eChapters

Livestock has been essential for Indian agriculture since prehistoric times. Livestock is crucial for tripling farmers’ revenue, for bovines—particularly cattle and buffaloes—play a crucial role in the economy. India has the
largest number of livestock owners, with a wide variety of livestock and poultry breeds that are essential to the socioeconomic advancement of rural communities. The production of consumables and maintaining the country’s food security are inextricably related to the livestock and agricultural sectors. Numerous illnesses have a detrimental effect on the health and productivity of livestock and are highly significant economically. Livestock illnesses have negative effects on producers, costing them money in upkeep, resources, and production.
Protozoal infections are a major contributor to the global burden of infectious diseases and have a profound effect on health, society, and the economy. Nearly one-sixth of the world’s population is at risk of dying from serious diseases like malaria (Plasmodium spp.), African sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma brucei), Chagas’ disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) and various forms of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.). Although the burden of protozoal diseases primarily affects tropical and subtropical regions, environmental changes and ecological modifications brought about by both natural and manmade factors have had and are likely to continue to have a significant impact on the emergence and spread of these infections in high-income nations.

    7.1 Introduction
By passing an electrical current through two pieces of plain metal, they can be joined together using resistance welding. The electrical resistance of the metals due to the contact resistance between them, and the electrical current combine to produce the required welding heat. The manufacturing sector frequently uses resistance welding, a type of welding, to join metal sheets and components. In order to create a weld, a high current must be passed through the metal combination to heat it up and eventually melt the metal at a localised points that are chosen based on the electrode and/or workpiece designs. To limit the contact area at the weld interfaces and, in certain cases, to forge the workpieces, a force is always provided prior to, during, and following the application of current. The resistance welding process is classified into the following types.
i. Resistance spot welding (RSW)
ii. Resistance seam welding (RSEW)
iii. Upset welding (UW)
iv. Projection welding (PW)
v. Percussion welding (PEW)
vi. Flash welding (FW)
7.2 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
The automotive and aviation industries make extensive use of resistance spot welding, or simply spot welding. Extremely low voltage and very high current are used in this kind of welding. A wide variety of metals, including copper (Cu), titanium (Ti), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), and their alloys are welded by this welding method. RSW is typically used to join thin sheets of metal, either similar or different, in a lap joint form. A few drawbacks of RSW include electrode degradation, misalignment, voids, and cracking. RSW welding of thicker metal sheets is typically challenging due to the ease with which the heat flows in the surrounding metal.

Introduction

Resistance to antibiotics in the bacterial world is a genetically determined phenomenon that was first observed within a few years after the introduction of antibiotics for therapeutic purposes. In Nature, ARGs are believed to have originated about three billion years ago as an intrinsic defense mechanism in antibiotic-producing bacteria (Perry et al., 2016; Iskandar et al., 2022), and subsequently, evolved by complex and quantum jump trajectories to mobilize, diversify and interconnect all ecosystems in the micro-biosphere. Bacterial genomes exhibit plasticity and continue to evolve under the selection pressure of antibiotics and other stressors (Patel, 2016). The ARGs in circulation at present are thus a mixture of ancient and modern counterparts. Recently, the interplay between bacterial metabolism and antibiotic resistance has also been revealed (Zampieri, 2021).

The use of antimicrobials in health management, livestock, and food industry is driving the emergence of resistant microbes at a rapid pace (Wall et al., 2016; Adegoke et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2017). As a result, AR pathogens have spread globally to cause loss of lives, production, productivity, and negatively impact economic growth. Recently, AR pathogens in a large study have been found directly responsible for millions of deaths, and the figures are likely to increase in the coming decades (Murray et al., 2022). The pace of the emergence of AR can however be slowed down by improving human interventions. The global and local AR combat plans implemented during the past few years have enhanced the mass awareness of the pandemic problem (WHO, 2015; FAO, 2016; NAP, GOI, 2017; WHO, 2022; WOAH, 2022). These Action Plans on AR containment encourage avoiding of indiscriminate use of antibiotics for the treatment of sick humans and animals, recommend the ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in food animals, promote AR surveillance and monitoring, and support the ‘One-Health’ strategy and application of the biosecurity principles for containment of the resistant microbes.

Of all kinds of resources; financial, natural, physical and human resources, the most critical resources for any endeavor are the human resources involved in it. Physical, natural and economic resources are important for facilitating development of any nation but the most important are the human resources. Human resources are the most significant of all the resources to convert all other available resources into production and economic entities. Capable, efficient and motivated human resources can bring about the tremendous positive change towards progress. No doubt, it is equally true that inefficient people can wither away a whole empire and squander away its precious wealth and abundance. People are the real wealth of nations.

Resource appraisal is very significant for micro-enterprise development especially in rural areas. A developing economy like India needs entrepreneurs who are competent to perceive new opportunities and are willing to incur the necessary risks in exploiting them. Rural areas are infrastructurally poor and to take up any entrepreneurial venture in such a scenario appears to be enormous to the simple farmer who has been engaged in cultivating the land in a traditional manner. Developing agri-enterprises is needed urgently to enhance the productivity and incomes of the farmers from their ever shrinking agricultural lands.

Sustainable agriculture can be defined as a tool of using the natural resources for meeting the present needs without jeopardizing the future potential, increasing per capita productivity without causing degradation of soil and water resources, enhancing profitability without reducing total production and reducing excessive dependence on off farm inputs. Thus the holistic view of sustainability is an approach which is ecologically sound, economically profitable and socially equitable. Theoretically this is an ideal concept and of recent origin. But the real danger to sustainable agriculture stem from the compelling needs of increasing population for food, fuel, fodder on one hand and limited natural resource base of land and water on the other.

Characterisation of Natural Resources

The objective of food security can be met by promoting sustainable agricultural production systems. Increasing agricultural production should not be at the cost of degrading soil and depicting the water bodies. If the basic needs of people are to be met on a sustainable basis, the earth’s natural resource base must be conserved and enhanced. In other words, for food security and sustainable livelihoods, ecological security is necessary. Areas under ecological stress need attention, pressure on natural resources increases with population increase in order to fulfill the demand.

Introduction

The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), with geographical coverage of over 5.3 lakh km², constitutes a large proportion of the hotspot and, therefore, contributes greatly to richness and representativeness of its biodiversity components at all levels. Out of this 5.3 lakh km², 33.13 million ha area is being constituted by the North-Western Himalayas.^. Further, most of the water used to grow maize crop in the sub-humid foothill region of northwest Himalayas, is derived from rainfall. Erratic rains, fragile ecosystems and traditional indigenous management practices are mainly responsible for the current situation (Kukal and Bhatt, 2010). IHR covers 11 states entirely (i.e. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya), and two states partially (i.e. hilly districts of Assam and West Bengal). The region represents nearly 3.8% of total human population of the country and exhibits diversity of ethnic groups which inhabit remote terrains. Further it is reported that the Northwestern Himalayan region (NWHR) which spreads to an approximate area of 33.13 million ha, comprising of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand is 10.1% of country’s total geographical area, supports 2.4% and 4% of human and cattle population of the country, respectively. This region has a diverse climate, topography, vegetation, ecology and land use pattern. The annual average rainfall varies from 80 mm in Ladakh to over 200 cm in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The major natural resources are water, forests, floral, and faunal biodiversity. Forests constitute the major share in the land use of the region with only 15% of the net sown area and 162% cropping intensity (Bhatt, 2011).

Resource Conservation Technologies are essential for addressing environmental challenges, reducing resource depletion, and achieving sustainability goals. By efficiently managing and preserving these resources, we can minimize negative impacts on the environment, reduce costs, and ensure that these resources are available for future generations.

Resource Conservation Technologies (RCT) are practices, methods, and technologies used in various industries, primarily in agriculture and natural resource management, to efficiently and sustainably utilize and preserve valuable resources such as water, soil, energy, and biodiversity. These technologies aim to reduce waste, minimize environmental impact, and enhance the overall productivity and sustainability of resource-dependent activities. Here are some key aspects of resource conservation technologies:

Water Conservation Technologies: RCTs for water conservation focus on efficient water use in agriculture, industrial processes, and domestic settings. Examples include drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and the use of sensors to optimize water application.

1.1 Introduction

Broadcasting seed and harvesting meagre yields was a common method of ancient agriculture. High use of developed crop varieties, irrigation, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm mechanization is the main thrust of modern agriculture. Therefore, modern agriculture is an energy intensive farming system (Khan et al., 2010). Though modern technology based agriculture is achieving success to meet food demand of increasing global population, yet it creates many environmental issues such as loss of soil fertility, salinization and water scarcity.

Rice-wheat cropping system is the most important food production system in India. This system has enabled the country to attain food security during last three decades and provided livelihood to millions of farming families in recent times. The productivity of this system has now started showing signs of decline or stagnation at many places. There are also concerns of declining soil health and other related environmental problems. At the same time, food demand is rapidly increasing due to increasing population and income growth. During the past 30 years, agricultural production has been able to keep pace with population demand for food. This came about through significant area and yield growth. Area growth was a result of new lands being farmed and through increases in cropping intensity, from a single crop to double or even triple crops per calendar year. Area growth will be less important in its contribution to production growth in the future as more land is used for urban areas and industry. Yield growth will have to be the mainstay for providing the means for meeting future food demands unless food imports start to play a major role. Total factor productivity is declining and farmers have to apply more fertilizer to obtain the same yields. There is, therefore, a huge challenge ahead to meet future food demands without damaging the natural resource base on which agriculture depends, producing food at a cost that is affordable by the poor, and with incentives to farmers that allow them to improve their livelihoods. Water will become a major limiting factor for sustained production in the next decade. Rapidly growing urban areas and industry will compete with agriculture for good quality water. There are already reports of declining water tables in some areas leading to more costly pumping of groundwater and increased costs of production.

This chapter describes various conservation agriculture technologies to attain the goal of increasing productivity and meeting food security needs while at the same time efficiently using natural resources, including water, providing environmental benefits and improving the rural livelihoods of farmers. The major success in the last few years has been the development and deployment of conservation agriculture technologies (CATs) with farmers in the rice-wheat systems. CATs range from simple surface seeding, where wheat seed is broadcast on the non-ploughed soil; no-till with a special opener for placing seed in the soil also without ploughing; reduced tillage and bed planting. This has benefited farmers through less cost, more yields and more income. CATs are defined as any practice that will result in improvement of the efficiency of natural resources. These technologies are rapidly gaining popularity among farmers as they result in higher production at less cost with significant benefits to the environment and more efficient use of natural resources. This ultimately results in higher profits, cheaper food, and improved farmer livelihoods. Crop diversification is also easier as less land is needed to produce staple cereals, freeing up land for other crops.

2.1 Introduction

Present day agriculture is facing more challenges like negative impacts of climate change, depletion of natural resources, increase of input costs etc. The major causes for steady decline in agricultural sustainability include intensive cultivation with conventional tillage practices, reduction of soil organic matter, soil loss by water and wind erosion, reduction in infiltration rate, formation of soil crust and continuous practice of mono-cropping. Over the years, soil and water resources are continuously overexploited leading to reduction in use efficiency of irrigation and energy.

5.1 Introduction

Indian agriculture is now at crossroads. We have come a long way. Over the past five decades our strategies, policies and actions were guided by goals of ‘self sufficiency’ in foodgrain production with main focus on rice and wheat. Indian agriculture has been successful in achieving higher production of food grains to secure food security of the nation. While, the success for increasing food grain production has been achieved without major jump in the production and productivity of pulses in the country, this was accompanied by widespread problems of resource degradation, which now poses serious challenges to meet the demands of an increasing population and lifting our people above the poverty line.

Introduction

Resource Conserving Technology refers to any management approach or technology that increases factor productivity including land, labour, capital and inputs. The resource conserving technologies (RCTs) involving no or minimum tillage, direct seeding, bed planting and crop diversification with innovations in residues management are the possible alternatives to the conventional energy and input-intensive agriculture. The RCTs with innovations in residue management avoid straw burning, improve soil organic C, enhance input efficiency and have the potential to reduce GHGs emissions (Pathak et al., 2011). Conservation agriculture is one the effective Resource Conservation Technologies, which is based on three principles which are minimum soil disturbance, maintenance of permanent soil covers by the use of crop residues and cover crops and diverse plant associations which included crop rotations. Globally, Conservation Agriculture is being practiced in about 125 M ha area. USA with 26.5 M ha contributes to the major CA-practicing countries followed by Brazil (25.5 M ha), Argentina (25.5 M ha), Canada (13.5 M ha) and Australia (17.0 M ha). However, in the context of climate change to increase the production and productivity, India’s CA adoption is still in preliminary phases in area of 1.5 million ha with adoption of Zero Tillage (Jat et al., 2012, www.fao.org/ag/ca/6c.html). The major CA-based technologies being adopted is zero-tillage (ZT) wheat in the rice-wheat system of Indo-Gangetic Plains.

3.1 Introduction

Rice is the main staple food for most of the world’s population and plays a key role to maintain food security of many countries. More than 90% of the rice production globally comes from Asia and also more than 90% of rice consumption is done in Asia (IRRI, 1997). In Asia, more than two billion people get almost 60-70 percent of their daily energy requirement from rice and its products (Yogeswari and Porpavai, 2018). As for India, since independence the country has witnessed a remarkable progress in rice production.

Indian agriculture has the challenge of providing national as well as household food and nutritional security to its ever increasing population with the average size of land holdings shrinking due to increasing fragmentation. Modern agriculture is facing multiple challenges of plateauing genetic potential of major crops, declining productivity in vast tracts of rainfed/ dryland areas, ill-effects of green revolution technologies in all intensively cultivated areas, climatic aberrations etc., which is threatening the sustainability of the important agricultural production systems and national food security. The assets of a small and marginal farmer is of various kinds – a small piece of land, a homestead garden, few chickens and ducks, 1 or 2 cows/pig etc which has to be managed judiciously to sustain the production productivity and livelihood of the farmer. Farmers take decisions as to crop and livestock management given their access to knowledge and information, personal circumstances, and in the context of the broader socioeconomic, institutional and political environment. Under such conditions, some farmers are painstakingly trying to make a livelihood out of their small pieces of land. However, unable to produce sufficiently, some have sold off or leased out their land to big commercial farmers. Such farmers have become a daily labour or shared cropper in their own land, or even migrated to cities in search of livelihood.

To overcome the problems of small resource poor farmers under diverse and risk prone environments a more holistic, resource based, client oriented and interacting approach, popularly known as Integrated Farming System (IFS) has been developed. This system defines output as total biomass outcome of the system. Integrated farming system is a reliable way of obtaining high productivity with substantial nutrient economy in combination with maximum compatibility and replenishment of organic matter by way of effective recycling of organic residues/wastes etc. obtained through integration of various land- based enterprises.

Resource use efficiency in Indian agriculture

Resource use efficiency in agriculture is defined to include the concepts of technical efficiency, allocative efficiency and environmental efficiency. Public investment, subsidies and credit for agriculture are used in an efficient manner. There are large scale inter regional as well as inter farm variations in factor productivity due to varying influence of different factors in different regions. A number of management factors such as timeliness and method of sowing, transplanting, irrigation and application of right doses of inputs and input mix play an important role in influencing inter-farm variation in crop productivity. Growing marginalization and fragmentation of land holdings coupled with rising incidence of informal tenancies and poor rural infrastructure such as road, electricity, markets and education affect factor productivity. The availability of good quality irrigation water coupled with flexibility of irrigation and drainage system and appropriate methods of application as well as pricing of irrigation water is crucial for sustainable use of land and water resources.

The stochastic frontier production function to analyse the resource use efficiency of urban farmers in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria was done. The result shows that 65% of urban farmers were 70% technology efficient; maximum efficiency is 0.91, while minimum efficiency in urban farm is 0.43.

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur to assess the effect of weed management practices on production, resource use efficiency and monetary benefit in cumin. The experimental field was predominantly infested with weed species such as Chenopodium murale, C. album, Asphodelus tenuifolius and Heliotropium oralifolium.

Introduction
Food is a basic human need that is necessary for survival. The three main sources of our food are fishing, farming, and animal husbandry. Modern agricultural practices are unsustainable and employ enormous amounts of pesticides and fertilizers, which pollute the environment. October 16th has been designated as World Food Day.
Global Food Issues
• The rate of food production is not keeping up with the increasing demand.
• There are significant differences in the accessibility of wholesome food. Malnutrition is still a major issue for several tribes, particularly for women and children.
• Our rich soils are being depleted more quickly than they can replenish themselves.
• The conversion of wetlands, meadows, and forests to agricultural usage has resulted in significant ecological issues.
• There is an indication of exhaustion in our upland and marine fish resources.

One of the most significant natural resources is water. The water cycle sustains hydrological systems, which give rise to rivers and lakes and a range of aquatic habitats, through evaporation and precipitation. Only 3% of the water on Earth is freshwater, although making up 70% of the planet’s surface. Just 1% of this is useable water found in rivers, lakes, and subsurface aquifers, while 2% of it is represented by polar ice caps. Approximately 25% of water is used for industry globally, 70% of it for agriculture, and only 5% for residential consumption. In India, 7% is used for industry, 90% is used for agriculture, and 3% is used for household use. World Water Day is on March 22nd.
There are five oceans on Earth. oceans: the Pacific, Indian, Atlantic, Arctic, and Southern. One of the main saltwater bodies in the hydrosphere is called an ocean. The average salinity of the ocean is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt), or 3.5%. A river is a naturally occurring waterway that is longer than 18 meters (60 feet), usually freshwater, that flows toward one or more rivers, lakes, seas, or oceans. A component of the hydrological cycle are rivers.
A steam is a current-filled body of water that is contained between the banks of a stream and a bed. Typically, the watercourse’s width is under eighteen meters. It reunites disparate environments. Creeks are tributaries of streams that join rivers or other streams but do not flow into the ocean.
A lake, derived from the Latin lacus, is an inland body of water that receives waterfrom a river and is deeper and larger than a pond.

The respiration of animals includes the exchange of gases either at the surface of the body or through the internal processes involving circulatory system. The gases that are exchanged are oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and the inert gas like nitrogen. When the organism respires, the O₂ that is taken up from the external environment is transported by the vascular system to individual cells within the tissues. At the same time this system picks up CO₂, an end product of cellular metabolism, and releases it to the environment. Thus respiration is a term applicable either to a whole organism or one of its cells. The mechanical process, by which respiration is achieved, is called ventilation.  This ventilation rate of aquatic organisms is controlled directly by the concentration of dissolve oxygen (DO₂) in water.

Respiration in aquatic medium is produced by a water current passing in a single direction. The area of respiratory surface is thus an important limiting factor in the movement and growth of the animal. For aquatic animals, if the water is at all deficient in O₂, the rate of breathing is naturally accelerated, and the animal appears to respire hurriedly. Other factors, which lead to an increased rate of respiration, are the stresses.

Respiration rate, irrespective of plant parts (viz. leaves, fruits or seeds), is considered to be an important parameter in plant physiological studies. Respiratory gas exchange is just reverse or opposite to that of photosynthesis and as the later is an energy building phenomenon where ATP is stored in the photosynthates produced; respiration involves breakdown of photosynthates for release of energy to be utilized for the performance of other activities of life. Respiration plays an important role during seed germination. A germinating seed requires a lot of energy which is derived from the breakdown of different types of food reserved in the cotyledons. On the basis of respiration a climacteric fruit can well be distinguished from a non climacteric one; as the former reveals a characteristic ‘Climacteric Burst’ in respiration, which is completely lacking in the later.

There are a few instruments used for the measurement of respiration in plants viz.:

Body needs oxygen to oxidise the food nutrients and derive energy. In this process carbon dioxide is produced in the body, which is toxic and must be removed quickly and efficiently. The oxygen utilization & carbon dioxide production takes place within the mitochondrion of cells of the various tissues. The transport of O2 and CO2 to and from the cells of various tissue is done by the blood. But the actual uptake of oxygen from the air and discharge of CO2 into the environment takes place at the level of lungs. This exchange of O2 and CO2 between the organism and the environment is defined as respiration. Air is moved in and out of the lungs by their bellows action (ventilation). It is then distributed within each lung, so that alveoli are adequately ventilated and also perfused by the blood.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are then exchanged between the gas mixture in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries (gas transfer). The gases are then transported in the blood to the tissue.

Respiration is the oxidative breakdown of complex substrate molecules such as starch, sugars, and organic acids normally present in plant cells to simpler molecules such as carbon dioxide and water. Concomitant with this catabolic reaction is the production of energy and intermediate molecules that are required to sustain the myriad of metabolic reactions essential for the maintenance of cellular organization and membrane integrity of living cells. Since respiration rate is so tightly coupled to the rate of metabolism, the measurements of respiration provide an easy non-destructive means of monitoring the metabolic and physiological state of tissues, e.g., the events of senescence and ripening are often signaled by abrupt changes in respiration.

Maintaining a supply of high-energy compounds like adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and pyrophosphate (PPi) is a primary function of respiration. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide plays very important role in mitochondrial matrix (Moller and Ramusson, 1998). The overall process of aerobic respiration involves regeneration of ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (P_i) with the release of carbon dioxide and water. If glucose is used diphosphatas substrate, the overall equation for respiration can be written as follows:

It is a most deteriorating biological process of the harvested fruits and vegetables that leads to the oxidative breakdown of the complex material (carbohydrates or acids) of cell into simpler molecules (CO₂ & water) with production of energy. Respiration includes glycolysis metabolism, aerobic metabolism, anaerobic metabolism, trycarboxilic acid cycle and electron transport metabolism processes.

The primary role of the respiratory system is to provide O2 to the tissues for metabolic needs and remove the CO2 formed by them. Body needs oxygen to oxidise the food nutrients and derive energy. In this process carbon dioxide is produced in the body, which is toxic and must be removed quickly and efficiently. The oxygen utilization & carbon dioxide production takes place within the mitochondria of cells of the various tissues.

Key Points

• Dogs exhibit respiratory distress symptoms more frequently than cats.

• Respiratory distress might have overt or covert clinical symptoms.

• The thorax and belly move paradoxically in cases of severe respiratory distress.

• Immediate intubation is the first step in managing a respiratory emergency: opening the airway.

Introduction

The telltale symptoms of "oxygen hunger" include tachypnea, stretched head and neck, abducted elbows, flare of the nares, cyanosis, open-mouth breathing, anxiety, and inability to lie down or relax. It is more usual for dogs than cats to exhibit symptoms of respiratory distress. Tachypnea and conspicuous breathing motions when in a sternal recumbency position are the only indications of respiratory dysfunction in cats, who often mask the severity of their illness. Despite their seeming stability, these patients are often extremely vulnerable and can rapidly decompensate when under stress.

The respiratory system or tracheal system is involved in gaseous exchange in the insect with the environment. In this system there is a system of internal tubes, the tracheae that directly transport the oxygen to the parts of the body. Therefore, it does not use the circulatory system as the vehicle for gaseous exchange. The trachae open outside through segmental pores called spiracles having some system of closing and opening. Except proturans and some collembolans all insects possess tracheal system for respiration. These insects live in moist habitats where gaseous exchange takes place directly with the environment via the integument.

The development of the upper respiratory system composed of nasal cavities, naso pharynx and larynx is directly related to the development of the face. The nasal cavities are derived from ectoderm while nasopharynx and larynx are endodermal in origin. The lower respiratory system (trachea and lungs) is a derivative of the embryonic pharynx.

The epithelial lining of the lower respiratory system is endodermal in origin, while the surrounding connective tissue and cartilage are mesodermal in origin. The endoderm and underlying mesoderm from the floor of foregut i.e caudal part of pharynx grow caudally in midline and form the laryngo-tracheal groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV -VI from which the larynx and trachea arise. The laryngotracheal tube consists of an inner endodermal lining and an outer layer of splanchnic mesoderm. It grows into underlying mesenchyme. Ingrowths from the sides of the groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV - VI form a pair of ridges that grow towards each other and fuse forming a septum changing the groove into a tube with a blind end caudally. The rostral end opens into the floor of the pharynx. The blind caudal end expands in a bilobed manner into mesenchyme forming bronchial buds the primordia of right and left lungs while the groove is closing.

larynx : A pair of elevations, aryteniod swellings appears on the floor of the pharynx along midline at the level of branchial arch IV. The hypobranchial eminence is just infront of the arytenoid swellings. The depression between the hypobranchial eminence and the arytenoid swellings becomes the lumen of the larynx. The caudal part of the hypobranchial eminence forms the epiglottis. The arytenoid swellings and adjacent branchial arch mesenchyme form the other laryngeal cartilages and musculature. The thyroid cartilage arises from branchial arches III and IV. The other cartilages are derived from mesenchyme of branchial arches IV, V & VI. The intrinsic musculature of larynx is derived mostly from the branchial arch V and VI. With the exeption of the epiglottic cartilage the cartilages and muscles of the larynx are formed by the end of embryonic period.

The respiratory system is a complex biological system comprised of several organs that facilitate the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide (breathing) in living organisms. The major functions of the respiratory system is providing oxygen to the body cells and removing carbon dioxide from the body. In addition to this, the respiratory system helps in controlling body temperature (especially in dogs), eliminating water (as vapour) and assisting in voice production. The organs of respiratory system extend from nose to lungs. These consist of two major parts, the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract is comprised of nose, nasal cavity, the part of mouth, and the part of pharynx. The lower respiratory tract is comprised of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

Nose

The nose is the externally visible part of the respiratory system. It forms the part of the face of the animal extending from the transverse level of eyes to the rostral end of the head. Exteriorly it is formed by the bones, muscles, cartilages and the skin. Internally it encloses the nasal cavity which is lined by the mucous membrane. The dorsal part of the nose (roof of the nasal cavity) is termed as dorsum nasi. It is formed by the nasal and frontal bones of the skull. The lateral parts are formed by the incisive, maxillary, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. Covering these bones externally is a muscular layer formed by the facial muscles running over these bones and acting on the upper lip and nostrils. The muscular layer is externally covered by the skin. The skin on the nose bears fine hairs except at the tip of the nose that is formed by the nostrils. The rostral end of the nose is formed by nostrils which provide entrance to the nasal cavity. The nostrils are supported by cartilages which are the dorsal and ventral extensions of the cartilage of the nasal septum. The main aim of the nose is to support and protect the nasal cavity.

Among abiotic stresses, low and high temperature stress is very critical for determining the agricultural production. Plants exhibit a maximum rate of growth and development at an optimum temperature or over a diurnal range of temperatures (Fitter and Hay, 1981). When ambient temperature deviates from optimal, physiological, biochemical, metabolic and molecular changes occur within plants. This is an effort of plants to maximize growth and developmental processes and to maintain cellular homeostasis during such adverse conditions. Under increasingly stressful conditions, plants experience progressively more abnormal, impaired or dysfunctional cellular and whole-plant processes until the cardinal temperatures for survival are reached (Fitter and Hay, 1981). At the extremes of the natural temperature range of a plant, the degree of physiological, cellular, metabolic and molecular dysfunction becomes so severe that it leads to death.

Growth constraints and stress result in significant crop losses and therefore the mechanisms underlying endurance and adaptation to these changes have long been the focus of intense research (Bray 2004). Kültz (2005) elaborated two types of responses to a particular kind of stress:

Fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, plantation crops and spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, tubers, are the major horticultural crops contributing to the economic growth in India. Even though the horticultural sector is growing fast, with India being the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, the productivity and quality have to be improved in order to meet the demand of increasing population. Under these circumstances, ecofriendly techniques needs to be adopted which could ensure food security and sustainable production. Indiscriminate application of agrochemicals and chemical fertilizers in horticultural crops and their residues could harm the human health, soil and environment. Horticultural crops need an ecofriendly technique, as most of the horticultural products are directly consumed. Hence, there should not be any residues of agrochemicals in food products. In the current context, use of ecofriendly, cost effective and organic-based inputs like biofertilizers can maintain health of the soil and good quality in horticultural crops. The application of biofertilizers offers an attractive and sustainable means of improving the quality of food products. Biofertilizers like Azotobacter, Azospirillum and AMF and PGPRs not only supplies the required nutrients to plants, but improves the fruit quality and quantity (Pathak et al., 2017).

Climate change produces long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Because insects are ectothermic organisms, these environmental changes strongly influence their physiology, ecology and behaviour. Rising temperatures can modify development, movement, feeding, mating, reproduction, diapause, migration and survival. Altered rainfall and extreme weather may affect habitat suitability, host availability and interactions with natural enemies. Climate-related behavioural changes can influence pest abundance, crop damage, geographical distribution and the timing of infestations. This chapter examines how insects respond behaviourally to changing environmental conditions and explains why understanding these responses is essential for forecasting pest outbreaks and developing effective climate-resilient crop-protection strategies.

Thus the average value of progeny genotypes in response to selection of parental phenotypes depends largely on Cov (G, g), the genetic covariance of parent and offspring which is half the additive genetic variance of the parents.
We know that on an average, half of genes of a parent are passed to the offspring and with them a random half of his additive merit. One-fourth of his additive x additive gene combinations are also transmitted and lesser fractions of higher additive combinations. No dominance combinations are transmitted, since only one member of each allelic gene pair reaches the offspring. Similarly all epistatic gene combinations involving allelic gene pairs are broken up at gamete formation. If dominance and epistatic gene combinations involving allelic gene pairs are important in determining genetic superiority for the trait, then direct selection of superior parents will not produce genetically superior offspring. Some form of mating system which will recreate these combinations in the offspring, together with the formation of lines or groups within the population is needed in these circumstances.
Thus, the aim of selection is to identify and select as parents individuals with high additive genetic merit. By selecting the parent on additive merit, we also ensure that a fraction of any parallel merit for additive type epistasis is also passed on. In considering response to selection, little is lost by treating the response as if it were wholly determined by the additive effects of genes

The response to selection is the change produced in the population mean through selection. This is achieved through selecting as parents of the next generation, individuals with highest genetic merit and whose progeny will, as a group, have the highest possible genetic merit for the trait in question. 

The response to selection (R) or selection advance or genetic gain is the difference between the mean phenotypic value of the offspring of the selected parents and the whole of the parental generation before selection. The response to selection is simply the change of population mean between generations following selection. Similarly, the selection differential (S) is the mean phenotypic value of the individuals selected as parents expressed as a deviation from the population mean (i.e., from the mean phenotypic value of all the individuals in the parental generation before selection). Response to selection is related to heritability by the following equation:

India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude, is the largest peninsular country in the world bordered by Arabian Sea in the west, Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. India has a coastline of 8118 km and 0.5 million t sq. km continental shelf endowed with 2.02 million sq. km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). It has a catchable annual fisheries potential yield of 4.41 million occupying third rank in world marine fish production (Table 1). India’s territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast baseline. The vital details on marine capture fisheries of India are given in table

In the earlier chapter the major soil vulnerability namely, water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, landslide and abandoned mines were described. In this chapter two more parts, Importance of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) in soils and Watershed management are also included after seeing their importance in agriculture and soils. Restoration means that by various actions or processes to return something to its original owner, site, place, or condition. In this context our aim is to restore our mother soil from various vulnerabilities by different actions and processes to its natural and original condition up to the maximum possible extent. Management is defined as the scientific methods to attain targeted production through planning, organising, training and fixing targets for employees. Therefore, after the restoration, soils should be managed according to scientific method of action by scientifically selected and trained staff to perform the assigned responsibilities, effectively, efficiently and rapidly within stipulated period. On these guidelines restoration and management of vulnerabled soils is described here,

Abstract

In South India, tanks system is quiet ancient, meant for storing and supplying water towards multifunctional needs of the people. In Tamil Nadu, there are around 39,000 tanks with varying size and types. Over past few decades, irrigation rely on stable and reliable groundwater resources like dug and deep bore wells, consequently tanks lost their significance. Moreover, excessive siltation, improper maintenance and illegal encroachment further degraded the system. The deterioration factors are broadly categorised into problems in catchment, feeder channels and head works which eventually resulted in loss of storage capacity. The present study chiefly narrates an indirect method of estimating the loss in storage capacity of tanks and the catchment problem, especially soil erosion and its induced siltation of tanks in the downstream using geoinformatics technology. Using remotely sensed satellite data, by measuring surface area of tank loss in storage capacity was estimated through a linear model. Using Digital Elevation Model derived topographic wetness indices data, the catchment problem especially, soil erosion areas were identified and remedial measures were suggested. Under prevailing water crisis, it is essential to rehabilitate the tanks through which the surface water potential can be improved along with quality as well.

Introduction

Worldwide, salt–affected areas are estimated to range from 340 million ha to 1.2 billion ha (FAO, 2007; Oo et al., 2015; Ahmad et al., 2016; Drake et al., 2016). Millions of hectare of these salt affected soils are suitable for agricultural production but are unexploited because of salinity/sodicity and other soil and water related problems (Abrol et al., 1988). Salt-affected soils are reported to comprise 42.3% of the land area of Australia, 21.0% of Asia, 7.6% of South America, 4.6% of Europe, 3.5% of Africa, 0.9% of North America and 0.7% of Central America (El-Mowellhey, 1998). In India, out of 329 million ha geographical land area of the country about 175 million ha suffers from different problems and is getting further degraded through natural or man-made processes. Majority of these lands is treated as wastelands as their productivity is low due to soil based constraints like water logging, salinity and sodicity. According to FAO, salinization of arable land will result in 30% to 50% land loss by the year 2050 if, remedial actions are not taken. Recent estimates indicate that 6.73 million ha (NRSA and Associates, 1996) land is suffering from salinity and sodicity problems in India. High salt deposits inherited by the soil from the original parent material during soil forming processes and poor drainage are important factors contributing to the development of such soils. These lands occur in different biogeographic zones and therefore consist of diverse morphological, physical, chemical and biological properties. These soils are universally low in fertility and due to the adverse edaphic environment; they are devoid of any vegetation because of excessive exchangeable Na+ associated with high pH (>8.5) which impairs the physical condition of the soils and adversely affects water and air movement, nutritional and hydrological properties of the soils (Suarez et al., 1984; Gupta and Abrol, 1990; Sumner, 1993; Garg, 1998).These lands are largely carbon-depleted but can be brought back to their native carbon-carrying capacity by reforestation through agroforestry systems. The presence of CaCO3 concretions at various depths (caliche bed) causes physical impedance for root proliferation, therefore, making it difficult for tree establishment and restrict the choice of arable crops to be grown (Shukla et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2012a).

River restoration aims to rehabilitate degraded or altered river systems, enhancing ecological integrity, improving water quality, and increasing biodiversity. Despite its potential benefits, the process is complex and multifaceted, facing challenges across scientific, social, ecological, technical, and conceptual dimensions. Scientifically, there is limited understanding of how physical complexity influences key ecological processes, such as stream metabolism and contaminant degradation. Site-specific factors, altered sediment regimes, and invasive species further complicate recovery efforts, often hindering ecological restoration even when hydrological conditions are improved. Socially, restoration initiatives struggle due to a lack of public awareness and appreciation for the ecosystem services provided by healthy rivers. Economic paradigms frequently undervalue these benefits, leading to perceptions that restoration is non-essential. Additionally, many projects lack robust pre- and post-monitoring frameworks, which restricts the ability to evaluate success and adapt strategies. To achieve effective restoration, a shift in scientific approaches and enhanced public engagement are essential. River scientists must act as educators and advocates, clearly communicating the societal value of restored ecosystems. Addressing these interconnected challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration, long-term monitoring, and a comprehensive understanding of ecological, social, and physical dynamics to yield meaningful and sustainable outcomes across various environments.

Laboratory and exotic pets require specialized handling because their anatomy, behaviour and physiological characteristics differ considerably from conventional domestic species. This chapter covers restraint, physical examination and medication of laboratory animals, birds and exotic pets, including reptiles. Physical examination involves systematic evaluation from head to tail, assessment of oral and external structures, palpation and measurement of physiological parameters. Special attention is given to reptile examination, where shells and species-specific anatomy may complicate physical assessment. Diagnostic imaging can be particularly valuable. The chapter emphasizes minimizing stress, selecting appropriate restraint methods and adapting clinical procedures to species-specific requirements.

Proper restraint and handling of laboratory and exotic pets reduces stress for both animal and examiner. Handling-related stress introduces a variable into experiments, so its minimizing is essential. Improper handling can lead to significant injuries for both animals and humans. Laboratory Animals General Care •     A healthy and regularly behaving animal is in a state of well-being. Maintaining the state of wellbeing requires effective health management and appropriate exercise. •     New animals on arrival should be quarantined, carefully examined, and placed in clean cages. Shipping containers should not enter the main facility and must be discarded. Proper identification and documentation of each animal, including details like origin and condition, is essential. Any sick animals should be euthanized immediately. •     Animals should be housed in separate rooms

Restraint Various techniques and equipment are employed to capture and restrain both zoo and free-ranging wild animals for physical examinations and medical treatment. The primary methods of restraint are physical and chemical restraint. Assessing the physical condition of the animal and determining the necessity of capture are essential, as all restraint methods can impact an animal’s behavior, physiology, and response to medication. Certain animals, such as black bucks, chinkaras, and deer, are particularly sensitive to restraint and prone to thermoregulatory issues, capture myopathy, and shock. In these species, even a routine capture can lead to injury or death. Terminology The following terminology is generally used during restraints of wild animals. Anesthesia: Causes unconscious with loss of awareness and pain relief. Analgesia: A state in which pain and sensation are effectively blocked.

Zoo animals present unique challenges because of species-specific behaviour, size, temperament and safety considerations. This chapter describes practical approaches to restraint, physical examination and medication of wild and zoo animals. Appropriate restraint methods and equipment are selected according to species and clinical requirements. The chapter discusses physical examination and commonly used medications for immobilization of different wildlife species. Particular attention is given to safe handling of carnivores and other wild animals while minimizing stress and risk to both animal and veterinary personnel. Species-specific physiological information and body-weight considerations further assist in planning appropriate examination, restraint and therapeutic procedures.

Restricted pesticides for use

1. Aluminium phosphide Captafol
2. Carbaryl
3. Dieldrin
4. Methyl bromide
5. Ethylene dibromide (EDB)
6. Sodium cyanide
7. Lindane
8. Methyl parathion
9. Monocrotophos
10. Chlorbenzilate

Introduction

Restriction enzymes, recognizes specific base sequences in double-helical DNA and cleaves at specific places, both strands of a duplex containing the recognized sequences. To biochemists, these exquisitely precise scalpels are marvelous gifts of nature. They are indispensable for analyzing chromosome structure, sequencing very long DNA molecules, isolating genes, and creating new DNA molecules that can be cloned. Werner Arber and Hamilton Smith discovered restriction enzymes, and Daniel Nathans pioneered their use in the late 1960s.

Principle

Since the entire DNA sequence of the bacteriophage is known, we know exactly where a restriction enzyme will cleave the viral DNA and the size of the DNA fragments generated. This restriction enzyme digest will create a pattern of specific DNA fragments that will serves as a “DNA ladder”.

Principle

Restriction digestion is one of the most common reactions performed in molecular biology. Restriction endonucleases (RE) are also known as restriction enzymes, which recognize short, specific DNA sequences. There are three types of RE: Type-I, Type-II and Type-III. Type II RE, most commonly used for DNA analysis and genetic engineering, cleave double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) at specific sites within or adjacent to their recognition sequences. All Type II RE recognises a unique nucleotide sequence at which it cuts a DNA molecule and nowhere else. The recognition sequence is often a six base pair palindromic sequence (the top DNA strand from 5' to 3' is the same as the bottom DNA strand from 5' to 3'), but others recognize four or even eight base pair sequences. Many RE will not cut DNA that is methylated on one or both strands of the recognition site, although some require substrate methylation.

REs can also differ in the way they cut the DNA molecule. Some enzymes cut in the middle of the recognition sequence, resulting in a flush or “blunt end”. Other enzymes cleave in a staggered fashion, resulting in DNA products that have short single-stranded overhangs (usually two or four nucleotides) at each end. These are often called “cohesive ends”, as these single-stranded overhangs could potentially come together again through complementary base-pairing, as shown below:

Restriction Enzymes

Restriction enzymes are enzymes isolated from bacteria that recognize specific sequences in DNA and then cut the DNA to produce fragments, called restriction fragments. Restriction enzymes play a very important role in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules, as is done in gene cloning experiments. Another application of restriction enzymes is to map the locations of restriction sites in DNA.

Restriction endonucleases, often called restriction enzymes, cut DNA within the molecule by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotides. Restriction enzymes were discovered in bacteria and there are now more than 1200 known restriction enzyme types. These enzymes are named using a simple system. EcoRI, for example, was isolated from E. coli and was the first enzyme isolated from a particular strain, hence the designation of I. HaeIII was isolated from Haemophilus aegyptius. HindIII was isolated from Haemophilus influenzae, and was the third enzyme discovered in a particular strain.

Usually, restriction enzymes only cut the DNA at or near a very specific nucleotide sequence known as a recognition site. This “restrictive” nature of these enzymes allows molecular biologists to pin-point exactly where the DNA is to be cut. In many cases, the recognition site of a restriction enzyme consists of a palindromic sequence where the order of the bases is read the same on each side of the helix. The two sides of the helix are antiparallel and the recognition sequence reads from 5’ to 3’ on either side of the helix. For example the recognition site for EcoRI is as follows;

Introduction

The primary tools used by the molecular biologists in manipulating DNA are restriction enzymes and other DNA/RNA modifying enzymes. Over the years, the number and uses of these enzymes have increased as new molecules have been discovered. Restriction endonucleases are bacterial enzymes that cleave double-stranded DNA. They are present in bacteria presumably to destroy DNA from foreign sources. By cleaving the foreign DNA at specific sites. The host bacterial DNA os protected from cleavage because specific recognition sites are modified, usually by methylation form methylase at one of the bases in the site, making the site no longer a substrate for RE cleavage. Host bacteria used to propagate cloned DNA in the laboratory arte usually mutant in the host restriction genes, thus their intracellular enzyme activities will not destroy the foreign recombinant sequences. The endonuclaase with its accompanying methylase is called a restriction modification (R-M) system.

At least four different kinds of R-M systems exist characterized on the basis of the subunit composition, cofactor requirements and type of DNA cleavage. Most characterized enzymes belong to type II class, together with type IIS class. They comprise the commercially available restriction enzymes used for DNA analysis and manipulation. Type I and Type III enzymes are relatively uncommon and a few additional enzymes fit none of the classes.

Among more than 3000 different enzymes isolated from bacterial strains many share common specificities. Restriction enzymes that recognize identical sequences have been called as isoschizomers.