eChapters

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 365).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 366).

Jam pack: The packing of the commodity tightly or in excess is called Jam pack.

Jamaica rum: Heavy bodied rum made by slow fermentation and marked by a pungent bouquet.

Jamboline: A type of glucose found in the jamun fruit help in cure of the diabetes in the patients.

Jelly: A product prepared by boiling clear extract of fruits with sugar. It should be transparent, well set, and tender enough to quiver but not flower and when cut; it should retain its shape and show a clean cut surface (Plate 367).

K ration: It is a lightweight packaged ration of emergency foods developed for the U.S. armed forces in World War II (Plate 371).

Kaiser rolls: A round crusty roll often used for sandwiches (Plate 372).

Kalamata /calamata: It is brine cured black olive grown in Greece.

Kamucha: Tea cider or fermented tea beverages is known as kamucha. The fermentation process take place by the presence of yeast and bacteria

Kanji: Clean, black coloured, crisp and sound product of characteristic flavor prepared by full fermentation (chiefly lactic acid fermentation) of black carrot with 2.5% salt, 1% powder mustard and some amount of water. It is fermented to make ready to serve drink which is known as Kanji. Each kilogram of the grated carrots yields just 7-8 litres of kanji.

Karl Fischer Titration: Karl Fischer Titration is used for estimation of moisture content of foods (low moisture products).

Kasseri cheese: The simple unpasteurized sheep’s milk cheese (sometimes mixed with goat’s milk) is called kasseri. It is popular in Greece. It is made in the shape of wheel, fairly firm and pale yellow (Plate 373). The word kasseri comes from the Turkish kasar which means that it has ability to hold its shape when heated.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package (Plate 384).

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate aerobes: These microbes grow only in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Offal: It is the viscera and trimmings of a butchered animal removed in dressing of meat. It is by-product of slaughtering process.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Q10 value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10oC change in temperature is called Q10 value. If reaction rate doubles with 10oC change in temperature, Q10 = 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO2 : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Introduction

Agriculture forms the bedrock of the Indian economy, employing over half of the country's workforce and contributing significantly to its GDP. Despite the rise of other sectors, agriculture remains vital for ensuring national food security and the livelihood of millions of farmers. However, Indian farmers face several challenges, including volatile market prices, unpredictable weather patterns and high input costs (Chintapalli and Tang, 2021). In this context, the MSP scheme emerges as a crucial government intervention aimed at safeguarding farmers’ incomes and promoting agricultural stability. According to the latest data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, the agricultural sector contributes around 15-18% to India's GDP. While this share has decreased somewhat with the expansion of other sectors, agriculture still sustains the livelihoods of over 54% of the workforce, primarily concentrated in rural areas. Furthermore, India ranks as a leading producer of various agricultural commodities, including pulses, cotton, milk, and rice. This highlights the sector's critical role in ensuring domestic food supplies and contributing to global food security (Mahto and Patil, 2023).

Despite its significance, Indian agriculture faces several challenges. One of the most significant concerns is price volatility. Agricultural produce is often subject to fluctuations in market prices, leaving farmers vulnerable to distress sales during periods of surplus production. Additionally, unpredictable weather patterns due to climate change can significantly impact crop yields, leading to income losses for farmers. Furthermore, the rising costs of essential inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and seeds put a strain on farmers' profit margins (Aditya et al?, 2017). These factors combined create a situation of uncertainty and economic hardship for a vast section of the rural population. The MSP scheme was introduced by the Government of India in the 1960s as a critical policy intervention to address the challenges faced by farmers. MSP acts as a f loor price for certain agricultural commodities, below which the government guarantees to procure produce from farmers at pre-determined prices.

Introduction

Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have bartered and traded goods and services. Financial markets represent a sophisticated evolution of this basic need to exchange value. Today, they act as the invisible backbone of economies, playing a critical role in channelling resources, facilitating growth, and enabling price discovery. Financial markets fulfil three key functions that keep economies humming. Firstly, they facilitate capital allocation. Imagine a farmer with surplus earnings (savings) from a bountiful harvest (Schar, 2021). In the absence of financial markets, these savings may sit idle. But financial markets connect this farmer with businesses seeking investment capital to expand operations or develop new technologies. According to a 2023 World Bank report, global gross savings reached a staggering $36 trillion, highlighting the immense pool of resources financial markets can tap. This allocation function goes a step further by matching risk tolerance with investment opportunities. A conservative investor seeking stability might favour government bonds, while a risk-tolerant entrepreneur may invest in a promising startup. Financial markets offer instruments to cater to diverse risk appetites, ensuring a healthy balance between stability and growth (Umar et al?, 2022).

Financial markets don’t just connect savers and investors; they also mobilize capital for economic growth. Businesses seeking to expand can raise funds through stock offerings, allowing them to build new factories, hire additional staff and develop innovative products. A 2022 study by the International Finance Corporation found that small and medium-sized businesses in emerging markets face a financing gap of over $5 trillion. Financial markets play a vital role in bridging this gap, fostering business expansion, and driving long-term economic prosperity. Furthermore, financial markets enable governments to finance critical infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, and public transportation. By issuing bonds, governments can raise vast sums of capital to invest in projects that benefit society (Pagano, 1993).

Introduction

The most important function in the socioeconomic domain of India is played by agriculture, which is the foundation of the nation's economy. India's agriculture industry is vast, varied, and involves a lot of different players. With the use of Green Revolution technologies, it has become one of the most amazing success stories of the post-independence era. The Green Revolution enhanced rural welfare and allowed for food self-sufficiency, both of which boosted the Indian economy. In the framework of the Green Revolution, the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) played a crucial role. India boasts one of the world's biggest and most intricate agricultural research programs in terms of structure. The Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 on the advice of a Royal Commission on Agriculture, marking the culmination of a process that began in the 19th century and led to the creation of the current Indian agricultural research system [1].

The functioning of the agricultural sector, market dynamics, and policy consequences are all influenced by a complex web of interrelated components that make up agricultural economics dynamics. These dynamics shape the production, supply, demand, and competitiveness of agricultural products and involve the interactions between farmers, markets, technology, and government regulations [2],[5].

Introduction

In recent decades, economic reforms centred around liberalization, privatization, and globalization have emerged as fundamental drivers of economic transformation on a global scale. These reforms represent a departure from traditional state-centric economic models, emphasizing market-oriented approaches and greater integration into the global economy. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the interconnectedness and impact of these reforms on economies worldwide, highlighting their significance in shaping the contemporary economic landscape.

Historical Background

During the 1980s, India found itself facing an economic crisis characterized by a gradual decline in its economy. By the decade's end in 1990, the country was plunged into a severe Balance of Payments (BOP) crisis. This crisis was caused by a mounting fiscal deficit and escalating overvaluation of the currency. Compounding matters, the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq occurred in the same year, triggering a significant spike in oil prices and a corresponding drop in remittances from Indian expatriate workers. The resultant increase in the cost of purchasing oil and the rapid decrease in net factor income from abroad exacerbated India's economic woes.

Introduction

Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy 54.6 per cent of the total workforce was engaged in agricultural and allied sector activities (Census 2011). Agriculture sector is estimated to grow 3.9 per cent in 2021-22 on top of 3.6 per cent and 4.3 per cent, respectively in the previous two years. Agriculture sector accounts for 18.8 per cent of GVA in 2021-22 (Economic Survey 2021-22). The agricultural industry has experienced numerous issues, such as a shortage of food, because of the high cost of production and low yield per hectare. In certain situations, it has also grown more difficult to provide for their fundamental requirements, such as clothes and shelter. By boosting their income and purchasing power through agricultural inputs like fertilizers, insecticides, agricultural equipment, etc., agricultural marketers in India play a crucial role in the rural areas. The India is world's biggest producer of agricultural goods. Food grain output grew significantly during the 1960s and 1970s, with wheat and rice production rising. Compared to farmers in Western nations, farmers in countries like India, China, and Japan are more prone to growing cash crops.

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) system is a critical component of agricultural policy in many countries, aimed at ensuring farmers receive a fair and stable income for their produce. However, the relationship between MSP and market forces is complex, as MSP policies can impact agricultural markets, farmer livelihoods, government budgets, and food security. This chapter explores the interplay between MSP and market forces, examining the challenges, benefits, and implications of MSP policies in the context of agricultural markets.

Introduction

Financial markets play a critical role in the health and stability of a nation's economy. They act as a complex network where individuals, businesses and governments can exchange financial instruments, facilitating the flow of capital and fostering economic growth. According to the World Bank, the global stock market capitalization reached a staggering $93 trillion USD in 2022, highlighting the vast pool of resources circulating within these systems. At the heart of financial markets lies the ability to connect those who possess capital with those who require it (Karpova et al?, 2020). Companies seeking to expand their operations can raise funds by issuing stocks or bonds, essentially selling a piece of ownership or a promise to repay a loan with interest. Investors, on the other hand, can utilize these markets to put their money to work, seeking returns on their investments through dividends, interest payments, or capital appreciation. This efficient allocation of resources fuels economic growth by enabling businesses to invest, innovate and create jobs.

Introduction

The field of public finance is a critical aspect of economic governance that delves into how governments manage their revenue, expenditures, and debt to fulfill societal needs and ensure economic stability. Public finance encompasses the financial activities of governments at various levels, including national, state, and local, focusing on the income and expenditure of public authorities and the underlying principles guiding these financial transactions.

Significance of Public Finance

• Role in Society: Public finance is a branch of public policy and economics concerned with how governments raise funds, allocate resources, and address economic and social needs.

• Government Functions: Governments provide public goods and services like infrastructure, defense, education, and social welfare programs that are essential for societal well-being.

• Market Correction: Public finance enables governments to address market failures by providing public goods that individuals or businesses would not produce efficiently on their own.

• Income Redistribution: Through programs like social security and welfare, public finance helps moderate income disparities by supporting those in need.

Introduction

The backbone of economic growth are financial systems, which act as the channels for managing risks, facilitating investments, and allocating resources within an economy. Financial systems, which consist of a wide range of organizations, markets, and tools, are essential for coordinating the movement of capital between surplus (savers) and deficit (borrowers) units. They basically provide risk management, resource allocation, payment facilitation, and intermediation, among other crucial responsibilities. This complex network of interconnected roles makes sure that money is effectively allocated to its most profitable uses and offers safeguards against risk and smooth transactions. It supports sustainable growth and development by acting as the lifeblood of the economy.

A wide range of elements, such as macroeconomic conditions, regulatory frameworks, and technological breakthroughs, influence the evolution and dynamics of financial systems. Financial systems have changed significantly over time because of new difficulties and shifting environments. Resilience, creativity, and adaptation have been characteristics of the growth of finance, from the rise of modern banking institutions to the introduction of modern f inancial technology solutions. It is essential to solving urgent global issues including climate change, inequality, and sustainable development in addition to fostering economic growth and societal improvement. Financial institutions and stakeholders are using their resources to leverage sustainable finance practices, impact investment, and green finance efforts to create positive social and environmental consequences. It can be a strong tool for bringing about positive change and creating a more sustainable and equitable future.

Introduction

The international monetary system refers to the operating system of the f inancial environment, which consists of financial institutions, multinational corporations, and investors. It encompasses a set of regulations and norms designed to facilitate global trade and facilitate the movement of capital and investment between nations. It involves a network of government and f inancial institutions that establish exchange rates for different currencies. The evolution of this system is remarkable, considering its origins centuries ago when currency relied on gold coins and people engaged in bartering goods for trade. It's incredible how far the financial system has come from the days centuries ago, when the only form of money was gold coins, and transactions required bartering of goods or products for cash. The international monetary system provides financial support to nations in order to help them overcome debt and poverty. Inflation is a phenomenon that occurs when there is an excess of supply relative to demand.

Evolution of the International Monetary System

Prior to 1870, there was a bimetallic international monetary system, in which coins made of both gold and silver could be used as means of exchange. Each currency's gold or silver content governed the exchange rates between them. There were certain nations that used the gold or silver standard.

Introduction

Monetary policies are the policies used to regulate the money supply, cost, and availability of credit in the economy. Monetary policy is considered as an important tool of controlling inflation in the economy.

Central banks use monetary policy to guide the economy. They set interest rates, control the amount of money in circulation, and take other actions to affect inflation, encourage economic growth, and ensure financial stability. The ability of monetary policy to influence the economy is not absolute. It is affected by several variables, such as how adaptable the economy can expand or contract (supply and demand) and the link between monetary policy and economic development. It plays a significant role in shaping the effectiveness of monetary policy. For example, when people have more pessimistic expectations of inflation, they tend to hold less money and monetize more debt. Economic growth tends to be positively correlated with certain financial factors. For instance, higher inflation, an increased money supply, and lower interest rates are often associated with stronger economic growth. Plus, people's expectations regarding future inflation can also impact economic growth. A reduction in available money can weaken the impact of monetary policy. To accurately assess the effectiveness of monetary policy, it's important to consider. Flexibility and limitations in economic supply and demand. The relationship between monetary policy and economic growth. Expectations of inflation It's also essential to account for potential drawbacks and unexpected effects of monetary policy. Additionally, monetary policy should consider the interaction between monetary and fiscal policies. In formulating domestic monetary policy, the global economic landscape holds significant sway. Factors such as the global economy, currency exchange rates, and international trade can profoundly influence a country's monetary policy framework. Moreover, in today's interconnected financial system, central banks must be cognizant of the broader implications their monetary actions may have on other economies, highlighting the need for a global perspective in monetary policy decision making.

Introduction

The world of finance revolves around the management, generation, and analysis of money and investment opportunities. Financial professionals orchestrate a complex dance involving credit, borrowing, and various investment instruments like securities and stocks. This intricate choreography aims to fund present endeavours using a strategic allocation of anticipated future income. Since finance deals with the flow of money across time, grasping the time value of money is essential. Understanding interest rates and how they impact investments becomes paramount for making sound financial decisions that consider both present needs and future goals. This intricate web of concepts is what finance professionals navigate to ensure the optimal use of financial resources. Finance can be broadly divided into three types:

1. Public finance

2. Corporate finance

3. Personal finance

1. Public Finance: The government steps in to prevent the economy from going off track by managing how resources are distributed, income is shared fairly, and the economy remains stable. Taxes are the main way the government gets the money to fund these programs.

Introduction

The economic cycle, also known as the business cycle, refers to the fluctuating state of an economy characterized by periods of economic expansion and contraction. It involves the cyclical pattern of growth and decline in economic activity, impacting various indicators like gross domestic product (GDP), employment rates, interest rates, and consumer spending2. The economic cycle is a fundamental concept in economics that helps determine the overall state of an economy as it moves through four distinct stages: expansion, peak, contraction, and trough. Understanding the economic cycle is crucial for investors, businesses, and policymakers as it influences investment decisions, business strategies, and economic policies based on the prevailing stage of the cycle.

1. Expansion

The upswing of the business cycle towards a peak is called an economic expansion. An economic expansion is associated with: Firstly, an increase in production and output is a prominent feature of economic expansion. This uptick in production signifies growing economic activity, as businesses ramp up their operations to meet rising demand.

Introduction

Over the course of past decades India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world with a robust growth and transformations in its economy. In this journey subsidies played a crucial role in influencing market behaviour, support industries, address market failures, and achieve social and economic objectives of the country. Now what actually the economic subsidies are.

Subsidies are financial incentives provided by governments to individuals, businesses, or industries in the form of cash, grants, or tax breaks to influence economic behaviour and outcomes. They aim to correct market failures, promote specific industries, encourage production, and address economic challenges. Subsidies can be direct (cash payments) or indirect (tax breaks), benefiting recipients by reducing burdens or promoting certain actions. They are in the public interest, supporting social goods or economic policies.

The importance of subsidies lies in their ability to offset market failures and externalities, leading to greater economic efficiency. By providing financial aid, subsidies can stimulate production, increase supply, lower prices for consumers, and drive economic growth in targeted sectors. They play a crucial role in stabilizing economies, responding to economic shocks, and promoting long-term economic stability. Subsidies can also help governments address poverty, encourage investment in research and development, and support essential industries like agriculture, energy, and healthcare.

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is an important commercial tropical fruit crop under the family Bromeliaceae. Centre of origin of this fruit can be traced back to Brazil, South America. It is eulogized as “Queen of Fruit” or “Friendship Fruit” or “Haven Fruit” or “Golden Queen”. The word ‘Pineapple’ came from the Spanish word “Pina” based on appearance of fruit which resembles a pine cone. Now, pineapple is termed as “Boon for dry land agriculture”. Pineapple is an introduced crop in India and was first introduced in Goa by Portuguese. The largest producer of pineapple is Thailand and India ranks 6th in the world pineapple production. In India, Tripura, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala are the leading pineapple producers. Pineapple is a CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), monocarpic (each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting), herbaceous perennial plant (Baruwa, 2013) and is suitable for cultivation in xerophytic conditions (Baraily and Deb, 2018).

The earliest written references to pineapple are found in the reference of Christopher Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They found pineapple growing in the West Indies mainly for for food and wine making. The Portuguese sailors were responsible for early dissemination of the pineapple and introduced it to Saint Helena in 1502. They also carried it to Africa and India by about 1550. Cultivation of pineapple had spread over most of the tropical countries including some of the islands of the South Pacific before the end of the 16th century. Costa Rica, Brazil, China, India, and Thailand are now major growers of pineapple.

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives.

Industrial Importance of Pineapple

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)

Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

The states in the Eastern India where pineapple is grown include West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In between this states the ideal condition for pineapple is found in most parts of north Bengal and some north eastern districts of Bihar. West Bengal ranks first in production of pineapple in India (Figure 2).

West Bengal and Bihar

West Bengal ranks ninth in fruit production in India with a total production of 3850.5 thousand ton from 261.02 thousand hectare area (Table 1). Major fruit crops are mango, banana, pineapple, guava, litchi, jackfruit, mandarin, papaya and sapota. A large number of other fruit crops such as Jamun, bael, custard apple, ber, lime, lemon, plum, karonda, aonla, etc. are also grown in various parts of the state (Mitra, 2013). Pineapple is one of the important fruit crop of West Bengal covering an area of 11,410 ha with an average productivity of 30.24 t ha-1(Table 2). The state of West Bengal, having five distinct agro climatic zones, is ideally suited for growing several tropical and subtropical fruits. These agro-climatic zones are:

I. Hill zone II. Terai zone III. Alluvial zone IV. Laterite zone

V. Coastal zone In between these five agro-climatic zones commercially pineapple is grown mostly in Terai zone which is situated at the foot hills. High rainfall, light acidic soils and prolonged monsoon are characteristics of this zone. So the districts are Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and some parts of Alipurduar. Besides terai zone other places where pineapple is grown in small scale or for experimental purpose are described below.

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is one of the most importanttropical fruit belonging to the family Bromeliaceae and is native to Brazil. It is cultivated in High rainfall and humid coastal regions of peninsular India and Hilly areas of North eastern states. In India, pineapple is commercially cultivated in the states like West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Bihar, Tripura, Kerala, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya on large scale whereas on small scale in the states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh etc. It is popularly known as ‘Ananas’ in India and has lot of health benefits due to the presence of a proteolytic enzyme called bromelin, which is used to tenderize meat (Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 2011). It acts as antiamoebic, arbortifacient and also used in correction of stomach disorders (Leal and Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 1996). It is consumed both fresh and processed but mostly as fresh (70%) (Loeillet, 1997). Portuguese are the first people to introduce pineapple to India. The greenhouse cultivation of pineapple was first started in 1500s by Europeans, which led to the varieties like Smooth Cayenne and Queen and transported to all tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Collins, 1951). Due to its ease in transport of its propagules and high tolerance to drought, pineapple cultivation has spread worldwide. But due to its short shelf life, in temperate regions it is consumed more as processed food. The first commercial product made out of pineapple is jams and sweets (Thevet, 1957).

History

Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960).

It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

Pineapple is a monocarpic perennial herb. Each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting, similar to bananas, before a side shoot takes over. After the pineapple plant reaches a certain size, natural inflorescence initiation (flowering) occurs in response to decreasing day length and temperature (Bartholomew, 2003). Flowering of Smooth Cayenne pineapples grown under an 8-hour day length was encouraged by a night temperature of 20°C, whereas f lowering was delayed by temperatures of 15 and 20°C, and totally inhibited by 30°C.Flower initiation usually starts in November and lasts through the winter. Flowering in nature is highly irregular, and some plants can fail to produce fruit. Thus, growth regulators such as ethylene (25-50 ppm) and NAA (25 ppm) are used in industrial practise to force plants to bloom. The numerous radish-purple sessile flowers are spirally arranged on the axis, each with a pointed bract. To explain the emergence of developing inflorescence, this stage is also known as the red bud stage. The spike-like inflorescence contains 100 to 200 florets. The petals are white at the base and bluish-purple above the calyx at anthesis. They are ligulae form in shape, about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide, and are about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide (Collins, 1960).The outer f lower petals are very close together, allowing only small insects to reach the f lower; they have 14 to 20 locules, resulting in a capacity of 6000 to 7000 seeds per 150 floret fruit. After pollination, fruits with 2000 to 3000 seeds are not uncommon (Collins, 1960).

The pineapple, botanically known as Ananas comosus Merr, is the most famous edible member of the Bromeliaceae family. It is native to southern Brazil and is known by a variety of names, including “pina” in Spanish, “abacaxi” in Portuguese, “ananas” in Dutch and French, “nanas” in Southern Asia and the East Indies, “po-lo-mah” in China, “sweet pine” in Jamaica, and merely “pine” in Guatemala (Morton, 1987). After banana and mango, the pineapple is the third most important tropical fruit of the world (Chen et al., 2019; Nath et al., 2019). The pineapple became a major cultural icon of luxury after its introduction to Europe in 17th century. Pineapple has been grown commercially in greenhouses and on many tropical plantations since the 1820s. Furthermore, it is the world’s third-largest tropical fruit producer. Hawaii was a major pineapple producer in the twentieth century, with Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounting for nearly a third of global pineapple production. Pineapples grow as a small shrub, with the un-pollinated plant’s individual f lowers fusing to form multiple fruits. The plant is usually propagated from a side shoot or an offset produced at the top of the fruit and it matures in about a year.

Crop Improvement

Pineapple is usually propagated through asexual method by using slips, crowns or suckers. Sexual reproduction in pineapple is barely used due to its self-sterile nature and failure in formation of seeds. Seed set can occur in case of self-fertilization but the seedlings are with low vigour due to inbreeding depression (Robert et al., 2003). Pineapple is heterozygous in nature, on this wise hybridization is possible in this crop. Gametophytic self incompatibility is reported in this crop where pollen tube growth is repressed in the uppermost part of the style. Diploid chromosome number of the crop is 2n=50. The genome size of the crop is estimated to be 526Mb and total genes were anticipated to be around 25,862 in number (Zhang et al., 2014).

Pineapple is a short-stemmed herbaceous plant that necessitates a significant amount of planting material. For example, depending on the intensity of planting and the cultivar used, one hectare of cultivation needs 35,000 to 70,000 planting parts. Realizing the need for quick multiplication, Ma (1968) devised a method for quick pineapple multiplication using the decapitation technique. Later a technique for rapid in vitro propagation has been developed. Since then, numerous reports on crop micro-propagation using tissue culture techniques have been published. On supplemented MS medium, different types of explants, such as leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral buds and tips from crowns, young-leaf segments, and excised leaf buds, have been used to regenerate plants. Plantlets raised in this manner thrived in the field. In vitro mutation may also be induced using tissue culture techniques. Shoot tips from in vitro grown plantlets may be treated with chemical mutagens (EMS) or irradiated with gamma rays to produce mutants with superior traits such as spineless leaves, larger fruits, improved pulp consistency, or disease resistance. Similarly, somaclonal variants can be screened out early to improve f ield results.

Successful cultivation of a crop is governed by various factors including the edaphic and climatic conditions of the region, owing to which the crop responds in terms of quality and productivity. Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) is one of the major crops cultivated across the tropical and sub tropical countries worldwide. Adaptability of the crop under different climatic conditions, topography, temperature, photo-periodicity, rainfall and edaphic conditions will be discussed in this chapter.

Climatic zone: Pineapple is a tropical fruit crop though it can thrive well in the sub-tropical condition as well.Pineapple grows well inwarm and humid climate ranging from mild coastal climate up to an altitude of about 1000 meters, provided the area is free from frost (Singh, 2014).Pineapple is commercially grown over a wide range of latitudes from 30° N (Assam, India) in the northern hemisphere to 33°S in the Southern hemisphere (South Africa) (Malezieux et al., 2003; Purseglove, 1972).

Topography: Pineapples are easy to cultivatesince they thrive naturally in a variety of places with different elevation, especially in tropical countries (Kaudo, 2014). Though the plant survives at different altitude, the fruit quality and size may alter at different elevation. When pineapple is grown at altitudes greater than 1000 m, smaller fruits with elevated tartness with less attractive pulp colour (Purseglove, 1968).Moreover, fruit flavour can also vary, wherein the fruit tends to bemore acidic and sour when cultivated above 1800 meters, but will be sweet and tasty under 1350 meters (Kaudo, 2014).

Temperature: On an average, the temperatures required for growing pineapples range within 18-30°C (Kaudo, 2014) andmore specifically at 23 - 24 ° C (Neild and Boshell, 1976; Py et al., 1987). The optimum day and night temperatures for pineapple were reported to be about 30°C and 20 °C, respectively (Neild and Boshell, 1976). Bartholomew and Kadzimin (1977), however have reported that leaves and roots grow best at 32°C and 29°C respectively and the growth practically ceases below 20°C and above 36°C. Py and Tisuucau (1965) have observed 25°C to be optimal for fruit ripening.

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple

Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

Pineapples are commonly propagated through vegetative means, as the crop sets very few or no seeds and seeds possess slow germination process and low survival rate of seedlings under natural conditions. Vegetative parts such as stem suckers, peduncle slips, and fruit crowns are commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of pineapple.

Selection of planting materials: Slips or hapa suckers are commonly preferred for commercial multiplication because they may produce fruit within 14-16 months after planting. Crowns are not commonly used as they may take up to 24 months after planting to harvest. Ground suckers (ratoon) and side suckers (side shoots) produce fruit 12-14 months and 18-20 months after flowering, respectively.(Pineapple Technical Group, 1999).

The fresh suckers should not be used for planting. Pineapple suckers should be stored for a few months to allow them to dry before planting, as they may begin to decay if planted in moist soil. Suckers are graded according to vigour and size, such as small, medium, and large. Planting the same graded suckers in the same plot helps to avoid uneven growth of the plant, uneven flowering times, and harvesting times. Additionally, using uniform planting material makes cultural practices easier, increases labour efficiency and other inputs, ultimately reducing the cost of cultivation.

Chadha et al. (1974) observed the superiority of slips and suckers as planting materials compared to crowns. In both slips and suckers, larger planting materials resulted in more vigorous plants. Medium-sized slips or suckers led to more flowering, while larger grade material resulted in a more staggered f lowering period. Smaller slips or suckers yielded fruit earlier. Slips produced better quality fruits, and the yields were comparable to the highest yield obtained with the largest suckers.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which has resistance to diseases. India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic conditions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export sector.

As per the available statistics, India’s rank 8th in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land and 1st in terms of total number of producers as per 2020 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book, 2020). The APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India is implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The programme involves the accreditation of Certification Bodies, standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming and marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of NOP of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. APEDA is also in the process of bilateral equivalence with South Korea, Taiwan, Canada, Japan etc.