insecticide poisoning in the short term have been based on numbers of people poisoned by insecticide s. This represents only a small part of the real number, as it includes only the most dangerous cases. IS 4015 is a standard guide for handling cases of pesticide poisoning.

Introduction

Lipids (dietary or body reserve) serves as the major source of energy for the body at the time of carbohydrate depletion. Triacyl glycerol (TG) forms the major part of lipids alongwith phospholipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. The different forms of lipids are utilised by the body for generation of energy in the form of ATP. In addition, it serves as the source of essential fattyacids and vitamins for different metabolic purpose.

Dietary triacylglycerols (TG) are digested by lipase group of enzymes (lingual, gastric, pancreatic and intestinal) secreted by the digestive tract into free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols. The 2-monoacylglycerols are either absorbed as such or hydrolysed into glycerol and fatty acids which are then absorbed independently. The glycerol and fatty acids are distributed to different tissues through circulation and utilised in the following ways

i. Storage in fat cells of adipose tissue in the form of triacylglycerols.

ii. Oxidised in peripheral tissues for production of energy.

iii. converted to glucose in hepatic cells in the process of gluconeogenesis.

iv. Synthesis of other derived compounds like steroids and eicosanoids in gonadal and other tissues

v. Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesteryl esters.

Biotechnology is being harnessed in various aspects of the livestock industry to hasten breed development for improved animal health and welfare, enhanced reproduction, and improved nutritional quality and safety of animal-derived foods. Various biotechnology methods are used in improving the breeding stock of animals. These include artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET), in-vitro fertilization (IVF), sexing of semen and embryos, micromanipulation of oocytes/ embryos, transgenesis, somatic cell nuclear transfer and the emerging technology on genomics and marker-assisted selection (MAS). Artificial Insemination: One of the earliest perfected technology is artificial insemination (AI) where new breeds of animals are produced through the introduction of the male sperm from one superior male to the female reproductive tract without mating. AI reduces transmission of venereal disease, lessens the need of farms to maintain breeding males, facilitates more accurate recording of pedigrees, and minimizes the cost of introducing improved genetics. Various technologies have evolved that led to the efficient use of AI in developing desired livestock, including the methods of freezing semen or cryopreservation and sperm sexing.

Introduction

Diagnostic biochemistry, is a branch of laboratory medicine that focuses on the analysis of bodily fluids to diagnose and monitor diseases. This field plays a crucial role in understanding the biochemical mechanisms underlying various conditions, enabling accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and management. The biological samples for diagnosis include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid and tissues.

Factors Affecting Serum Enzyme Activity or Protein Level

1. Organ Mass and Enzyme Tissue Concentration:

• Higher enzyme concentrations in organs can lead to greater increases in serum enzyme activity during disease. For instance, the liver’s large mass contributes to potential increases in serum ALT activity.

2. Cell Location

• The proximity of cellular enzymes to the blood, urine, or other fluids determines the fluid in which an enzyme’s activity will increase upon cell injury. For example, renal tubular gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is released into urine, not blood, following injury.

Introduction

Biological fluids refer to any liquid substances found within living organisms that play essential roles in physiological functions. These fluids can include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, digestive juices, rumen fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, milk etc.

Collection of biological fluids refers to the process of gathering various types of bodily f luids from animals for scientific study or medical purposes. This collection often involves techniques like blood draws, urine collection, cerebrospinal fluid sampling, saliva collection, etc., depending on the specific fluid and the research or diagnostic needs. These f luids are valuable for understanding the health, metabolism, genetics, and other aspects of animal biology. Collecting and analyzing these biological fluids is crucial for understanding health and disease processes, diagnosing illnesses, monitoring treatment effectiveness, and advancing medical and scientific research.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

The present study was carried out on gross anatomical and morphometrical studies of extensor and flexor muscles of digits of forelimb and hind limb in six adults non-descript dogs irrespective of sex. Common digital extensor muscle was originated from the lateral (extensor) epicondyle of the humerus with multiple tendons of insertion whereas lateral digital extensor was originated from the lateral ligament of the elbow joint. Extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius muscle was present under the lateral digital extensor and superficial to the abductor pollicis longus and originated from the middle third of the dorsolateral border of the ulna. Deep digital flexor muscle was comprised of two heads, flexor hallucis longus, and flexor digitorum longus.The average tensile strength for common digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius, and abductor pollicis longus muscles were 2.65 ± 0.36 kg, 2.20 ± 0.47 kg, 1.60 ± 0.38 kg and 1.95 ± 0.35 kg respectively. Mean Muscle belly length for common digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius, and abductor pollicis longus muscles was 8.30 ± 0.51 cm, 6.68 ± 0.45 cm, 4.80 ± 0.68 cm and 8.08 ± 0.73cm respectively. Mean tensile rest strength for the superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor, interosseous muscle, f lexor pollicis brevis and lumbricales was 7.61 ± 0.56 cm, 8.53 ± 0.51 cm, 2.76 ± 0.47 cm, 0.73 ± 0.13 cm and 0.85 ± 0.17 cm respectively. Mean muscle belly volume of superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor, interosseous muscle, flexor pollicis brevis, and lumbricales muscles was 6.61 ± 0.72 cm3, 7.84 ± 0.53 cm3, 0.24 ± 0.07 cm3, 0.03 ± 0.01 cm3, 0.02 ± 0.00 cm3 respectively.Mean tendon cross section area for muscles tibialiscranialis, long digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, and extensor digitorum brevis was 0.05 ± 0.00 cm2, 0.06 ± 0.00 cm2, 0.04 ± 0.00 cm2 and 0.04 ± 0.00 cm2 respectively.

Ready to eat shami kebabs from goat meat with 25, 50 and 75 % levels of goat tripe were prepared and their quality evaluated. shami kebabs prepared with 100% goat were used as control. Significant (p<0.05) increase was observed for pH, diameter shrinkage, drip loss, protein and fat contents in goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs than control. However, significant (p< 0.05) reverse trends were observed for product yield and moisture content. Sensory evaluation scores for appearance and colour, flavor, tenderness, juiciness, binding and overall acceptability were highest for 25% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs followed by 50% and 75% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs. Physico - chemical and sensory evaluation scores of 25% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs were comparable with control goat meat shami kebabs and the values did not differ significantly between them. Thus, it can be concluded that 75% goat meat and 25% goat tripe can be used for preparation of ready to eat goat meat shami kebabs without affecting quality and acceptability.

Introduction

Poultry are domesticated birds mostly reared for the purpose of meat and egg consumption as well as for their feathers. It includes chickens, quails, turkeys, waterfowls, ducks and geese. The endocrine system of poultry consists of hypothalamic-hypophyseal complex, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, pancreatic islet cells, adrenal glands, ultimobranchial glands, endocrine cells of gut and the gonads. These endocrine organs release hormones into the bloodstream. Peptide hormones act on the surface of cells, whereas steroid hormones act on target tissues by entering in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Lack of diagnosis in the case of endocrinopathies is a major cause of production loss globally. Advancement in awareness, diagnosis, treatment as well as management is critical to ensure optimal flock health. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. Programs of emergency treatment and long-term prevention are justified for severe endocrine diseases which have a profound impact on production.

Introduction

Pain management in poultry is an important aspect of animal welfare and overall production efficiency in the poultry industry. Poultry birds, such as chickens and turkeys, can experience pain due to various reasons including routine management procedures, injuries, and diseases. Managing pain in poultry is crucial not only for ethical reasons but also because pain can lead to decreased productivity and increased susceptibility to diseases. For the better management First step is identification of pain in birds which can only be possible with the thorough knowledge of their behaviour. Second step is the selection of appropriate analgesics and their dosing’s as there are various species of birds. Commonly used analgesics for birds includes, NSAID’s, opioids etc.

1. Routine Management Procedures: Many routine procedures in the poultry industry, such as beak trimming, toe clipping, and wing clipping, can cause pain and distress to birds if not done properly. Beak trimming, for example, is often performed to reduce feather pecking and cannibalism in crowded conditions but can cause acute pain if not done correctly. Proper techniques and pain management strategies must be employed during such procedures to minimize pain and distress in birds.

Plant disease epidemiology is the study of how plant diseases develop and spread. It involves understanding the causes of diseases, how they spread, and their impact on plants and crops. This knowledge is used to develop strategies for managing and controlling plant diseases, such as predicting outbreaks, breeding resistant plants, and implementing cultural and chemical controls.

Element of an epidemic: Plant disease epidemics develop as a result of the timely combination of the element in plant disease: Susceptible host plant, a virulent pathogen and favourable environmental conditions over a relatively long period of time. Humans may unwillingly help initiate and develop epidemics. Thus, the chance of an epidemic increases when the susceptibility of the host and virulence of the pathogen are greater, as the environmental conditions approach the optimum level for pathogen growth, reproduction and spread and as the duration of all favourable conditions.

3.1. General Introduction

Value addition refers to the conversion of a raw commodity or commodities into a processed product through the use of raw materials, labour, time and technology, all mixed in a way that ensures increased economic return. Even if the amount of processing in a product is much less, for example, any canned fruit can be considered as a processed product. Value added processing of horticultural food crops, mainly involves actions which changes fresh fruits and vegetables to create a greater value-added product for human consumption, which mostly includes canned products, juices, soups, sauces and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (Sharan, 2018). It results in diversification of agricultural activities, improves value addition opportunities and creates surplus for export of processed agro products. Processing often goes with perishable products like meat, milk, poultry, fruits and vegetables, often termed as High Value Products (HVPs), are in greater demand of processing (Sanal & Krishna, 2017). The demands for processed products are particularly strong in developing countries like China and India; mainly due to increasing industrialization and rapid urbanization, followed by elevated income levels, greater diversity in diets, and affinity towards premium-branded products (Sharan, 2018).

11.1 Learning Objectives
After comprehending this unit, we will be capable to:
i) Understand the conception of probability distribution;
ii) Appreciate the significance and applications of Binomial distribution;
iii) Understand the importance and uses of Poisson distribution;
iv) Know about the normal distribution and its’ applications.

11.2 Introduction

A probability distribution is a mathematical function that describes the likelihood of obtaining the possible outcomes of a random variable. In other words, it provides the probabilities of different events or values that a random variable can take. The sum of all probabilities in a probability distribution is equal to 1.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the third most important pulse crop grown all over the world. Chickpea is infested by an average of about 60 insectspests, of which gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) is known to be the key pest. Helicoverpa is responsible for causing up to 90 % damage in chickpea due to its regular occurrences. In order to manage this problem, growers are tempted to increase the amounts of pesticides, but indiscriminate or injudicious use of pesticides has resulted in residues in the food chain, pesticide resistance, and pest resurgence, in addition to causing harm to non-targeted beneficial organisms and the environment. Here, we reviewed the sustain- able approaches to reduce the incidence of pod borer and achieve sustainability in chickpea production systems through the adoption of an integrated approach involving host plant resistance, good agronomic practices, and judicious use of chemical and biological methods.

^{Baby corn: Small ears of immature corn, generally harvested between 2 days before and 3 days after silking. Baby (dwarf) corn is sold fresh or canned and generally measures around 4-9 cm in length and 1-1.5 cm in diameter. It is popular in Oriental cuisine.
Bacilli: Generally refers to any rod-shaped bacterial cells. It may be used specifically to refer to a member of the genus Bacillus.
Bacillus cereus: A bacterium which grows on rice, usually found in temperate countries in spore form. The spore will germinate after cooking and lead to growth of the vegetative form which can cause food poisoning. There are 2 strains, one has an incubation period of 1 – 5 hours, duration of 6 – 24 hours and the symptoms are nausea and vomiting and occasionally diarrhoea; the other has an incubation period of 8 – 16 hours, duration of 12 – 24 hours and the symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhoea and occasionally nausea.
Bacillus licheniformis: Bacteria which can produce a toxin causing diarrhoea and vomiting. The incubation period is 4 – 8 hours.
Bacillus subtilis: Bacteria which can produce a toxin causing vomiting, abdominal pain  and diarrhoea. The incubation period is 2 – 18 hours.}

F2 toxin: Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and other Fusarium species. It may be formed when the fungus grows on damp cereal grain (e.g. wheat, barley and corn) used as animal feeds. It has oestrogenic activity and can cause hyperoestrogenism in swine, cattle and poultry. Also known as zearalenone and zearalenol.
Falling number: Indicator used to measure the activity of α-amylases in cereal flours. In wheat, a low falling number may signal reduced grain quality and poor breadmaking properties.
Farina: A fine flour or meal which is prepared from cereals, particularly wheat, or other plant foods with a high starch content. It can be used in the manufacture of foods such as pasta.
Farinographs: Instruments used to investigate the physical properties of dough.
Fast foods: Prepared foods obtained from restaurants and other catering establishments, where the aim is to provide a fast service and rapid customer turnover at reasonable prices. Examples of fast foods include burgers, pizzas, sandwiches and French fries.
Fast-freezing: The food is freeze very rapidly so as to prevent the formation of large ice crystals within the cell which would disrupt them and cause the contents to leak out on thawing, thus destroying the structure of the food.
Fat extenders: Food additives that allow the fat content of food to be reduced without affecting the texture.

Introduction
Mango (Mangiferaindica L) known as “the king of fruits” and “Apple of the Tropics” is most popular fruit in the tropics and sub-tropics. It moved from India to different countries and has gained popularity around the world. It has long been associated with the Indian culture and religious functions. Among different states, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh constitute 23.64 per cent and 22.99 per cent share in the total mango, respectively, in the country. In 2023, Mango production had a total export volume of 78.56 billion MT. India is the biggest mango producer with a total production volume of 25 million MT of mangoes during the year. The top 10 mango producers in 2023 include India (25 million MT), China (3.8 million MT), Indonesia (3.6 million MT), Pakistan (2.7 million MT), Mexico (2.4 million MT), Brazil (2.1 million tons), Malawi (1.7 million MT), Thailand (1.6 million MT), Bangladesh (1.5 million MT) and Vietnam (1.4 million MT). As regards world-wide mango exports, Mexico is the biggest mango exporter with total exports worth $576.36 million in 2023. It was noted that Mexico’s mango exports increased by 5.09% from the previous year. The top 10 mango exporting countries in 2023 include the following:

Introduction
Farm advisories have played a key role in transforming India’s agriculture, helping the country shift from a food deficit to a surplus nation. The Indian public agricultural extension system has been instrumental in this transformation through Green Revolution in the 1960s, but by the end of the 1970s, its role had started to decline. Critics argued that the system had become a monolithic organization without clear objectives (Babu et al., 2013). According to NSSO data, in 2004, public extension services in India, including the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, extension workers, field demonstrations and study tours, reached to less than ten percent of farmers. Instead, farmers relied mostly on other progressive farmers (17%) and input dealers (13%) for information, while mass media including radio, television and newspaper played a significant role reaching to more than thirty percent farmers (Mkhize and Zhou, 2012; Meena et al., 2022a). One of the major constraints in agricultural extension services (AES) in the country is the shortage of extension staff. According to a report, in 2012-13, a single extension functionary served 1,162 operationalholdings, whereas the recommended ratio was 1:400 in hilly areas, 1:750 in irrigated areas, and 1:1000 in rain-fed areas. Input dealers often provide manipulated information specific to the crops grown by farmers, affecting their decision-making process.