eChapters

ABSTRACT

Ethology, the biology of behaviour has been a fascinating area of biological investigations during past few decades. In recent past the information gathered by reputed ethologists on social behaviour of insects, fishes, birds and human beings are very helpful in the application of these principles for the welfare of the humanity as well as for the environmental sustainability. Ethology differs from the study of Animal Behavior, in that animal behaviorists generally are interested in learned behaviors while ethologists concentrate on innate behaviors.

Netting yarns for the fabrication of fishing gear are either of textile or non-textile origin. Textile materials compose of netting, twine and rope while non-textile origin materials constitute floats, sinkers, hooks etc. Raw material for fish netting consists of fibres which can be distinguished into two groups: natural fibres and man-made fibres. Different kinds of fibres originating from plant and animal body parts have been used for production of textiles and other products and are termed as natural fibres. Natural fibres such as cotton, manila, sisal, jute and coir were the materials exclusively used in earlier days for fishing gear fabrication.

Later, the invention of polymers resulted in synthetic fibres the use of which revolutionalized the fishing industry. In recent decades advances have taken place in fiber technology, along with the introduction of other modern materials. With the introduction of man-made synthetic fibers in India in the late 1950s, natural fibers used for the fishing gears have been substituted by these synthetic materials due to their high breaking strength, low maintenance cost, long service life and better uniformity in characteristics. Most important synthetic fibres used in fisheries are polyamide (PA), polyester (PES), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). Other synthetic fibres, which are less widely used and generally restricted to Japanese fisheries, are polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyvinylidene chloride (PVD). Earlier, netting used to be fabricated manually, which is laborious and time consuming while the introduction of synthetic fibres paved way for machine made nettings which are almost exclusively used in fishing net fabrication.

Recently people are moving towards newer trends in food diversification for value addition. The beneficial effects could be either maintenance, promotion or well being of health or reduction of the risk of a pathogenic process or a disease. Genetically modified (GM) crops / foods, algae, mushrooms and probiotics are among the important functional foods which apart from improving health also protect against infections and/or stimulate immune systems. The interactive research between physiology, microbiology, food technology and molecular biology may produce many healthful, diversified value based food products for human consumption. The concept of value addition in food is changing significantly. Earlier the emphasis was on survival through hunger satisfaction but today it is aiming towards food safety and food sciences at developing foods which promote good health and reduce the risk of major diseases. With these efforts, these products have come into the market and are identified as functional foods. These include foods containing phytochemicals, dietary fibre, structural lipids, bioactive peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Introduction

The improvement of the quality of foods can be made by fortification of foods nutrients quality and quantity in food. It can be a very cost effective public health intervention. As a result of the high consumption pattern of dairy products viz. yogurt, the fortification process will effectively diminish or prevent diseases associated with nutritional deficiencies (Gahruie et al., 2015). However, due to nutrients deficiencies in human population especially in certain stages of life, holding, importing, and consumption of fortified foods is increasing (Preedy et al., 2013). As a general rule, addition of one or more essential nutrients to a food and increasing their concentration in that particular food to levels higher than normal is known as fortification. This is intended at preventing and correcting shortages in one or more micronutrients in the society or specific population groups (Bonner et al., 1999). The major ways of food fortification are (1) commercial and industrial fortification for wheat flour, corn meal, cooking oils, (2) bio-fortification of crops to augment their nutritional value, which can include conventional as well as selective breeding, and genetic engineering and (3) house hold fortification like vitamin D drops. Fermentation has twofold outcome on glycemic index though there are conflicting results after consumption. The reduced glycemic index of fermented food has been featured to the production of short?chain organic acids during fermentation.

Introduction

For human beings, the three most important necessities for their survival are food, clothing and shelter. among all of these food is the top most priority. Food safety and Standards defines food into 8 categories (Nutraceutical, Heath Supplements/Dietary Supplements, Food for special medical Purpose, food for Special Dietary Use, Novel Food, and Functional food) in regulation, 2016. A growing trend of health products, concept of food as medicine, associated public interest and consumers demand leads to a progressive research interest in functional foods and nutraceuticals development. Abnormal lifestyle, food habits (consumption of junk food) and low physical activity creates an exponential growth in a number of chronic diseases; obesity, cardio-vascular syndromes, osteoporosis, arthritis and cancer (Das et al., 2012) among the developing and developed countries. While nutraceuticals and functional foods are becoming an alternative affordable system to reduce the risk of disease through prevention in spite of high tech therapies and costly medicines.

The current survey showed that worldwide revenue of functional foods is projected to increase from about 300 billion U.S. dollars in 2017 to over 440 billion dollars in 2022. Also according to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), health benefits achieved from functional food components may provide benefits far beyond than basic nutrition. Products like dietary supplements containing vitamins, functional foods such as sports drinks or products fortified with probiotic play a major role in the market rise (www.statista.com).Indian and Chinese traditional foods, recipes, spices and diversified ingredient market is well known around the world from centuries. Hence, a double-digit growth rate is also experienced in Asian nutraceutical and functional food market. Another reason for the growing trend in consuming functional foods is education and proper health awareness. Furthermore, people are more concern about the optimization of health-promoting capabilities in their diet using dietary supplement and fortified foods. While, food product based industries are marketing health supplements using scientific facts and the relationship between diet and health. Government, non-government organizations (NGOs) and web-based online information also play a key role in promoting and trending food based health products.

Preamble

Historically, food has been an integral part of human civilization and diet with varied food components has sustained human life on this planet over the centuries. Similarly, culturing of food with natural fermentation as means of preserving foods with extended shelf life for future use. In the background of sustaining food security, advances made in biotechnology and molecular biology has provided ample scientific platform to use the advances in increasing and expanding food production on a global magnitude, so as to meet the needs of an ever-growing world population.

The intestinal microbiota is a key component of both the metabolism and immunity of humans and animals. The desirable microbes do have a significant role to play in healthcare through control of digestive disorders and foodborne illnesses. The continued research in this area over the years has led to the identification of important molecules that regulate major functional attributes in the betterment of human health and wellness in the long run. The science and technique of genetic engineering through molecular biology approaches has enabled in enriching the beneficial molecules for the benefit of human life. The accuracy in targeting and designing of molecules will go a long way in developing genetically modified (GM) lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and GM probiotics to significantly rewrite the medical care with food-based approach in the form of targeted specific diets – “Dietomics”.

1. INTRODUCTION

When the fruits and vegetables are ready for the intended purpose, these have to be harvested. What is meant by harvesting and how the produce is harvested, what are the harvesting methods, how these are packaged in what type of packages have been discussed in this chapter.

2. HARVESTING

Harvesting of produce at proper maturity is of paramount importance for maintaining quality during storage and marketing. When the produce is harvested immature or over-mature, it will affect the quality and storage life adversely. After the proper maturity stage has reached, the produce needs to be harvested for various markets. While harvesting, it must however, be kept in mind that all horticultural produce (with the exception of some dry fruits/nuts) is very delicate and mishandling at harvesting may lead to mechanical injury, compression injury that is irretrievable. The injury on fruits/vegetables enhances ethylene production, moisture loss and serves as an entry point for a wide range of pathogens, hence causing quick loss in quality and storability of produce. The injury caused to the produce during harvesting not only spoils the commodity but also makes it unfit for long-term storage or long-distance transportation. Proper training to the labour engaged in harvesting on what to harvest, and how to harvest and the use of proper harvesting tools can reduce considerably the postharvest losses.

Introduction The increase in population has led to the demand for good quality food. Consumer food demand is a key factor in the development of many agricultural and food policy and high-quality food products with longer shelf lives is increasing all the time. Over recent years, Packaging has revolutionised the marketing and delivery of food goods, especially fishery products. The introduction of modern packaging technology and innovative packaging material processes paved the way for convenience products. In 2018, the value of fish and fish products exported was USD 164 billion because of improved chilling, packaging, and transportation technology has resulted in increased commerce in live, fresh, and chilled fish, which accounted for around 10% of global fish trade and 78% of the total amount shipped was for human consumption (Sofia 2020). When both fish and terrestrial meat exports for human consumption are considered, fish exports have been larger in value terms since 2016. (51% versus 49%). Furthermore, increased utilisation of fisheries and aquaculture products minimises loss and waste, which can assist reduce strain on fisheries resources and support sector sustainability.

25.1 INTRODUCTION

With the natures gift, consciously or unconsciously human select the best among the lot based on sensual judgment. Warnings about the dangers of the excessive use of the chemicals for the human health and biodiversity have been well reported over the years. The world health organization estimates the occurrence of some more than 25 million cases of excessive chemical use slow poisoning globally each year (Anon, 2010). In developing countries, sulphur and chlorine based formulations are often used for post-harvest treatments of horticultural produce. Recently, some bio-based and other safe post-harvest treatment materials have been formulated for loss reduction and shelf-life extension of fresh fruits. In this article, the recent and safe materials/agents for postharvest treatments are discussed.

25.2 MATERIALS FOR POST–HARVEST TREATMENTS

25.2.1 Polyamines

Polyamines (PAs) are low molecular weight small aliphatic amines that are ubiquitous in living organisms and have been implicated in a wide range of biological processes, including plant growth, development and response to stress (Smith, 1985). In plants, they have been implicated in a wide range of biological processes, including growth, development and abiotic stress responses. The most common polyamines are Putrescine (PUT), Spermidine (SPD) and Spermine (SPM) found in every plant cell in titers ranging from approximately micromolar to millimolar, together with the enzymes regulating their metabolism and depend greatly on environmental conditions, especially stress.

Introduction

Cereals and cereal products comprise a long history of consumption by humans. Cereals are the important source of nutrients and non nutritive health beneficial components and for that reason cereal based food products are consumed as staple food in human diet in developed as well as developing countries. The cereal grains mainly cultivated and consumed as food include rice, maize, wheat, sorghum rye, barley, oats, and millet. Products obtained from cereal grains are flours, grits, semolina, breakfast cereals, extruded product like pasta, puffs and flakes, and bakery products such as bread, biscuits, cakes and tortillas. Moreover, cereals or their components are used as ingredients in the preparation of various food products such as beverages infant foods coatings and processed meats. Initially cereals are consumed as whole or with minimal processing like boiling, grinding and roasting. However, processing like salting, drying, steeping and fermentation of cereals for preparation of cereals based beverages and foods has been practiced since the initiation of cereals consumption as food by human. Increasing consumer awareness and commercialization of cereal products have created interest of food manufacturers in utilization of novel and more efficient technologies with optimized conditions, development of convenient and more health beneficial foods with satisfactory sensory properties and wide variety of foods to ease the choice of consumers. Market full of diverse range of snack foods, breakfast cereals, ready to eat and ready to cook foods, and novel functional foods with variation in appearance, texture and flavor is an indication of evolution of food industry from basic to complicated form focused on efficient and automated operations. In ancient times, fermentation of food was done with the aim of enhancement of shelf life and palatability without clearly knowing the role of microorganisms. Modern fermentation technology uses various operations and specific strains of microorganisms for conversion of bulky and perishable materials into novel foods with more pleasing flavour, enhanced functional properties and extended shelf life. In addition to basic bread, new varieties of bread developed with improved functionality like sourdough bread, gluten free breads and high fibre breads is an example of innovation in cereal fermented foods indicating modification in ingredients, microbial culture and processing technologies as compare to traditional fermentation process. The word “extrudate” is derived from the Latin word “ex” meaning ‘out’ and “trudere” meaning ‘to thrust’. Extrusion technology is turning out to be very popular in food industry due to its versatility, usefulness and cost efficiency. It is well-organized state-of-art technology and plays important role in various food industrial processes such as cooking, mixing, conveying, shearing and shaping of end products. Extrusion cooking is high temperature short time (HTST) with high pressure process, is especially used for preparation of cereal based snacks, fat replacers, breakfast cereals, infant formula, gluten free foods, starch and protein rich cereals food products. A wider range of ready to eat food products with different texture, size and shape is produced by fast and easy extrusion cooking. In epidemiological studies it is stated that whole grain consumption is more health beneficial than refined grains and the reason behind it is that dietary fibre and phytochemicals located in germ and seed coat are generally removed during milling or polishing. Various technologies are developed by food scientists and technologists to preserves the bioactive compounds during processing and or to supplement processed food products with the bioactive compounds during food preparation to maintain the bioactivity and functionality of final products. Utilisation of whole grain flours, composite flours, supplementation of cereal foods with ingredients from fruits, vegetables, plant extracts and legumes, bio-fortification of crops, implementation of genetic engineering to produce crops rich in bioactive compounds are some technologies which are being used in modern food industry to develop value added cereal food products.

24.1 INTRODUCTION

Citrus fruits occupy third position after mango and banana in the country and ranks 6^th in the world citrus production. The productivity, however, is only about 40 percent of that in Spain, Brazil, USA or Japan (8.4 t/ha) only. Of the total production, mandarin contributes more than that of sweet orange in which major chunk of 57.72 per cent was shared by Maharashtra, followed by 19.81 per cent by Madhya Pradesh state. At present, the Brazil is the largest producer of citrus, followed by USA. There are number of issues which need to be addressed to make fruit quality comparable to the international standards. Post harvest losses of fruits are also enormous mainly due to unscientific method of harvesting, lack of utilization of post-harvest handling techniques due to which 25 - 30 per cent losses occur in developing countries in comparison to 5 - 10 per cent in developed countries. Synergistic effect of pre-harvest practices and post harvest handling is the key to get the fruit of high quality and enhanced shelf life.

Recent trends are emerging as use of less chemicals and Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) during cultivation. Maintenance of quality standards and regulations up to retail market level is of utmost importance. Whereas, in marketing sector, now-a-days participation of private players on large scale in retail marketing of produce is noticed.

Value chains have become the centre of considerable academic and practical interests. Part of the reason for the rapidly growing interest in value chains in the citrus sector has been the result of changes in global retailing. In a large number of countries, supermarkets chains now dominate food retailing. Supermarkets have increasingly integrated their operations involving many aspects of the post farm gate operations. Value chain management is one of these. Some identified issues relates to supply chain bottlenecks resulting in farmers experiencing gluts of commodities, processors not being able to procure sufficient raw materials for their plants, retailers not getting sufficient products to meet the demand of consumers, and exporters are unable to meet foreign consumer requirements. Lack of innovation that affects the entire chain, an example being the introduction of plastic crates for a fruit processor involves a vast number of actors in the chain to coordinate their efforts.

Introduction
Milk reception at the processing plant is a crucial stage in the dairy supply chain, as it serves as the first point of quality control and the gateway to further processing. The success of milk processing hinges on the careful handling, evaluation, and preparation of the raw milk upon arrival. The stringent protocols at reception ensure that only high-quality raw milk enters the system. By implementing advanced technology, strict hygienic standards, and efficient handling practices, processing plants can maintain milk’s safety and quality, setting the foundation for the production of superior quality dairy products. The intricate procedures at this stage safeguard consumers' trust and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.
Milk is transported to dairy plants either in cans or in road/rail tankers. The designated area within the dairy plant where milk is first received, inspected, and graded for acceptance is referred to as the milk reception dock, platform, or raw milk receiving dock (RMRD). This reception dock is specifically designed and equipped to ensure the efficient handling of milk, enabling its swift unloading while also accommodating the cleaning and sterilization of used containers.
Since the quality of milk is a critical factor for its subsequent processing, the decision to accept or reject milk must be made promptly upon its arrival, following a thorough evaluation. The milk reception process should be meticulously planned, and the equipment must be selected to ensure efficient intake operations, particularly in facilities handling large milk volumes. Any delay can result in deterioration of milk before unloading, increased labour requirements, and higher operating costs. To avoid such issues, milk deliveries should adhere to a strict schedule, and the reception process should be completed within a stipulated time frame of time. This ensures seamless continuity of the dairy plant operations.

1. Introduction

Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS) have garnered attention as a sustainable solution to address the environmental and economic challenges associated with traditional aquaculture practices. Recent studies, such as those conducted by Martins et al. (2023) and Chen et al. (2024), have underscored the efficiency and resource conservation benefits of RAS. This section introduces the overarching opportunities and challenges in RAS, laying the foundation for a detailed examination of the latest developments in the field, opportunity presented by RAS lie in its capacity for water conservation. Martins et al. (2023) highlight the continuous filtration and recirculation of water within the system, significantly reducing overall water usage. This not only addresses environmental concerns but also aligns with the broader goals of sustainable aquaculture and provides a unique advantage in biosecurity, as emphasized by Li et al. (2022). The ability to meticulously control water quality parameters minimizes the risk of diseases and contributes to a healthier and more resilient aquaculture system. This enhanced biosecurity is pivotal in mitigating the impact of disease outbreaks on aquaculture operations. Precision control over environmental factors within the RAS facilitates optimal growth conditions, resulting in higher production yields. Anderson and Smith (2023) delved into the advantages of this controlled environment, positioning the RAS as a key driver for meeting the growing global demand for sustainable seafood production.

Restriction enzymes cut only at specific sequences of 4 to 8 bases

A long restriction site is rare. Cutting rare sites will produce a few large pieces of DNA.

Restriction enzymes with long sites → small number of large fragments

Restriction enzymes with short sites → large number of small fragments

Recombinant DNA Technology

A transgenic organism contains foreign DNA.

Biotechnology is the industry dedicated to using altered cells or molecules for various applications.

Recombinant DNA technology (i.e. gene cloning) was the first of the modern biotechnologies.

Gene targeting uses precision techniques to “knockout” a gene or substitute a gene for one on a chromosome.

Bioethics questions, gene patenting, and potential uses and risks of biotechnology pose treat questions for society.

Introduction

In a historic landmark, Genentech, a young Californian Company pioneering in gene splicing (which includes recDNA technology, genetic engineering, gene transplantation, gene cloning), saw its stock price skyrocket form $35 to a staggering $89 within just 20 minutes of the New York Stock Exchange’s opening bell on October 15, 1980. This was marked as the fastest stock price growth ever witnessed on that exchange. The company’s success was attributed to the ground-breaking work it had been involved in producing human insulin through genetic engineering that offered a revolutionary alternative for diabetics allergic to the then traditional insulin of porcine origin. Genentech’s pioneering work in gene splicing has its roots in the early 1970s. In 1972, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were credited with creating the first recombinant DNA molecule. Their experiments demonstrated the ability to create recombinant DNA molecules that could be introduced into bacteria like E? coli, offering a foundation for future advancements in genetic engineering.

Introduction

The organism’s defence against infection is provided by the intricate network of organs, cells, and proteins that make up the immune system. In general, there are two types of immunological responses seen in vertebrates: the innate and adaptive immune systems. Innate immunity is the first line of defence against any foreign molecule or pathogenic invasion. Innate immunity can be classified into physical barriers, cellular and humoral factors. The physical barriers such as scales, skin, gill, gastrointestinal tract and mucus are used to prevent entry of pathogens into the body. Fish mucus contains different enzymes, complement proteins, antimicrobial peptides and IgM that are efficient in trapping and killing of pathogens (Magnadóttir B. 2006). Cellular components of an innate immune system include a variety of immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, opsonins, lymphokines, natural cytotoxic cells, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, eicosanoids and cytokines. They play different roles in innate immunity with their own specific pathways to prevent pathogens in the host body. Humoral factors include growth inhibitor proteins like transferrin, interferons, enzyme inhibitors, lysin, C-reactive proteins, lectins and lysozymes (Secombes and Belmonte, 2016; Roberts, 2012).

Sister Chromatid Exchange and Homologous Recombination

The staining of harlequin chromosomes can reveal recombination between sister chromatids

The holliday model describes a molecular mechanism for the recombination process

More recent models have refined the molecular steps of homologous recombination

Various proteins are necessary to facilitate homologous recombination

Gene conversion may result from DNA gap repair synthesis or DNA mismatch repair

Defination

Dislocation of carpometarcarpus and tarso metatauses along with upper fracture of MC and MT bone (Fig. 1 and Fig.2). It is considered as difficult fracture and may not be healed appropriately by the usual procedure of lower level fracture repair method. Due to constant movement of fracture ends its treatment should be similar to middle level fracture repair method.

Materials Required

Thick padded cloth

Adhesive gum (fevicol)

Netted bamboo splint

Thomas splint

Recommendations

Based on the empirical research, following recommendations can be made for this specific area of research:

(i) Land size based planning for business communication can help the growth and success of farm enterprise.

(ii) Rice based farming system, supported by irrigation is offering a unique opportunity for capacity building of the farmers of West Bengal.

(iii) Training, focusing on business communication, handling ICT tools and mobile telephony, can go a long way for making communication behavior more adaptive to present social ecology of agriculture and allied sectors of West Bengal.

(iv) Social capitals like, Schools, Panchayat, Credit organizations, Market linked institutions, are to be integrated for shaping up a new form of Entrepreneurial communication behavior.

Limitations: The most important limitations which have been observed in this research are as follows:

Recommendations
Based on the empirical research, following recommendations can be made for this specific area of research:
(i) Land size based planning for business communication can help the growth and success of farm enterprise.
(ii) Rice based farming system, supported by irrigation is offering a unique opportunity for capacity building of the farmers of West Bengal.
(iii) Training, focusing on business communication, handling ICT tools and mobile telephony, can go a long way for making communication behavior more adaptive to present social ecology of agriculture and allied sectors of West Bengal.
(iv) Social capitals like, Schools, Panchayat, Credit organizations, Market linked institutions, are to be integrated for shaping up a new form of Entrepreneurial communication behavior.

8.1 Invest in Climate Resilience • Scale Early-Warning Systems Expand satellite- and phone-based alert networks covering 50+ million smallholders, enabling tracking of weather alerts, pest outbreaks, and flood/drought risk. FAO-ADB reports show timely warnings can reduce crop damage by up to 40% gcca.org+1qassurance.com+1. • Deploy Climate-Resilient Seeds: Subsidize drought- and flood-tolerant rice and vegetable varieties across 20% of the Mekong Delta, Red River, Indo-Gangetic Plain, and Pacific atolls. Carbon finance (e.g., rice methane credits) provides payback via reduced yield loss and new revenue streams farmonaut.com+13fao.org+13fao.org+13. • Create Solar Cold Room Infrastructure via Green Bonds: Support issuance of at least USD 30 million in Vietnam and Indonesia to finance 500 solar- powered cold rooms. Use APEC-style “currency-indexed climate bonds” to minimize interest and currency

Recommended Duration for Slinging Large Animal

Aim: To know slinging duration for large animal.

Indication: Downer cow, sternal redumbency, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, limb or spinal injury, cases,related to parturition.

RECORD KEEPING

Objectives

• To carry out the routine activities of animal house
• Breeding of animals

Materials required- Different types of record

Proper record keeping is very important and it is also highly essential to carry out the animal house activity in a systematic manner. The records should be simple, complete and should preferably be computer compatible.

The records are kept and maintained in different forms. Unnecessary information should be avoided in these records. The records of breeding, experimental animal and morality of animals are highly essential. Other records are:

The information in respect of reproductive parameters and events are recorded in respect of following points.
    
1.    Date of semen collection, evaluation, preservation and semen distribution from different bulls 
    
2.    Fertility status of semen 
    
3.    Reproductive performance of females 
    
4.    Work of inseminators

INTRODUCTION
Efficient management of record-keeping, inventory, finance, and human resources is crucial to the success of any agro-processing business. Proper recordkeeping ensures accurate documentation of transactions, operations, and adherence to legal and regulatory standards, promoting transparency and accountability. Effective inventory management is vital for maintaining appropriate stock levels of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished products, which directly affect production efficiency, cost management, and product availability. In financial management, sound practices allow businesses to monitor cash flow, manage costs, evaluate profitability, and secure necessary capital for growth and day-to-day operations.
Moreover, human resource management plays a significant role in building a skilled, motivated workforce by ensuring proper staffing, providing employee training, and adhering to labor regulations. Collectively, these components are essential for the smooth functioning of an agro-processing business, contributing to enhanced operational efficiency, financial health, and sustained growth.
RECORD KEEPING FOR AGRO-PROCESSING
Record-keeping in agro-processing is a fundamental aspect of the food production and manufacturing sector. It ensures traceability, adherence to food safety regulations, operational efficiency, and transparency in converting raw materials into finished goods. Well-maintained records are crucial for managing quality control, inventory, and ensuring compliance with health and safety standards.
Key Areas and Types of Records Kept in Agro-Processing
Below are the key areas and types of records that should be kept in agroprocessing:

Dairy farmers hope to have better milking cows than those in their current herds. A solid foundation is necessary for every farming operation. Undoubtedly, the dairy farm documentation system is among the most important facets of farm management. Tracking each cow’s productivity within a herd and assisting breed development generally are the major objectives of a dairy farm tracking system. This information could be referred to as production data.

The process of recording an electrocardiogram involves preparation of sites, application of conduction gel, positioning and restraining the patient, attaching the electrodes and then actual recording. Errors in placement of electrodes and artifacts during electrocardiography may generate erroneous electrocardiogram.

Sites for Placement of Electrodes in Dogs and Cats

There are definite sites (Fig. 15 and Fig.16) for placement of electrodes both in dogs and cats .Improper placement of electrode may lead to erroneous electrocardiogram.

Isolated tissue preparations are widely used in physiological or pharmaco logical research to delineate the mechanism of action of drugs or any active biomolecules. Traditionally it is used as a tool for bioassay of drugs. The tissue used for such pharmacodynamics studies may be isolated from different animal models viz. frog, rodents, rabbits, sheep, goat, buffalo, chicken etc. Evaluation of drug-receptor interaction and underlying mechanism of action is then performed using isolated organ bath or myograph where the isolated tissues are mounted under optimum resting tension and changes in the tension following exposure of drug is recorded with the help of recording device. With the advancement of science and technology, the recording devices are also gradually upgraded from smoked drum to student’s physiograph to the most advanced Data Acquisition System (DAS) based polyphysiograph.

The isolated tissue preparations (uterine strips, arterial rings, tracheal chains etc.) need essential and appropriate nutrients and environment during experimental which is generally provided by using suitable salt solutions (Physiological Salt Solutions) which provide ionic balance, energy supply, maintain pH and tissue tonicity. The composition of physiological salt solutions is such that it provides an artificial media simulating with the inorganic composition of blood plasma together with a buffer mechanism to maintain an optimum pH of 7.0 to 7.4 and glucose to facilitate tissue metabolism. Commonly used PSS are Frog ringers, tyrode, Kreb’s, de Jalon, Ringer-Locke, modified Kreb’s Henseleit solution etc.

In the world of media production, recording techniques are the foundation upon which all post-production processes are built. Whether you’re capturing video for a film, podcast, or YouTube video, understanding how video and audio are recorded and edited is crucial for achieving a polished and professional final product. In this chapter, we will explore the two main types of editing processes—linear and non-linear—and how they apply to both video and audio recording. By the end of this chapter, you’ll have a thorough understanding of these editing methods and how to apply them effectively in your projects.
1. The Basics of Recording Techniques
Recording techniques refer to how video and audio are captured, whether it be on film, digital media, or any other format. For simplicity, we will focus on modern digital media formats like DSLR cameras, digital recorders, and software applications.
Video Recording Techniques
Video recording involves capturing moving images via cameras that use sensors or film stock to record visual data. Modern digital video cameras typically offer a wide range of settings that allow creators to manipulate exposure, frame rate, resolution, and depth of field. The main aspects of video recording include:
• Frame Rate: Frame rate is the number of individual frames that make up one second of video. Common frame rates are 24 fps (frames per second) for cinematic look, 30 fps for general video, and 60 fps for highmotion content like sports.
• Resolution: Video resolution refers to the number of pixels in each frame. The most common resolutions are 1080p (Full HD), 4K (Ultra HD), and increasingly, 8K.
• Exposure & Lighting: Proper exposure (how much light hits the camera sensor) and lighting are critical for achieving the desired look. Too much exposure leads to overexposure, while too little leads to underexposure.

Introduction
Video and audio editing encompass two primary modes: online and offline editing, each critical for producing high-quality, synchronized media content. Online editing refers to real-time editing with high-resolution files, typically as a final step in the post-production workflow. Offline editing involves working with lower-resolution copies or proxies of footage for easier manipulation and organization, saving time and computational resources. Both techniques hold unique advantages and can be integrated depending on project requirements, available resources, and editing goals.
Section 1: Understanding Offline Editing
1.1 Overview of Offline Editing
Offline editing is the preliminary editing stage where editors work with lower-resolution copies of the original footage to perform initial edits. This approach optimizes efficiency, as low-resolution files consume less storage and processing power. Common in projects with extensive footage, such as feature films, documentaries, and complex multimedia presentations, offline editing allows editors to focus on the structure, sequencing, and timing of content without concerns over resource demands.

After planning research problem, the next step is to start real research work. Indeed, it is said that planning of a research work is only 20% of work done while conducting the experiments is 80% to be done and is more laborious, requiring extended time and patience of the scientist. While conducting your research work,it is essential to record each and every observation of your work. These observations will be of two types. One is the subjective observations which are difficult to quantify. For example, if you are recording clinical parameters of a disease,you may record pulse, temperature, respiration in arithmetic form but clinical symptoms are subjective and require a description of the patient rather than filling tabular sheet. In describing morphology of a parasite both parameters are needed ; you will describe morphology of the parasite and will also mention measurements of different parts of the parasite. Likewise, you may like to describe weather conditions or behavior of animals, vectors at certain stage of disease while you have to mention figures in many cases. Thus your observations are clearly divided in two categories – one is subjective observation and other is recording arithmetic values.

RECRUITMENT 
Recruitment is the process of identifying the prospective employees, stimulating and encouraging them to apply for a particular job or jobs in an organization. It is a positive action as it involves inviting people to apply. The purpose is to have an inventory of eligible persons from amongst whom proper selection of the most suitable person can be made.

The Process of Recruitment
Before thinking of inviting people to apply for a job one has to decide what types of persons are to be invited and what their characteristics should be. This calls for fixing the ‘job specifications’ which may also be called ‘man specifications’. Job specifications are based on job description which is dependent upon the nature and requirements of a job. 

Thus, job specification will be different for each job. The various elements of job specification are:

Introduction

In every industry main running factors are as Manpower, machine, material and money.

Money is main big factor for capital expenses as well as operating expenses. Beside this other driving force are man power who installed and run the any industry based on their skill level.

Every organization has their own organization structure to manage industrial operation based on product variant like market milk, curd, paneer, buttermilk, butter & ghee, ice cream etc. Basic dairy plant organization structure is shown in below table and HR department mainly keep in mind to recruit them based on functional requirement, educational qualification, professional experience etc.

Based on above manpower requirement and product variants, processing cost to be worked out.

Recruitment of Manpower

Manpower is major key component of any industry/organization to run efficiently. The dairy industry, being one of the most vital sectors of the global agricultural economy, relies heavily on a skilled and efficient workforce to sustain its operations. Manpower’s involvement starts from milk production at farm level to processing and marketing of value-added dairy products, every stage to ensure quality, productivity and compliance with industry standards. Recruitment and training of manpower, therefore, play a primary role in addressing the challenges of modern dairy operation, including technological advancements, quality assurance, and sustainability.

The concept of recurrent selection grew out of need to increase the number of superior genotypes that could be obtained from breeding stock of corn. This could have been possible by increasing the frequency of superior genes in the gene pool and by increasing the chances for genetic recombination to occur. Both can be achieved by recurrent selection which is defined as “a method of breeding designed to concentrate favourable genes scattered among a number of individuals by selecting in each generation among the progeny produced by mating inter se of the selected individuals (or their selfed progeny) of the previous generation.” The original idea behind recurrent selection was proposed first by Hayes and Gerber in 1919 and independently by East and Jones in 1920. Jenkins (1940) was the first to describe the method in detail and Hull (1945) proposed the name ‘recurrent selection’. Each cycle of recurrent selection requires (i) evaluation and selfing of selections and (ii) crossing of the progenies of superior selfed plants in all combinations and bulking of equal amount of seed from each cross. The selection of plants before selfing is possible for maturity, plant height, ear/head characters, kernel characteristics and resistance to diseases and insects. In general, these are the characters which have high heritability. It is clear that the selection of plants before selfing is more for morphological traits and these evaluations do not include yield. Yield evaluations are done on the top cross progenies (crossing of selected plants to a tester). Such top crosses will be grown in the second year of the cycle during which time the selfed seed is held over until the evaluations for yield are over. Or the selfed seed may be grown out as S₁ lines which in turn are selfed. After yield evaluation is over, the selfed seed of superior plants is grown out for crossing. Progenies of selfed plants are crossed in all possible combinations. This is done manually or by growing progenies together in an isolated block. In isolation planting, random mating should be ensured. After manual crossing or random mating in isolation, equal amounts of seed of each are bulked and this bulk seed is used to start the second cycle of selection, selfing and crossing.

Recurrent selection is a method of breeding applicable to cross-pollinated crops, designed to concentrate favourable genes scattered among a number of individuals by selecting in each generation among the progeny produced by mating inter se of the selected individuals (or their selfed progeny) of the previous generation. The concept of recurrent selection grew out of need to increase the number of superior genotypes that could be obtained from breeding stock of corn. This could have been possible by increasing the frequency of superior genes in the gene pool and by increasing the chances for genetic recombination to occur. The original idea behind recurrent selection was proposed first by Hayes and Gerber in 1919 and independently by East and Jones in 1920. Jenkins (1940) was the first to describe the method in detail and Hull (1945) proposed the name ‘recurrent selection’. Each cycle of recurrent selection requires:

1.1. FYM compost

Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle.

Farmyard manure contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P₂O₅ and 0.5% K₂O.

Urine contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35% potassium.

10 to 20 t/ha is applied, but more than 20 t/ha is applied to fodder grasses and vegetables like potato, tomato, sweet potato, carrot, radish, onion etc., respond well to the farmyard manure.

Crops like sugarcane, rice, oranges, banana, mango and coconut respond good to FYM.

The term animal waste comprises, the fresh excrement, including both solid and liquid excreta and urine. * It also includes the bedding material, animal washings, feed waste and straw which are having considerable manorial value. * The characteristics of the livestock wastes depend on fractions of the digestibility, composition of feed ration and species of animals and their physiology. * The waste ruminants have different composition than obtained from swine and poultry, which is having high nutritive value.
For fodder production, the animal waste can be utilized in many ways, that is, as pesticide and that is, as non – conventional source of source energy as pesticides bio – fertilizer to improve soil fertility for sustainable agriculture. This livestock waste can be recycled in following ways: Organic mulch, As pesticides, In organic farming, Biogas production, Composting, Vermicomposting, Profitable manure management by livestock fish integration.

Crop residues are valuable natural resources that may be managed to maximize various input use efficiencies. These are a great source of organic materials for improving the soil structure, water holding capacity, the soil's ability to withstand pH variations, increasing the cation exchange capacity, reducing the phosphate fixation, as a storehouse for micronutrients and secondary nutrients especially in organic farming. Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil fauna and microbes, which are the main agents controlling the decomposition and release of mineral nutrients in organic soil ecosystems. Crop leftovers are frequently burned by farmers, especially after harvest, which depletes the soil's nutrient content and microbial population and produces greenhouse gases. Each year, a sizable amount of crop residue is produced and if used efficiently, they may provide partial or full amount of the nutrient budget required under organic farming for the production of annual or perennial crops besides achieving resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

1. Introduction

Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts like straws, stubble, stover etc., that remain in the field after harvesting the economic product. Crop remains from threshing sheds such as groundnut shells, oil cakes, rice husks, corn and sorghum cobs or discarded during crop processing can also be utilized in organic farming. India produces 108.75 MT of wheat, 121.46 MT of rice seed, 30.24 MT of maize seeds, 49.66 MT of millets seeds (jowar, bajra, ragi, and small seed millets), 392.8 MT of sugarcane, 46.11 million bales of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 25.58 MT of pulses and 36.57 MT of oilseed (Agricultural statistics at a glance, 2021).

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

16.1 Conservative Technology

Recycling technology being practiced by ancient times by the people who used for municipal industrial effluent. In India the people in rural area, they collected cow dung in a pit. They applied a layer of soil on the cow dung to composting. After three to four months period, they used as manure for the agricultural fields. In a household waste, they collected as organic waste from a kitchen, store a pit allow it for decompose for conversion of compost. People who are residing in house constructed in a plot, they used to generate industrial effluent in a pit and cultivate a kitchen garden like vegetable crops and banana trees etc. in ancient times, the amount organic waste is limited and self purification is taken in small amount of organic waste therefore no organic pollution occurs in rural India.

According to Planning Commission Report (2014), India generates about 62 million tons of municipal solid wastes (MSW) every year from urban cities. There has been a significant increase in municipal solid waste generation in India in the last few decades. This is largely due to rapid population growth and economic development in the country (Annepu, 2012). Solid waste management (SWM) has become a major environmental issue because of serious environmental implications like global warming (through green house gases emission) and contamination of toxic pollutants (like heavy metals) in surface and groundwater bodies. Solid waste management is one of the essential services to be provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep urban areas clean. Out of total waste generated in India, only 12.45% waste is scientifically processed and rest is disposed in open dumps (CPCB Report, 2013). Although, incineration of solid wastes is being followed in many places for energy production, composting is considered most environment friendly method of SWM as it promotes recycling of nutrients in crop production.

Introduction

The process of recycling involves the conversion of waste materials into reusable products or materials and aims to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, minimize energy use, and mitigate trash creation. The primary objective of recycling is to effectively preserve finite resources, safeguard the natural environment, and mitigate the volume of garbage deposited in landfills or subjected to incineration (Lienig et al., 2017). Recycling refers to the systematic transformation of discarded materials into fresh resources and tangible products. The aforementioned term often encompasses the process of extracting energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material is contingent upon its capacity to regain the characteristics it has in its initial form. There exists an alternative approach to garbage disposal that has the potential to save resources and mitigate the release of greenhouse gases. Additionally, it can mitigate the waste of potentially valuable resources and diminish the use of pristine raw materials, therefore reducing energy consumption, air pollution resulting from incineration, and water pollution stemming from landfill practices. The promotion of environmental sustainability is achieved by the removal of raw material input and the redirection of waste output within the economic system. The increasing volumes of trash have given rise to several environmental challenges, including air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and biodiversity loss. The emission of diverse greenhouse gases from solid waste landfills also contributes to the phenomenon of global warming. At now, the predominant techniques for solid waste disposal are open dumping and landfilling. Various alternative techniques, such as pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion, composting, and bio-methylation, are used to extract valuable resources from solid waste materials (Griffin et al., 2018).

Educational content development traditionally requires substantial time and effort from teachers, instructional designers, and academic institutions. Generative AI is changing this process by enabling the rapid creation, adaptation, personalization, and transformation of learning materials. This chapter examines how GenAI can redesign educational content generation across different subjects, educational levels, and learner requirements. It explores automated lesson-plan generation, question-bank development, personalized learning materials, visual and interactive resources, simulations, and multimodal educational content. AI systems can generate explanations at different levels of complexity, create assessments aligned with learning outcomes, and adapt instructional materials to student performance. Such capabilities can support differentiated instruction, self-paced learning, and improved learner engagement while reducing repetitive preparation work for educators. The chapter also examines important challenges, including content accuracy, algorithmic bias, copyright, data privacy, academic integrity, and teacher readiness. Future possibilities include adaptive tutors, multimodal content generation, AI-supported curriculum design, and intelligent learning resources. Overall, the chapter emphasizes that GenAI should augment professional educational judgment rather than replace it.

I. FILL UPS

1. Redgram is commonly is known as _____.
2. _____ is the second most important pulse crop after chick pea.
3. Redgram, being a _____ capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
4. Pigeon pea contains_____% protein.
5. Isolation distance of redgram must be_____.
6. The spacing adopted for short duration red gram is _____.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Citrus as a perennial crop occupies globally a place of prime importance amongst major fruit crops including India. The cultivation of citrus in India is dominated by three major cultivars viz., mandarin, sweet orange, limes and lemons occupying collectively an area of 9.23 lakh ha with a production of 86.08 lakh tonnes and productivity of 9.3 tonnes/ha. Nagpur mandarin in India is grown in 0.97 lakh ha area with total production of 8.81 lakh tonnes and productivity of 9.l tonnes/ha, respectively. The productivity of mandarins within the country is highly variable in space and time, the major constraint is inadequate and unbalanced fertilizer use. The commercial cultivation of Nagpur mandarin is extensively confined along the Satpuda foothills of central India comprising Chindwara region of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The nutrient demand is highly variable in space (due to heterogenous soils) and time (due to varying weather conditions). Therefore, determination of crop nutrient requirement is a subject of great complexity. Experiments have shown that soils initially rich in fertility developed a variety of nutrient constraints following the non-synchronisation in demand and supply of nutrients with the orchard age (Srivastava et al., 1998). For example when exchangeable K is not rapidly replenished, crops start drawing on the non-exchangeable K, resulting in soil mining and depletion in soil K reserve. A nutrient level sufficient for one particular productivity level may not hold sufficient for other higher productivity levels. An extensive survey of 18,000 ha area of Nagpur mandarin orchards of central India showed large scale deficiency of three nutrients viz., N, P and Zn, with most of the sites expressing multiple nutrient deficiencies (Srivastava and Singh 2002; 2005). Reduced longevity of commercial citrus orchards due to varying nutritional constraints is one of the major production related constraints highly responsible for poor orchard efficiency (Srivastava and Singh, 2008a; 2008b).

Pets provide companionship, emotional support, and numerous health benefits to their owners. However, they can also be carriers of zoonotic diseases— diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Understanding these risks and implementing measures to reduce them is crucial for maintaining the health and safety of both pets and humans. This article explores common pet-associated zoonotic infections and offers strategies to minimize the risk of transmission.

Common Pet-Associated Zoonotic Infections

1. Rabies

• Cause: Rabies is caused by the rabies virus and is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal.

• Symptoms in Humans: Initial symptoms include fever and headache, progressing to neurological symptoms such as confusion, hallucinations, and paralysis. Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

• Prevention: Vaccination of pets, avoiding contact with wild animals, and immediate medical attention after potential exposure.