eBook Chapters

INTRODUCTION

Scientists have known that certain animals can regenerate missing parts of their bodies. But we can not replace a missing leg or a finger; our bodies are constantly regenerating blood, skin and other tissues. The identity of the powerful cells that allow us to regenerate some tissues was first revealed when experiments with bone marrow in the 1950’s established the existence of stem cells in our bodies and led to the development of bone marrow transplantation, a therapy now widely used in medicine. Stem cell therapies are one of the most promising areas of medicine, and many such therapies are now in development by industrial and academic groups. The first successful allogenic stem cell graft in humans using donor bone marrow was undertaken in the USA in 1968 and bone marrow transplantation continues to provide the best example of the clinical use of adult stem cells. Currently, cell therapies are regulated under the US Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) Good Tissue Practices Final Rule, which uses a tiered system based on the level of risk associated with the cell product. Scientists were able to extract embryonic stem cells from mice in the 1980s, but it wasn’t until 1998 that a team of scientists from the University of Wisconsin–Madison became the first group to isolate human embryonic stem cells and keep them.

Introduction

Several tropical indigenous fruits have still remained underexploited due to the lack of awareness of their potential, market demand and low and erratic bearing in many cases. Though wild and domesticated diversity is composed of nearly 3000 tropical fruit species, only a few are cultivated on large scale (Vietmeyer, 1990;Pareek et al., 1998). These species (approximately 600 tropical and subtropical) are better known in their areas of diversity and have not yet been utilized to their full potential inspite of their high economic value. There exists a very rich diversity of fruits across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, with more than 500 species of fruits estimated to be found in Southeast Asia alone. The South and Southeast Asia represents above 300 species of native minor fruits (Arora, 1995). These species are being used by local people as minor fruits as well as for medicinal purposes as described in the Indian system of medicine. If properly harnessed, this diversity has great potential as a source of food besides meeting multipurpose needs of the local communities (Pareek et al., 1998).

For animal rearing it is pertinent to know the technique of keeping and preserving the feed required for the livestock. Apart from the rich pasturage, one may have the longevity of their feeds is immense concern for many. Animal feeds are an amalgam of diverse ingredients, including vegetable oil, sunflower oil. There are also animal fats, like – lard, tallow etcetera, which are included in the fodder. These elements give fodder the targeted input to animal husbandry. The prime factor that occurs and becomes a challenge for many livestock rearing, the cost for their feeds, which would provide quality and quantity in their output. Once the feed is rightly chosen for the animal, that one is rearing, the next challenge arises. Here is somehow animal feeds can be preserved safely, thereby increasing the longevity of the feeds - * Stay safe from the Sun; * Metal cans; * Storage bunkers; * Sliding metal roof bunkers;
* Commodity sheds; * Plastic containers or drums; * Re – usable freezer; * Wood bins.
Important dots
• All feed and ingredients have to be stored in a cool place [ideally below 77 0 F or (77 0F –32) X 5/9 = 25 0C), although this is not possible at outside locations under summer situations].
• Feed has to be kept dry to prevent fungal or bacterial growth.
• Prevention of entry for rodents or insects is essential.
• Stable form of vitamins is important to use.
• Anti – oxidants are important for preserving fats, oils in ingredients and feed.
• Expiry dates are important on the containers, for all feed materials for their shelf – life (for ground grains = 1 month after milling)
• For fats and oils: Opened container: 1 month; un – opened or stabilized: 1 - year post mixing.

Safe harbour : Protection from the rough seas of regulation. Laws and regulations often include a safe harbour clause that sets out the circumstances in which otherwise regulated firms or individuals can do something without regulatory oversight or interference.

Sample : A selected subset of a population. A sample may be random or non-random and it may be representative or non-representative.

Satisficing : Settling for what is good enough, rather than the best that is possible. This may occur in any situation in which decision makers are trying to pursue more than one goal at a time. Classical economics and neo-classical economics assume that individuals, firms and governments try to achieve the optimum, best possible outcome from their decisions. Satisficing assumes they decide for each goal a level of achievement that would be good enough and try to find a way to achieve all of these sub-optimal goals at once. This approach to decision making is commonplace in behavioural economics. It can be regarded as a realist’s theory of how decisions are taken.

Savings : Any income that is not spent. Ultimately, savings are the source of investment in an economy, although domestic savings may be supplemented by capital from foreign savers or themselves be invested abroad. In an economic sense, savings include purchases of shares or other financial securities. However, many official measures of a country’s savings ratio—total savings expressed as a percentage of total income—leave out such financial transactions. At times when the demand for financial securities is unusually high, this can give a misleading impression of how much saving is taking place. How much individuals save varies significantly among different age groups (see life-cycle hypothesis) and nationalities. Everywhere, people of all ages save more as their income rises. The supply of savings rises when interest rates rise; a rise in interest rates causes demand for funds to invest to fall; a rise in demand for investment funds may cause interest rates, and thus the cost of capital, to rise. The level of savings is also influenced by changes in wealth (see wealth effect) and by taxation policies.

Packaging is an essential tool to make products stand out from the competition. Beyond the shelf appeal, packaging also provides protection to the contents from physical, chemical and microbiological hazards. However, a lesser known fact is that the same packaging material could also be a source of chemical contaminants, and hence, may impact food safety as well as food quality. Among the different components of packaging material, packaging inks play a critical role as they might hamper product and consumer safety.

Each packaging ink is a mixture of different chemicals and some of these chemicals might be harmful with the potential to migrate to the foodstuff. In terms of risk, the chemicals could be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, repro-toxic and even endocrine disruptors. The chemical contaminants from the packaging inks can get transferred to the foodstuff by a process called migration.

Over the last two decades, a number of scientific papers have been published, revealing the migration potential of substances from the printed matter. However, the first big scandal that brought the subject alive was about the f indings of isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX, a low molecular photo initiator used in UV inks) in baby milk and other liquid foodstuffs all over Europe, resulting in a product recall in the year 2005. The food scandal alerted the packaging chain about the linkage between packaging inks and food safety. Consequently, the authorities issued strict regulations for the application of printing inks as well as general food control measures.

Borer pests cause significant yield losses and are one of the most serious production constraints in tropical vegetable production. For instance, eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB), Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) reduces yield as much as 70% (Dhandapani et al., 2003). Tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) causes about 5 to 55% loss in almost all the tomato producing areas in the world (Kashyap and Batra, 1987). Up to 80% yield losses have been reported in various vegetable and grain legumes due to legume pod borer (LPB), Maruca vitrata F. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) damage (Singh et al., 1990; Sharma, 1998; Gressel et al., 2004; Hammig et al., 2008; Zahid et al., 2008). Due to higher yield losses, growers tend to apply extremely high quantities of chemical pesticides to control borer pests on vegetable crops. Because the borer larvae are exposed on external plant parts only for a brief time after hatching, the window for effective pesticide application is very brief; vegetable farmers spray throughout the growing season, but without satisfactory results. A survey of pesticide use in Bangladesh indicated that farmers spray up to 180 times with chemical insecticides during a year to protect their eggplant crop against EFSB (SUSVEGAsia, 2007). Pesticide application often exceeded 50 sprays per tomato crop season in south India (Nagaraju et al., 2002). In Bangladesh, country bean (Lablab purpureus) is being sprayed at weekly or biweekly intervals—sometimes every day—to control LPB (Hoque et al., 2001). On average, farmers used 10-24 kg/ha of pesticides in cabbage and cauliflower in India to manage the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and other pests (Weinberger and Srinivasan, 2009).

1. Introduction

Storage is an important part of any food grain processing chain. Storage of raw and processed food grain has been used by humans since time immemorial as a prerequisite for insuring food security due to off time availability, and for holding seed grain for long periods (Pande and Mishra, 2012). After harvesting grains may be required to be stored for long periods before these are marketed or used as food or seed. The grain storage is mainly carried out for three purposes viz (i) to retain a supply of food (ii) to service a trading system and (iii) to retain seed for planting the following season (Hall, 1980). Storage is, therefore, carried out by the producer, trader, processor, and the exporter and at all these levels the methods adopted affect the quality of food stuffs. The length of time grains can be safely stored will depend on the condition it was harvested and the type of storage facility being utilized. Grain storage and handling is a major concern for food grain growers and processers worldwide (Mohan et al., 2011; Pande and Mishra, 2012). Depending upon the condition and uses food grains may be stored in different storage structures using traditional or modern storage methods. Different storage structures are used by farmers with the traditional names like Gumma, Oliya and Jute bag. Caswell (1973) recorded 50 to 60% of insect damage on food grain after six months of traditional storage. A typical range of storage methods encountered in tropics and subtropics region is given in Table 1.

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

INTRODUCTION

Libraries are social institutions bestowed with the responsibility of storing preserving the cultural heritage of accounting and making them available for use to the community. The inherent characteristics of artifacts, the storage conditions and the type; intensity and amount of the processes of monitoring the physical condition of the library’s materials and taking action to prevent future deterioration are critical issues. Preservation issues can be defined as those that relate to the longevity of materials, while conservation issues include handling and storage. Ironically, books published since the beginning of the 20^th century are more likely to decay than the older books. Other modern materials such as microfilm, photographs, videotapes, and films have unique preservation need.

Introduction

Food is an important contributor to human well being and is essential for sustaining life. From this point of view food is expected to contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, protein fat, vitamins and other essential minerals which support life. The food production initially started for individual sustenance which slowly developed in to a community requirement necessitating the involvement of man and machinery for various activities concerned with food. The progress from famine in many parts of the world to the level of self-sufficiency and the role of science and agriculture have been absolutely significant in many parts of the world. India is no exception and the green revolution during the post 1960s and the succeeding blue and white revolution ensured the self-sufficiency in India.

Of late food acts as a vehicle for inclusion of hazard in food meant for human consumption. According to Grunert (2005), factors responsible for the alarmingly higher rate of concern by public include significantly higher number of food scares in public domain, critical understanding of production and processing of certain food products sold in the market as well as the diversified food choices of the consumers in different parts of the world. Besides, the increased awareness of the consumers on food related health issues also have its share in the increased concern on food at large.

Presently food is considered as a commodity which crosses international border concurrent with the human movement and hence quality has become a major concern. The traditional food is getting replaced with value added products, particularly ready to cook, ready to eat, partially cooked products, etc. consequent to life style changes. In order to meet the demand of the trade, the conventional processing is getting replaced by community processing or industrial processing with increased number of players in the primary production, processing, transportation and other value chain activities prompting larger product control. In the process, consumers are exposed to a variety of products produced as business ventures in modern food production systems needing efficient quality control and quality assurance to tackle the issues of quality. The increased incidence of hazards in both raw materials and final products consequent to the absence or inappropriate production schedule calls for increased food safety concerns. Besides the shelf-life of the products, addition of chemicals during the production also add to the concern.

Introduction

As the world population continues to grow, the global market for food products is expanding, together with an increased emphasis on food safety. Consumers have become more discerning in the type of foods they buy and how these foods affect their health and well being. Food safety is generally defined as the assurance that the food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use ( To achieve food safety, a management system has been developed which aims on preventing problems before they occur, rather than trying to detect failures through end product testing. It also places more responsibility for ensuring food safety on food manufacturers, who have to develop control and traceability of their products from ‘farm to plate’. The system requires the identification of specific hazards throughout the entire process of food production, concentrates on the points in the process that are critical to the safety of the product, and highlights measures for their control (Henson and Caswell, 1999).

Introduction

Tropical tuber crops viz., cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), taro (Colocasia esculenta), yams (Dioscorea sp.), Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) etc., are the important sources of starch after cereals and are used as staple or supplementary food in many of the tropical and sub tropical countries. Being the crops with adaptability to wide range of soil, climate and environment of the tropics and sub tropics and requiring minimum agronomic input and care for growth, they can be very well fitted into the prevailing cropping systems. They are the most efficient converters of solar energy and have the ability to reserve energy in the form of carbohydrate in the bulky roots and hence tuber crops are also called as calorie density crops. Tuber crops, though branded as poor man’s crops in rural areas have considerable unrealized potential for processing into high end products for food, feed and industrial uses. They are generally consumed as vegetable after boiling it in water and eaten along with some spicy curry or by extracting starch or flour. Besides serving as an insurance crop during times of food scarcity, it can also function as an industrial raw material for a wide spectrum of products

Introduction

Baking is a traditional activity which has a long history, and according to some recent discovery, it is indicated to be dated back to as early as around 21,000 B.C. It is termed as a complex operation of prolonged heat transfer through radiation, convection, and conduction. Baking is considered to be one of the oldest methods of cooking, most commonly the bread baking but it is not only limited to the bread instead it provides a wide range of products such as cookies, pastry, pizzas, breakfast cereals, etc. Baking includes lots of raw materials such as flour, water, yeast, milk and milk derivatives, shortening, sugars, eggs and some minor ingredients such as malt products, cocoa products, dough improvers, inhibitors of microbiological spoilers, spices, etc. Food items which are rich in sugar and carbohydrates such as chocolates, candies are known as confections, and the art of making these products is termed as confectionary. Confectionery can be broadly classified into two major categories, namely sweet confectionary and baked confectionery. Conventionally cake was defined as the flour based sweet food, whereas bread was defined as the flou-based non-sweet food.

Baked confectionery, also known as flour confectionery includes products such as cakes, pastries, and similar baked goods, especially which are served in dessert. These delicacies hold history not much later to the bread baking. Earlier the baked confectionery especially cakes were only affordable by the rich and were prepared for special occasions such as festivity, celebrations, etc. but now a large number of flour confectioneries are being produced in the world which is delightfully acceptable and are much more in demand by a various group of people.

Wheat Production and Consumption

Wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and the millets are the main crops that provide nutrition to people worldwide. The production of grains in different countries depends on the various factors such as water availability, soil conditions, temperature, cultural and economical are most critical factors. Nutritional needs of the developing countries are more dependent on cereal grains compared to the developed ones. Approximately 60% of the calorie requirements in the developing countries are met from cereals. The International Grains Council (IGC) forecasted for total grains production in 2017-18 to 2.079 billion tonnes. There is a need to have major research to increase their productivity, reduce storage losses, enhance efficiency of processing and to ensure food safety in the entire supply chain. Among them, wheat is one of the most important crop species and is a staple food for about 35% of the world population. Wheat is unique among the grains because of its protein type, which when mixed with the water by mechanical forces yields into viscoelastic dough due to the formation of gluten. This unique property of dough is capable of retaining the gases which are produced by yeast or baking powder resulting in the production of an array of leavened products such as bread, cookie and cake.

Wheat is also an important source of dietary proteins for humans but like other cereals, it is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Wheat crop is adaptable to the wide range of growth conditions compared to other major cereals and hence it is cultivated widely throughout the world. Wheat cereal is the major dominating staple in the North Africa, Central and West Asia, providing the 50% of the calorie requirement in the region. The world wheat production is 740 million tonnes, with China ranking first by producing 125 million tonnes of wheat annually. Other major wheat producing countries are India, USA, Russia Australia, France and Canada. The global per capita consumption of wheat is about 66 kg, which varies widely in different regions. In Algeria, Egypt, Israel and other Middle East as well as Eastern Europe the consumption of wheat flour is high (150 kg/year). The food uses of wheat in developing countries are more than 80%, while in developed countries it is less than 50%. The consumption of the wheat in developing countries is significantly increasing due to globalization and growing economies. After rice, wheat is a major cereal crop in India and contributes to more than 50% of the total calories. It is grown in the cooler regions of India during the period of November to April. In grain production, rice ranks first with the production of about 105 million tonnes per year. In India, total grain production is 136 million tonnes for the year 2016-17 as per the International Grains Council. India ranks second in the production of wheat in the world and produce about 95 million tonnes annually. The bread wheat (astevum) contributes to approximately 94% while durum wheat is 4% and dicoccum wheat accounts to 2%.

Introduction

Oils and fats are the major class of compounds in lipids. Oils and fats are essential nutrients in both human and animal diets and produced from plant, animal, marine and microbial sources. Dietary oils and fats are concentrated sources of metabolizable energy (9 kCal/gram) compared to protein or carbohydrates (4 kCal/g). According to the recommendations of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the maximum total fat intake for adults is 30 to 35% E (total energy calories). The minimum fat intake recommended is 15% E for most individuals and 20% E for women of reproductive age and for malnourished populations (FAO, 2010).The current dietary guidelines for optimal health and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer and obesity emphasize the importance of both the quantity and quality of total fat in the diet. In addition to the caloric and nutritional value, oils and fats exhibit many functional properties in the diet. Oils and fats enhance the value of foods by releasing the flavours of other food components, provide texture, increase palatability of food, and impart the feeling of satiety after eating. Oils and fats provide essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) which are the building blocks for several metabolic pathways for the healthy life. Oils and fats are excellent carriers of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and the absorption of these vitamins is impaired at very low-fat intakes. Due to this reason, sseveral countries have started using edible oils and fats as a suitable vehicle for the fortification of vitamin A and D as edible oils are consumed by almost everyone (Diosady and Krishnaswamy, 2018). Oils and fats are structural bodily components, and are involved in vital physiological processes, including growth, development, inflammation, and brain function. Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria, and also serving as the means of transporting lipids in the blood. Oils and fats are responsible for making biological membranes such as phospholipids and cholesterol, vital for making the cell membranes. Most of the edible oils contain several minor constituents which are known as potent nutraceutical constituents with several health benefits. In addition to edible purpose, oils and fats are being used in many industrial applications such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, lubricants, specialty chemicals, biofuels, etc. Hence oils and fats are indispensable source for food (edible oils and nutraceuticals), fuel (biodiesel, lubricants etc.) and fabulous chemicals (oleochemicals).

27.1 INTRODUCTION

In India, the horticulture sector contributes around 29 per cent of the GDP and 37 per cent of the total exports of agricultural commodities from about 13.08% of area. India has been placed as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; largest producer and consumer of cashew nut, tea, spices; third largest producer of coconut; fourth largest producer and consumer of rubber and sixth largest producer of coffee in the world. Several new programmes area in operation and significant developments in area expansion, production, value-addition and exports have taken place. Today, as a result of better synergy between research agencies, technological and policy initiatives by the governmental agencies, proactive participation of private players and higher degree of diversification to horticulture, this sector has emerged as a sustainable and viable proposition for even the small and marginal farmers including different stakeholders in the commodity chain. In spite of the remarkable progress made in the horticulture Sector in India, there is lot of scope in improvement in safety and quality aspects of horticultural produce.

The concept of biosafety encompasses a range of measures, policies and procedures for minimizing potential risks likely to appear to the environment and human health. Such safeguards must be put in place now. Biosafety is currently being promoted in a variety of ways by industry, governments and civil society. Quality and safety become prime concern because most of the horticultural produce are consumed daily in fresh, cooked and processed form and contribute major share in our daily diet. To ensure biosafety and quality of horticultural produce we need to ensure: a)Supply of quality inputs, b)Adoption of good cultural practices, c) Handling and processing of horticultural produce in scientific /hygienic manner, d)Packing, storage, transportation and delivery etc. in such a way that it reaches at consumers’ table without deteriorating the quality.

To ensure such aspects various preventive and certification measures have been initiated by government and certification agencies all over the globe including India , such as prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954, Agricultural Produce Marketing Act, 1937, Food Safety Standards Association of India (FSSAI), Food Safety System Certification (FSSC:2200), International Food Certification (IFC), Food Chain Traceability, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), Food Product Orders (FPO), etc. The major emphasis under these certifications/regulations is to ensure quality and safety of the produce and minimize the risks by reducing the biological, chemical, physical hazards like microorganism contamination, level of heavy metal/chemicals/ drugs beyond the critical limits, residual effects of toxic substances etc. Brief of a few certification/regulations are listed below.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables (F&V) are good sources of phytochemicals like carotenoids, phenolics, dietary fibers, minerals and vitamins and are considered as important components of a healthy diet. These bioactive compounds in fresh F&V have been linked to delay in onset of many diseases including cardiovascular, chronic and other non-communicable diseases. WHO reported an approximate 3.9 million deaths all over the world in 2017 due to insufficient consumption of F&V (WHO, 2019). Hence, health advisors and nutritionists recommend inclusion of fresh fruits and vegetables to complement the daily diet, and WHO recommends the consumption of a minimum of 400g F&V daily in five portions. However, beneficial raw F&V may contain pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria that can pose threat to consumer safety. Since fruits and some of the vegetables are eaten raw, there are chances that pathogenic microorganisms may also enter food chain. Nearly a half of food borne illnesses in United States are caused by microbes on fresh produce (CDC, 2019). The F&V are handled by producers, dealers, wholesalers, retailers and several intermediaries, and therefore, are at greater risk of possible contamination till it reaches the consumer.

The ever increasing demand for F&V has led to overexploitation of pesticides usage in the farms, leading to harmful pesticide residues in air, soil, water and on the F&V surfaces. Thus, it is imperative to maintain the quality and safety of F&V all through the supply chain. In this chapter, we discuss various pre and postharvest factors affecting the quality and safety of F&V, storage techniques to extend shelf life and reduce the safety threat as well as methods available for microbial and pesticide decontamination of fresh F&V.

Introduction

The conventional thermal processing technologies are dependent on high temperature to control the growth of pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms. However, the exposure to high temperature for prolonged time results in several biological, chemical and physical modifications leading to their sensory, nutritional and textural changes. Currently, consumers are more interested in minimally processed food products with improved safety and shelf life. In order to fulfill the market demand, innovative non-thermal food processing techniques to inactivate the microorganisms have been developed. These techniques retain freshness, nutritional value and sensory characteristics of food items without any significant thermal degradation.

Non-thermal technologies are used in interdisciplinary sciences, and in many other applied areas. The three main pillars related to the use of novel food technologies are food safety, quality and environmental impacts. Besides the food safety and quality dimensions, these non-thermal processing technologies have the possibility to shorten treatment time, lower energy consumption, and lower carbon footprint. Depending on the source of energy transfer, non-thermal technologies have different types of action. It includes inactivation of microorganisms in radical formation (plasma, ultrasound, ozonation, UV light, etc.); mechanical action through hydrodynamic effects, shock waves (ultrasound and plasma), electric and magnetic fields; or extremely high pressures that are causing disruption of the cell organelle.

The novel non-thermal technologies destroy the pathogens at room temperature as well as utilize less energy compared to conventional ones and have the potential of developing new food products having distinctive functionality. For optimizing the product quality, time for processing and also to inactivate the enzymes and bacteria, each of these techniques can be used either alone or in combination. The adverse effect of some technologies on the sensory, texture, and nutritional values of food could be overcome by using hurdle technology. Combination strategies are more efficient for improving the food quality and have the potential to ensure the microbial safety of foods. An overview of the effect of novel process technologies on the quality and safety of food is elaborated in this chapter.

The dairy processing industry in India deals mainly with the fluid milk and/or short shelf life products, despite India being the largest producer of milk in the world, with an output bordering the 110 million ton mark. This feature offers immense potential in the area of R&D in dairy processing in terms of value addition. The potential gains are many, including higher returns for producers and advantages in terms of health, therapeutic, nutritional and/or gastronomy for the consumers. However, the Indian Dairy Industry can amass possible benefits by being a global contender in trade only when its products are at par with those available in the rest of the world in terms of price and quality. It is evident from the post-WTO scenario that for sustainability, Indian dairy industry will need to maintain wholehearted commitment to quality management right from the farm to the consumer, shedding its inhibitions and resistance to changes.

9.1. WTO Agreements and Food Industry

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed in 1947 and lasted until 1994, when it was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. The WTO is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It provides a forum for negotiating agreements aimed at reducing obstacles to international trade and ensuring fair deal for all, thus contributing to economic growth and development. Currently, there are 16 agreements to which all WTO members are parties and two agreements to which only some WTO members are parties. WTO currently has 153 members, of which 117 are developing countries or separate customs territories. The Head Quarters of WTO is at Geneva (Switzerland) and the official languages are English, French and Spanish.

Safety is a primary concern regarding traditional and complementary therapies. There are two aspects of safety evaluations. First, to ensure that the right quality of material and apt possesses are used from sourcing to marketing; and second, there is no contamination, adulteration or spiking. Few studies have reported adulteration with steroids in some traditional Chinese dermatological preparations. In an analysis of Chinese herbal creams prescribed for dermatological conditions, Keane et al. found that eight of eleven creams analyzed contained steroids194. Spiking with corticostreoinds has been observed in some market preparations claimed to be useful in the treatment of arthritis and asthma195. Recently, Saper et al. from Harvard Medical School have reported heavy metal content of Ayurvedic herbal preparations and have recommended mandatory toxic heavy metal testing196. There have been few reports of heavy metal toxicity following traditional medicine use197,198. Such studies are important and needed, however they are more related to the quality control failures of the mass manufacturing activities. Often they are wrongly used to limit the use of TM. In reality, such a QC failure should not be considered as a general negative notion to create a bias against TM. We certainly need effective QC and regulation of herbal medicines, without limiting public access to these preparations and ensuring public interest and constituting restrictive trade practice.

Introduction

The dairy sector is one of the most important food sectors, which introduced the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensorial criteria duringprocessing steps and in the final dairy products. Several agents/ingredients of non-dairy origin are commonly used to maintain the quality of milk and milk products during processing, transportation and storage. In general, such ingredients are known as food additives and it can be antioxidants, coloring agents, flavoring compounds, preservatives(naturals and synthetic),artificialsweeteners, vitamins, minerals, stabilizers, emulsifiers and curing agents. From the safety point of view, some toxic agents can come into contact of dairy products duringmilking, storage or processing; such as fungal toxins, heavy metals, antibiotics or radionuclide’s, etc., which need to be identified and processed accordingly. Although addition of food additives in food/dairy product is controlled under country specific food laws or Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), few dairyproducts such as butter and unflavored fermented milk products are highly restricted for food additives.

Introduction

Packaging helps to maintain the benefits of food processing and enables safe transportation of foods from their point of origin to point of consumption without compromising the wholesomeness of processed food in terms of its physico chemical and microbiological quality. However, packaging technology must balance protection effects with environmental issues, material and energy costs and should comply regulations on municipal solid waste disposal and release of pollutants. These regulations are different in jurisdictions around the world.

Safety implications of food packaging raise concern in recent times due to advances in technology leading to variety of packaging materials and additives. Also there is an alarming situation of damages to environment and natural resources of the planet, due to indiscriminate use and disposal of packaging materials.

However, food packaging as a means to protect and preserve food integrity, to enhance its shelf life and improve consumer appeal cannot be overlooked.The applications of food packaging and its primary role to protect and preserve food has remained the central focus of packaging innovations.Packaging materials are available in variety of forms and are made up of variety of ingredients.While paper. While paper, plastic, petroleum based materials have been in use for many years, the recent approach is towards environment friendly options from agricultural produce such as plant fibres sugars and starches. Advances in packaging has led to development of newer materials and combinations with specific economic and functional benefits.Food packaging ,in general , provides the ability to withstand thermal processing and acts as a barrier against light, moisture,oxygen and other sources of contamination.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

First aid is the initial treatment of a person suffering from a pesticide exposure, before seeking proper medical attention. The first action is to remove the person from the source of the exposure by removing pesticide from the skin, removing contaminated clothing, or getting the person to fresh air. While doing this, be careful to avoid contaminating yourself.

All due precautions have to be exercised in handling pesticides because many of these leave toxic residues on treated food materials and plants which accumulate in higher concentrations in animals which consume these.

General Precautions

Read the precautions given by the manufacturer of the pesticides carefully. Store the pesticides under lock and key; prevent access of children to these; empty containers must be disposed off safely.

Blood and skin contaminations must be avoided.

The godown for fumigation must be made airtight by closing the doors, windows, ventilators, crevices etc.

In case of fumigation, the operator must use a suitable gas mask. It is a face-piece connected to a canister containing an absorbent material for the vapours of the fumigants by means of a flexible non-kinking breathing tube and provided with valves so that all air inhaled by the user passes through the canister and the exhausted air passes directly to the outside atmosphere through a non-return valve. The absorbent canister carries instructions indicating the number of hours for which it is effective in an atmosphere charged with the fumigant.

After the required exposure period, aerate the godown thoroughly. First open the entrance door, keep it open for 6-7 hours, then only enter and open other doors or windows.

For a researcher, laboratory is another home where he/she spends much time every day. As we take care of cleanliness, safety, and design of our home, we must take care on these aspects of laboratory too. It is the responsibility of the laboratory personnel to ensure cleanliness/safety of the laboratory. Since every laboratory chemical and equipment have the potential to cause harms if not used with appropriate precautions. Hence, as a laboratory user, it is our responsibility to follow the basic safety/biosafety rules and regulations set up by the Principal Investigator of the laboratory, Institutional Biosafety Committee, as well as by other regulatory authorities, if any. We must be aware of the general/personal protective measures, cleanliness and laboratory waste disposal prior to joining a research laboratory. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about personal safety, chemical safety, cleanliness, waste disposal, etc.

A. Personal Safety

1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special arrangement to protect the worker from specific hazards because of using a hazardous substance. PPE does not reduce or eliminate the hazard, but protects the wearer from exposure to hazardous material. PPE should not be reused or brought outside the laboratory as these might increase the risk of spread hazardous material or contamination. Used PPE must be kept inside the laboratory in a designated waste storage area adjacent to the work area.

Josephson (1977) studied the effects of food irradiation and sterilization. In radiation sterilization of food (radappertization) the food is exposed in sealed containers to ionizing radiation at absorbed doses which are high enough (25-70 kGy) to kill all organisms of food spoilage and public health significance. Radappertization is analogous to thermal canning for enhancing the shelf stability. In dry products the radappertization process requires the food to be heated to an internal temperature of 70-80°C (bacon to 53°C) to inactivate autolytic enzymes which catalyze spoilage during storage without refrigeration. In order to reduce off-flavors and odors, undesirable color changes, and textural and nutritional losses from exposure to the high doses of irradiation the foods are vacuum sealed and irradiated frozen. Radappertozed foods have the characteristic of fresh foods prepared for eating. Irradiation can be a good substitute for some chemical food additives such as ethylene oxide and nitrites which are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic either wholly or in part. Till now, there is no evidence of any adverse effects of radappertization on the foods. Extensive research has taken place towards the space food. During the planning of Apollo missions, Space Food NASA Technical Reports Server (Space Food NASA Technical Reports Server, NTRS ,1994 ) conducted trials including freeze drying.

INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY PROTOCOLS FOR DRONE OPERATIONS
Drones in agriculture have transformed how farmers oversee and cultivate crops, enhance efficiency, and optimize resources. Nonetheless, like any sophisticated technology, the utilization of drones in agricultural contexts necessitates compliance with stringent safety measures to safeguard the operator, the surrounding environment, and the equipment. The size, power, and complexity of agricultural drones entail inherent operational hazards, including possible accidents, collisions, and interference with other equipment or humans. Implementing safety measures not only prevents accidents but also guarantees the accuracy and reliability of acquired data, hence optimizing the advantages of drone technology in agriculture. By complying with safety regulations, such as conducting thorough pre-flight inspections, establishing secure flight areas, and implementing emergency response protocols, farmers can mitigate risks while maximizing the benefits of drones in agricultural management.
Implementing safety guidelines for drone operations in agricultural environments is crucial to safeguard both operators and the ecosystem while optimizing technological efficacy. Drones serve as potent instruments for activities such crop monitoring, spraying, and soil health evaluation; nevertheless, inadequate management or noncompliance with safety protocols may result in accidents, equipment damage, and data integrity issues. The following are essential safety protocols to adhere to when operating drones in agricultural environments:

Introduction

Safflower belongs to the family Asteraceae, which is also called Compositae, the aster, daisy, or composite family of the flowering-plant order Asterales.tribe Cardueae (thistles) and subtribe Centaureinae . With more than 1,911 genera and 32,913 accepted species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed throughout the world, Asteraceae is one of the largest plant families. The species of the family are annuals and perennials of worldwide distribution, consisting of ornamentals, vegetables and spice or medicinal plants.

The genus Carthamus L., contains about 25 valid species distributed from Spain, North America and West Asia to India. Many are indigenous to the Mediterranean region, but only one viz., Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) is cultivated for oil. Safflower is a diploid species (2n=24). The probable origin of cultivated safflower is the area bounded by the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.

Safflower is grown as edible oil crop in pots, as strip crop, on field borders or around home-steads in the tropical Asia, Africa, Russia and China. Safflower is more drought resistant than other oilseed crops and can yield well on drylands, exploiting sub-soil moisture. (Lovelli et al., 2007). Safflower is also salt tolerant and can be grown on soils affected by some degree of salinity (Bassil and Kaffka, 2002).

The safflower plant has a history of long domestication, initially for orange red dye obtained from florets of the plant. The plant was identified as growing in Egypt in 2000 BC, introduced from Euphrates (Weiss, 2000). Safflower oil has unique variation in fatty acid composition (Knowels, 1969). In general, linoleic acid is the dominant fatty acid ranging from 70 to 78% in local types. In improved types oleic acid ranges from 70 to 75%.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a multipurpose crop that has been grown for orange red dye.
2. Safflower oil contains _____ % linoleic acid.
3. Orange red dye extracted from safflower flowers is called _____.

English name : Saffron
Botanical name : Crocus sativus L.
Family : Iridaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =3x= 24
Centre of origin : Southern Europe
Saffron (Kesar) comprises the dried, tri-lobed stigmas of Crocus sativus L., a bulbous perennial of the Iridaceae family. Saffron, one of the oldest and costliest spices in the world, is often confused with meadow saffron (Colchicum automnale L., family Liliaceae) or safflower, also called bastard saffron (Carthamus tinctorius L., family Compositae), which are sometimes used as adulterants. Producing one pound of saffron requires harvesting 75,000 flowers by hand to obtain 2,25,000 to 5,00,000 dried stigmas. Saffron is characterized by its vibrant yellow-red colour, a distinct, intense aroma, and a slightly bitter, exotic taste.

Saffron, the legendary crop of Kashmir, India, is an important food adjunct, that is, food flavorant and food colorant, and, is also reputed to possess several medicinal properties. The recorded accounts of saffron cultivation in Kashmir dates back to AD 550, nearly four centuries earlier than its recorded cultivation in Spain by the Arabs around AD 961. The saffron fields, from mid-October to early November, when saffron plants are in full bloom, on a moonlit night, present a wonderful sight and a good source of fascination to many tourists. But, surprisingly, it’s cultivation in Jammu and Kashmir in India does not seem to be based on scientific research and the growers have some superstitions, notions and methods of their own. Therefore, saffron-growing areas are those very localities where they have been since ancient times (550 AD), and is also their out-dated methods of curing, drying and packing, which can be improved considerably. Over 100 species of saffron genus Crocus are distributed worldwide, but, only Crocus sativus has received some attention and is cultivated in several countries. Saffron consists of dried tri-lobed stigmas of Crocus sativus, which is a bulbous perennial with globular corms. The plant is only 15-25cm tall, native of Southern Europe and cultivated in the Mediterranean countries, in particular, Spain, Austria, France, Greece, besides England, Turkey, India (in Jammu and Kashmir State, an Indian Union territory), and The People’s Republic of Iran. It is also grown in the Orient. True Saffron must not be confused with either meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale Linn; Family: Liliaceae) or Safflower or Bastard Saffron (Carthamus tinctorium; Family: Compositae), which are

Description and Distribution
Sage is the dried leaf of the of the plant Salvia officinalis Linn. which is a member of the mint family. It grows and is also cultivated in Yugoslavia, Italy, Albania, Turkey, Portugal, Spain, Cyprus, England, Canada, and, the USA. It is also grown in several other European countries. It is native of the Mediterranean region. It is a hardy and a variable sub-shrub, and is often cultivated as a spice and for medicinal purposes. Stems are shrubby, white and woolly, 30-cm tall; the leaves are greyish green, aromatic, entire, petiolate, oblong, 7-8 cm long, base narrowed or spear shaped or round. On drying, the leaves turn silvery grey, and they have soft velvety texture. The flowers are blue, purple or white in simple racemes. The cultivation of Sage or “Garden Sage” has been tried for its essential oil in Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir State of India), which is currently being imported for use in perfumery and soap industries. The plants are reported to have done quite well. It should be propagated in India to save foreign exchange. The cultivation of Sage in the Dalmatian region of Yugoslavia, is considered by the trade to be the best in quality, and the product derived from the cultivated plants in this region is rated the next in preference. The odor is strong, fragrant and aromatic, and the taste is aromatic, warm, somewhat astringent and a little bitter. Other product such as Spanish Sage and Greek sage derived from the other species of Salvia are used either as a substitute or adulterant of the genuine product.
Area, Production and Trade
No reliable published information is available on both area and production of Sage in India or in the world, at large. However, the available information on the international trade of Sage is summarized as follows:

Vegetables which are consumed raw without cooking are known as salad crops.  In temperate regions, a large number of quick growing cool season crops like lettuce, celery, parsley, endive, chicory, chervil, cress, water cress etc. are consumed as raw. Only lettuce and celery are cultivated on a commercial scale in developed countries.  Growing awareness on nutritional values of raw vegetables and also health consciousness of people resulted in increased consumption of salad vegetables in tropics too.  Vegetables like onion, cucumber, tomato, carrot, radish, beet root, cabbage, capsicum, melon etc. are used as salads without cooking.

Vegetables which are consumed raw without cooking are known as salad crops. In temperate regions, a large number of quick growing cool season crops like lettuce, celery, parsley, endive, chicory, chervil, cress, water cress etc. are consumed as raw. Only lettuce and celery are cultivated on a commercial scale in developed countries. Growing awareness on nutritional values of raw vegetables and also health consciousness of people resulted in increased consumption of salad vegetables in tropics too. Vegetables like onion, cucumber, tomato, carrot, radish, beet root, cabbage, capsicum, melon etc. are used as salads without cooking. 

(Hindi: Salad) Fam.: Asteraceae (Compositae)

Lettuce is the most popular salad crop of the world and the most important vegetable crop in temperate regions. The crop is grown mainly under protected structures in temperate countries. Tender leaves and heads are chopped and used as salad along with salt and vinegar.

Scientific name: Pseudarthria viscida L.
Family: Fabaceae
Pseudarthira viscida is an important plant in the Indian conventional system of medicine. It is known as salaparni in Sanskrit, belongs to the Fabaceae family, and is distributed in peninsular India and Srilanka. It is among the dasamoola, a combination of roots of ten medicinal plants. It is used as a medicine for the treatment of various diseases due to its versatile nature and it is also an essential ingredient of various ayurvedic formulations such as Surasadi Thailam,Sudarsanasava, Balajeerakadhi Kashayam,Brihatyadi Kashayam, Surasadi Kashayam,Brahmarasayana. Pseudarthria viscida is a herbal plant that exhibits pharmacological andtherapeutic properties. It is widely used in ayurveda alone or poly-herbal formulations to treat various diseases. The whole plant is known for antipyretic, analgesic, antioxidant and anti-fungal effects. It is commercially and extensively used to treat tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, blood disorders, tumors, diabetes, hyperthermia and bronchitis. The root is the economic part, which alleviates tridoshas, namely vata, pitta, andcoupha. The roots are with thermogenic, astringent, emollient, digestive, febrifuge andcardiotonic. Majorchemical compounds present in the roots aregallic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, quercetin, ferulicacid and phenolic compounds and also reported with proteins, flavonoids and leucopelargonidin. Roots are
well known for anthelmintic,anti-diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties. Decoction of the root used against heart diseases, rheumatism, asthma and piles. Pseudarthria viscida is becoming extinct from nature, and its number has been reduced drastically. Due to the limited availability of Pseudarthria viscida, which is substituted by other leguminous trifoliate plant species such as Desmodiumpulchellum and Uraria rufescens. There for, it is put in the red list category and the plant requires proper management practices to exploit its therapeutic potential in the treatment of various diseases.

Sales Management

According to American marketing Association “Sales management is the planning, direction and control of personal selling, including recruiting, selecting, equipping, assigning, routing, supervising, paying and motivating as these tasks apply to the personal sales force.”

Sales management as the term implies means management of sales. Initially the concept consisted of managing the sales workforce. Now-a-days, it includes managing of all the sales related activities like advertising, sales promotion, physical distribution, pricing and product merchandising.

Introduction
Psychotherapeutic measures provide a treatment approach to help a person identify and alter disturbing emotions, thought and behaviors.
They include targeted strategies that are used to deal and alleviate mental disturbances. Contemporary approaches are customized techniques to effectively and efficiently delivering solutions to the problems and their manifestations. The history of treatment throws light upon several conventional approaches to deal with multiple disorders. The following discussion provides the insight into the understanding of these approaches: -
1. Psychodynamic Therapy (PDT)
Psychodynamic therapy was the norm in psychiatric practice in the early 20th century. It evolved primarily from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic ideas, with significant contributions from Karl Jung, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein, among others. The main emphasis is on how early experiences shape and build the psychological systems that are mostly responsible for the unconscious. Finding, exposing and resolving suppressed tensions from previous interactions that inadvertently surface in current interpersonal interactions and give rise to maladaptive behavioral patterns is the aim of psychodynamic therapy. Free association and dream analysis are two methods used to investigate the unconscious drive. The patient is urged to express himself freely and without restraint during free interaction. Using “active listening,” the therapist searches for references or patterns that connect to ongoing developmental and interpersonal issues. This can aid in understanding the unconscious process. The application of dream

Introduction

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and minerals and all soils contain some amount of soluble salts. Many of these act as a source of essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when quantity and quality of salts in the soil near rhizosphere exceeds a particular value, growth, yield and/or quality of most crops is adversely affected. Such a soil is called salt-affected. The degree of adverse effects depends upon the type and quantity of salts, crop and its variety, stage of growth, cultural practices and environmental factors viz. temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall etc. Development of salinity and waterlogging is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture.

Soil degradation resulting from salinity and sodicity is a major environmental threat to soil fertility and agricultural productivity in arid and semiarid regions of the world. Saline–sodic soils are degraded due to the simultaneous effect of salinity and sodicity. This causes loss of soil physical structure by clay swelling, and dispersion because of high Na+ concentrations in the soil solution or at the exchange phase. Apart from these physicochemical effects, this leads to biological properties, such as microbial respiration and biomass, becoming worse. On the other hand, salinity affects plant growth by creating osmotic imbalances and specific ion toxicities, which pose limitations to morphological, histological, chemical, biochemical, and metabolic processes. In turn, these reduce stomatal opening and photosynthetic rate, leading to decreased plant growth, crop yield, and quality.

Introduction

The coastal tract of peninsular India extends from Rann of Kutch in Gujarat to Malabar Coast in Kerala on the western coast and from Coromandal coast in Tamil Nadu up to Sunderban delta in West Bengal on the eastern coast. The eastern coast is generally characterized by a wider coast line when compared to its western counterpart. Coastal ecosystem in India occupies an area of about10.78 million hectares (1,07,833 km²) extending in nine states. It also occupies considerable area underLakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. The extent and distribution of coastalarea have been shown in Table 1.

Saline Water Agriculture has been drawing interest as one of the solutions for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salt-tolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential.

It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.

for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salttolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential. It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.
FROM DESALINATION OF SEA WATER TO SEA WATER AGRICULTURE
Sea water contains nearly 35000 ppm of dissolved salts. There has been great deal of interest world wide on desalination of sea and brackish water to safe drinking water. In early 1960s the young President of USA John Kennedy put forward two famous challenges for the scientists (1) Landing the man on moon and (2) Producing desalinated water at low and competitive cost. It is often said that the first challenge was met but the second one has been more difficult! With tremendous support and interest, work on desalination was taken up worldwide. Newer processes were being tried. At the Environmental Research Lab of University of Arizona and at Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar simultaneously solar powered HD (humidification – dehumidification) process of Desalination was developed and pilot plants were commissioned. It was however realized that desalinated water was costly and not easily applicable to most coastal communities, though for many countries in middle east with no alternative water source and cheap petroleum energy – it is applicable on a very large scale.

There are four major tracts where salt affected soils are commonly met within India. These are:

1. The Semi-arid Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts (mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and a part of Bihar)
2. The arid tracts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
3. The arid and semi arid tracts of southern states, particularly of the irrigated rigor (Vertisols) soils.
4. The coastal alluvium

Earlier it was estimated that about 7 million hectares of land have been affected by salinity/sodicity conditions in India. The area under these soils increased and reached to the level 10 million hectares at present.

11.1 Introduction

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. The technical term for saltiness in the ocean is halinity, from the fact that halides, chloride specifically are the most abundant anions in the mix of dissolved elements. In oceanography, it has been traditional to express halinity not as percent, but as parts per thousand (ppt ), which is approximately grams of salt per liter of solution. In other disciplines chemical analyses of solutions, and thus salinity is frequently reported in mg/L or ppm (parts per million). Prior to 1978, salinity or halinity was expressed as % usually based on the electrical conductivity ratio of the sample to “Copenhagen water”, an artificial sea water manufactured to serve as a world “standard”(Lewis, E.L 1980). In 1978, oceanographers redefined salinity in Practical Salinity Units (psu): the conductivity ratio of a sea water sample to a standard KCl solution (UNESCO, 1981a) (UNESCO, 1981b). Ratios have no units, so it is not the case that 35 psu exactly equals 35 grams of salt per litre of solution (UNESCO, 1985).

These seemingly esoteric approaches to measuring and reporting salt concentrations may appear to obscure their practical use; but it must be remembered that salinity is the sum weight of many different elements within a given volume of water. It has always been the case that to get a precise salinity as a concentration and convert this to an amount of substance required knowing much more about the sample and the measurement than just the weight of the solids upon evaporation. For example, volume is influenced by water temperature; and the composition of the salts is not a constant. Saline waters from inland seas can have a composition that differs from that of the ocean. For the latter reason, these waters are termed saline as differentiated from ocean waters, where the term haline applies.

The total amount of salts dissolved in water is known as salinity. Salinity of water is denoted as ppt, g/L, psu. Salinity of different water has been classified as Freshwater 0-0.5 ppt, Brackish water 0.5-30ppt and Marine water > 300 ppt.
Reagents
1. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) (0.1N): Dissolve 4.25 g silver nitrate in distilled water and make the total volume 250 ml by shaking.
2. Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) indicator (5%): Dissolve 2.5 g potassium chromate in distilled water and make the total volume 50 ml by shaking.
Procedure
1. Salinity in estuarine and coastal water can be estimated by this method.
2. Take 10 ml of water sample in a 50 ml conical flask.
3. Add 3-4 drops of potassium nitrate indicator solution to it.
4. Titrate against 0.1N Silver nitrate till the yellow colour changes to brick red.

Abstract

The Saanich (Coast Salish) are an Indigenous people of southern Vancouver Island on the southwest coast of Canada who for many centuries have relied heavily on anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) as a major food source. Over time, Saanich fishers have become experts on many aspects of these salmon, including knowledge of the different species, their life cycles, feeding ecology, migration routes, and population dynamics. Much of this knowledge is centered at Saanich Inlet and Goldstream River, a major salmon spawning stream flowing into this inlet. Some Saanich and other Coast Salish people still fish for salmon at Goldstream using traditional gaff hooks and spears, but they have also adopted more modern gear in recent times. Pacific coho (O. kisutch) and chum (O. keta) salmon stocks in particular have fluctuated over the decades, evidently due to impacts of commercial fishing, pollution from oil leakage and domestic sewage in Saanich Inlet.