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For any statistical analysis, the required primary data are usually collected by the census or sampling methods. In the census method, the data are collected from all the individuals. E.g., If we want to study the weight of 100 cows, we have to make use of all 100 cows for data collection. That is, we collect data from the entire population or universe. However, in the sampling method, the data are collected from a small group of the population which is termed as the sample. A sample is a portion of the population selected to represent the population. E.g., we collect data only from a sample of cows, say 20 cows drawn from the population.

True/False

Q.1.    Collectivity (totality) of all sampling units is known as the “Population” and population size is denoted by “N”.
Q.2.    A list of all sampling units with their identification is known as “Sampling frame”. For example a list of all newly-born children in maternity home during a period of three months with specification of their sex, weight, name of their parents, their permanent address, etc. is known as sampling frame.
Q.3.    A function of all sampling units in the population is known as population parameter or population constant.

Soil testing is a useful tool that can help to ensure the efficient use of applied plant nutrients. Soil tests provide a means for assessing the fertility status of a soil, but soil tests do not provide a direct measure of the actual quantity of plant available nutrients in the soil. Instead, soil tests measure the quantity of a nutrient element that is extractable from a soil by a particular chemical extracting solution. The measured quantity of extractable nutrient in a soil is then used to predict the crop yield response to application of the nutrient as fertilizer, manure, or other amendment. As soil test levels increase for a particular nutrient, the expected crop yield response to additions of that nutrient decreases. A soil-testing programme has four phases as follows:

1.Collection of soil samples,

2.Chemical analysis of soil samples,

3.Calibration and interpretation of the results of chemical analysis, and

4.Nutrient/Fertilizer Recommendation.

9.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept of Sample, Population, Sampling Frame, Sample Size, etc.;
ii) Differentiate between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methods;
iii) Understand the various methods of sampling;
iv) Recognize Sampling and Non-Sampling errors;
v) Determine Sample Size.

Introduction

In 1952, the classical theory of survey sampling neared completion. In 1952, Horvitz and Thompson created a general theory with an aim to create objective estimations. As Horvitz and Thompson completed the Classical theory, the random sampling strategy was mostly agreed upon. The majority of the great books on sampling were written by numerous authors. (Yates, 1949; Deming, 1950; Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow 1953; Cochran et al., 1953).

Why Sample?

• Particularly in fisheries, it is impractical to count every single specimen.

• Sampling gives a depiction of an organism's abundance and dispersion.

• A sufficient number of samples must be used to ensure that the results are accurate representations of the condition. Notwithstanding the fact that the sample is considered to be the credible and representative of the population and that the data shows accuracy, the sample may not accurately reflect the system's real population. As a result, sampling introduces a mistake.

• Sampling error is the statistical error showing the difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true values of a population parameter when all the units in the population are counted in the same way that the sample is counted.

3.1. CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEYS

Census or Complete Enumeration

A survey, which includes every element of the population, is known as Census or the Method of Complete Enumeration. If certain agencies are interested in studying the total population of a country, they have to obtain information from all the households in rural and urban area.

The essential feature of this method is that this covers every individual unit in the entire population. We cannot select some and leave out others. We may be familiar with the Census of a country, which is carried out after a particular period like every ten years. A housetohouse enquiry is carried out, covering all households. Human demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy, workforce, life expectancy, size and composition of population, etc. are collected and published by a government agency.

A sample is just a part of a population selected according to some rule or plan. Following are some of the methods of sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and the most commonly used type of probability sampling is simple random sampling. In this kind of sampling, each member of the population has the same probability of being included in the sample. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Population: The word population or universe in statistics means a set of observations relating to a phenomenon under investigation.

Sample: It is a fraction or a subset of population drawn through a valid statistical procedure so that it can be regarded as representative of the entire population.

Sampling: The statistical procedure of drawing a sample from the population is called Sampling.

Census enquiry or complete enumeration: When each and every unit of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as census enquiry or complete enquiry.

Sample enquiry or sample enumeration: It is a part of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as sample enquiry or sample enumeration.

Necessity of sampling: Since, the process of collecting information from all the elements of a large population may be, in general, expensive, time consuming and difficult. We help to sampling and generalise the properties of the sample to the entire population. The statistical procedures which are used for drawing inferences or conclusions about the population from sample data are covered under Inferential Statistics or Statistical inference. Thus, sampling theory is the basis of statistical inference in which we wish to obtain maximum information about the population with minimum effort and maximum precision.

After having performed their function, pesticides in the parent form or in some converted form reach the soil, the ultimate sink for these moieties which are collectively termed as residues. According to FAO 1986, pesticide residue is defined as any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products, metabolism, reaction products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance. From the soil they move into other segments of the environment. The pesticide residues are absorbed by plants and enter the food chain, where they get concentrated in animal fat. Some residues are carried away by wind in the vapor form, which enables them to be transported to long distances from the source of application and then get collected by dust and rain before they are deposited on the ground again. Pesticide residues also move to aquatic environments through runoff, leaching, and atmosphere disposition.

INTRODUCTION

Management of several of the important insect-pests of crops is becoming increasingly difficult owing to a number of factors by which pests have been able to offset the effect of control interventions. Several of the present day pest management problems may be ascribed to the excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides during the last about three decades. Routine application of insecticides for controlling insect-pests, without taking into consideration whether economic damage to the crops is being inflicted by the pest or not, has resulted into several problems like pest resistance, pest resurgence, pest replacement, killing of natural enemies of pests, presence of toxic residues in food, and soil and environmental pollution, etc., apart from increase in the cost of plant protection. Entomologists have been trying to find solution to these problems through integrated pest management of which monitoring of insect activity through regular surveys is an important component. In fact, knowledge of insect activity is indispensable since pest management system can not operate without accurate estimates of pests and natural enemies population or without reliable assessment of plant damage and its effect on yield.

Sampling is the process of drawing a part of population supposed to be the representative of that population.

Types: Sampling process can be either random or non-random. Most frequently we use random sampling method in our studies. But sometimes the purpose of the study demands for non-random sampling in one or other phase of sampling (Example: When we want to study the impact of life skills development programme on the disabled female beneficiaries)

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

This scheme has been merged with NREGS since February 2006 so only most important points are given below.

1. The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched on 25 September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of EAS (Employment Assurance Scheme) and the JGSY (Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojna)
2. Objective was to providing additional wage employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas.
3. The annual outlay was Rs.10, 000 crore which included 50 lakh tones on food grains.
4. The cash component shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25.

2.1 Tracing History of Casting
The manufacture of end products, viz. two-wheeler, four-wheeler, fan, washing machine, fridge, grinding machine, water cooler, etc., in companies requires many components. The components of these products have different shapes and sizes. Casting is a manufacturing process, which gives shape and size to a component of interest by pouring molten metal, which is in red hot state into a mould, which is designed such that its internal shape and size exactly match with the external shape and size of the component of interest. Casting is a very old art form that dates back thousands of years before the start of written history. Findings from the archaeological record show that the casting process was used more than 6000 years ago, or around 3000 BC. It is assumed that the moulds consisted of two pieces of pottery joined by a rope and featuring a hole to allow the molten metal to be poured into them. It is assumed that early hunting tools and weapons were made in this manner The Greeks and Romans made the casting process in artform to make bronze status, in which hollow wax has been used. Every component of a product was casted individually. The core of the mould was composed of clay and coated in wax. Next, a layer of clay was heated to melt the wax inside, and then the clay was heated once again to burn off any leftover wax. Melted metal was poured into the region where the wax had been removed once the mould was stable and ready, which is a process like contemporary investment casting. China started producing tools, bowls and many industrial items using casting around 1000 BCE. In specific, they produced farm tools and weapons. After several centuries, the casting process reached European counties to make gun, bullets, etc. With the advent of industrial revolution, the casting process became as a usual manufacturing process, what is seen today. Later, several metals, which are used in casting have been invented to produce high quality products with increased end of life for them. Over a period, metal casting underwent development. Casting procedures advanced quickly along with improvements in metal-heating and melting techniques. Gold was the first metal to be casted because of its low melting point and malleability. China made significant contributions to the development of casting when it discovered sand casting and iron, also referred to as pig iron.

16.1 Introduction

Successful egg production is highly dependent on sanitation and decontamination, and producing clean eggs is the most major element of egg sanitation. Egg contents might become contaminated either vertically or horizontally. The ideal option for small farms can be to keep hatching eggs in a hygienic area and incubate them as soon as possible without sanitation but it’s not the same kind in case for commercial producers need to get a poultry veterinarian guidance on the proper egg handling and sanitation program depending on their needs. There are several preharvest techniques used to minimize egg contamination, including immunization, feed additives, home sanitation, bacteriophages, and biosecurity.

Sanitation in the Rabbitry is the best disease-prevention system. Daily cleaning of cages or hutches, containers and surrounding is the easiest way to ensure sanitary condition and hence control disease. The most common diseases found in rabbits are cocciodosis. Pasteurella type pneumonia and enteritis. There are generally caused by lack of sanitation in the rabbitry. With strict sanitation practices such as cleaning all cages and water containers everyday, removal of manure, soiled bedding. Contaminated feed and collecting roughage from uncontaminated areas can drastically reduces chances of any disease in the rabbitry.

The sanitation word is derived from a Latin word sanitas, meaning “health.” In true sense sanitation is the creation and maintenance of hygiene and healthful conditions in abattoir or meat processing plant. So that produced food provides full nutrients with minimal contaminations and hazards to the human health. It creates the aesthetic environment in the workplace which ultimately enhances the work efficiency and satisfaction to the workers. It helps in maintenance of clean environment, less pollution, proper waste disposal and improves ecological balance. It is a prerequisite of food safety, good hygienic practices and total quality management.

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

Sapota [Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen, (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosber] is a member of the family sapotaceae. It is a fairly slow growing and long-lived tree. It is valued for its delicious fruit in India, while in Guatemala, south East Mexico, British Honduras, chickle is commercially produced which is the main ingredient in preparation of chewing gum. Chickle is extracted from trunk and unripe fruits of the tree as white latex exudate. Although synthetic gums are primarily used, countries like Mexico, Venezula and Guatemala still grow sapota for chickle.

It is native to South Mexico as well as North East Guatemala. Manilkara species is found in forests throughout tropical America, which was introduced long ago followed by West Indies, Bahamas, Bermuda and Southern part of Florida mainland. Early in colonial times, it was carried to Phillippines, and later distributed to Malaysia and other countries in the tropics (Purseglove, 1974). It is not known when it was first introduced to India. Commercial cultivation was first taken up in Maharashtra during 1898 (Cheema et al., 1954). Future of sapota appears to be promising, since attention in this crop is enthusiastic from growers and consumers in many countries. Sapota is grown on commercial basis in India, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Mexico and Venezuela.

India is one of the largest producers of sapota in the world. Major states growing this fruit crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Assam and Haryana. India’s production of sapota continues to grow up and there is an active research program in India with specific goals towards improving storage, transport and marketing strategies.

Sapota or sapodilla popularly known as Chiku is native to tropical America where it is mainly grown for its chickle, “the gutta parcha” extracted from its latex from stems. It is used as a base material in chewing gum and in some other industrial uses. However, in India it is cultivated for its delicious sweet fruits. The fruit is fleshy berry, variable in shape, size and weight. The skin is thin, rusty brown somewhat scurfy looking like Irish potato, and the pulp soft, melting, crumbling with a sandy or granular texture with 1–5 hard black seeds. The fruit has an exceptionally sweet malty flavour. 

Genus : Achras /Manilkara
Species : sapota L. zapota (Mill.) Forberg 
Family : Sapotaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=26

Thomas Firmingaer, an English horticulturist while in India in praise of sapota wrote ‘a more luscious, cool and agreeable fruit is not to be within this or perhaps any other country in the world’. A French botanist described sapota as ‘the sweet perfumes of honey, jasmine and lily of the valley’. In view of these the fruit is considered to be one of the best fruits of tropical America, although cannot be compared with the other more popular fruits of the region i.e. pineapple and cherimoya. In many tropical parts of the world this delicious fruit is held in high esteem.

Sapota or sapidilla or bully tree or chiku (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg) is a delicious tropical fruit crop, was introduced from tropical America. Among lesser-known fruits, area expansion and production of sapota have been observed spectacular. During as the area under sapota is fast increasing and this crop is attaining the status of major fruit crop.

PRESENT STATUS

India is considered to be the largest producer of sapota in the world, though it is considered to be a minor crop in India (Bal, 1997). The area under sapota in India during 2000-01 was 69,400 ha with a production of 6.74 lakh tonnes, while during the year 2012-13, it was 164000 ha with a production of 14.95 lakh tonnes (ICAR-DataBook 2014). The area under sapota is increasing so rapidly owing to a wider range of adaptability. In many regions, cultivation of sapota is preferred over mango (Bal, 1997). The important sapota growing states are Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. Recently, our country has made a beginning in export to Middle East countries.

It is tropical fruit which is commercially cultivated in humid areas of India. Fruits are very tasty, sweet and rich in sugar. Trees are ever light green, slow growing and it attains a height of about eight meters.

Origin and Distribution

Sapota is native to Central and South America, specifically from the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico to Costa Rica, where the largest population of native trees still exists (Gilly 1943). It is now widespread throughout the tropical regions of the world, including Central and South America, the West Indies, India, and Florida in the United States.

Sapota is grown on a commercial basis in India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Mexico, Venezuela, Guatemala, and some other Central American countries. India is the largest producer of sapota fruit with current production around 24,000 ha (Chadha 1992). Sapota is widely planted in south Florida, where the fruit is marketed locally and shipped to northern and eastern U.S. markets. The fruit, however, is not commonly seen in the United States. In southern Mexico and Central America where sapodilla is native, it is considered to be one of the best of the tropical fruits.

• Delicious Fruit
• Sapota fruit is a good source of sugar which ranges between 12 and 14 per cent.

Cultivars

• Kalipatti, Chaatri, Dhola Diwani, Long Bhuni or Bhunipatti, Jingar, Vanjet, Pata Kirthabharthi Dwarapudi, Cricket Ball, Oval, Vavi Valosa, Bangalora Calcutta Round, Jonnavalosa I, II, round Baramari Pot Sapota, Gavarayya, Thagonampadi, Ayyangan (Rose scented)
• Flowers of Sapota and protogynous Pollination is mediated through the wind.
• The most ideal soils are deep alluvium, sandy loamy red late rites and medium black soils.
• Sapota is a tropical fruit crop optimum temperature ranges between 11°C and 34°C.
• Sapota is grafting of inarching.
• Rootstock – Sapota seedlings, Rayan or Khirnior pala Adam’s apple, Mahua, Star apple.
• Seed germinates by the 4th week, budding and grafting is done on seedling about 1cm thick.

Sapota, Manilkara zapota commonly called Chickoo is a popular tropical winter fruit cultivated widely in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. In north, its cultivation is seen across Jammu to Dehradun. Very few insect pests infest Sapota, the details of which are given hereunder:

Sapota leaf webber, Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

This is a pest of major concern in Chickoo cultivation in India. The eggs are oval and pale yellow in colour which change to reddish brown near hatching. The caterpillar is pinkish in appearance and bears two longitudinal dorsolateral lines. The full fed larva measures 25 mm in length. The newly formed light green pupa changes to reddish brown in the later stage. The adult is a greyish moth having hooked antennae (Plate 10e) bears two vertical lines on the forewing whereas, the hind wings

20.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Indo-Malayan region

• Grown in all southern states and extends northwards to Odisha and Bengal.

• In India, it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as live fence in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

20.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Wood, leaves, pods and seeds.

• Sappan wood or East Indian red wood - Multipurpose tree, yielding valuable natural dyes with medicinal properties.

• Source of commercial redwood or Brazil wood.

• Used for inlaying work, cabinet making, violin bows and for walking sticks

• Stem produces gum, tannin or dye stuff

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to moist deciduous forest of south East Asia (Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Andaman Islands)

• In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal, Parts of Western Ghats and Assam are the major cultivators.

6.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root.

• Used in treatment of snake bite, stings, nervous disorders etc.,

• Root bark - 40-60% alkaloids helps in reducing high blood pressure and sedative or tranquilizing agent.

• Fresh roots - Emit acrid aroma very bitter.

Scientific name: Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
Family: Apocyanaceae
Rauvolfia serpentina, also spelled as Rauwolfia, is indeed a vital plant in traditional Indian medicine. It has been used in folk medicine for centuries to treat conditions like snake and insect bites, malaria, dysentery, and more. This plant is deeply rooted in Indian culture, mentioned in Hindu manuscripts as far back as 1000 BCE. It's also known by various names, including Indian snake root, devil pepper, serpentine wood, sarpagandha, and chandrika. Botanically, it belongs to the family Apocynaceae, with the genus Rauvolfia comprising 74 species. Unfortunately, Rauvolfia serpentina is listed as endangered due to over-exploitation and habitat loss, emphasizing the need for conservation and sustainable use to ensure its availability for future generations.
Origin and distribution
The distribution of R. serpentina is very wide, is occurrence is sporadic. The plant commonly grows scattered and close to each other. They are widely distributed in the Sub Himalayan tract from Himachal Pradesh to Sikkim and Bhutan, Eastern and Western Ghats, in some parts of central India. Beyond India the plant is distributed in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Burma.

Scale: Saissetia coffeae: Coccidae

Scale insects

Brownish black scale infests lower surface of leaves along with mid ribs and mid veins.They also cover petioles and tender shoots.  Due to draining of sap, leaves turn yellow and drop, plants become stunted.

ABSTRACT

Village Resource Centre (VRC) provides information services to the rural population to empower them to face day to day challenges. In this line, the Department of Space, ISRO & RRSSC is bringing its space technology to common man by setting up of Village Resource Centres, with a view to integrate the capabilities of communication and remote sensing satellites to address the changing and critical needs of rural communities. VRC is totally interactive VSAT based network for providing space enabled information related to land records, natural resources, drinking water wells, ground water recharge, soil types, alternate cropping pattern, waste lands, etc. VRCs also provide  variety of services in its tele-education and tele-medicine programmes, online decision support, weather forecasting, water management, interactive farmers advisory services (video conferencing) etc.

Introduction

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage. Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time. The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

Abstract

This paper sets out to describe key results and experiences obtained during the assessment of the crop response to water which varies strongly from crop to crop depending on its specific genetic characteristics and adaptation to ecological conditions. The specific crop water information for the different crops is compiled in a crop-based data base. This includes crop water parameters, yield response to water, as well as selection of economy crops. Existing natural water resources can sustain the crop production with high yield as well as economic value with minimal environment impact. Most of the crop varieties get all of its required water from rainfall- water but due to climate change there is always a demand of irrigation water from the ground water resources. Thus, there is a need to evaluate the crop water information in relation to ground water extraction as a source of irrigation.

Digital image processing is the use of computer algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. As a subcategory or field of digital signal processing, digital image processing has many advantages over analog image processing. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the buildup of noise and signal distortion during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of multidimensional systems. Introduction to image processing 
Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually image processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing methods to them.
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with that image. Now-a-days, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

5.1 Introduction
The Earth’s atmosphere is a vast, dynamic, and interconnected system, constantly in motion and influencing every aspect of our lives. Accurately observing and understanding this complex system is fundamental to predicting weather, monitoring climate change, and responding to environmental challenges. While ground-based platforms provide invaluable high-resolutiondata at specific locations, theitr  spatial coverage is inherently limited. This is where satellite remote sensing emerges as a revolutionary tool in meteorology. By observing the Earth and its atmosphere from space, satellites offer an unparalleled vantage point, providing global and continuous coverage that is impossible to achieve with ground-based instruments alone. They can capture data from remote oceans, deserts, and polar regions, offering a truly holistic view of atmospheric processes.
Satellite remote sensing enables meteorologists to measure a wide array of atmospheric parameters, including temperature and humidity profiles, cloud properties (type, height, movement), wind fields, precipitation rates, and the distribution of atmospheric gases and aerosols. This wealth of data is crucial for initializing and validating numerical weather prediction models, tracking severe storms, monitoring long-term climate trends, and conducting fundamental atmospheric research. This chapter will delve into the fascinating world of satellite remote sensing in meteorology, exploring the principles behind how these orbiting observatories collect data, the various types of meteorological satellites and their specialized instruments, and the diverse applications of the information they provide for understanding and forecasting
our planet’s weather and climate.

Both possess a pronounced thyme-like odor and flavor. And, both are employed in culinary preparations. The oil of the two plants is closely related in chemical composition. The oil can be obtained by steam distillation of the herb. The dried leaves and flowering tops derived from S.hortensis constitute winter Savory of commerce. The best quality of savory comprises of dried leaves only. S.hortensis constitutes summer Savory. Savory is an erect pubescent annual herb, 20-30 cm in height with pinkish branches, fund in Kashmir State of India. Leaves are oblong – linear or lanceolate with deep-pitted glands on both sides. Flowers are small auxiliary cymes. It grows in Southern France, Germany, Spain, and other parts of Europe, also in England, Canada and the USA. The dried leaves are brownish-green in color, up to 10 mm in length. The odor is strong, warm and highly aromatic; the taste is somewhat sharp and camphoraceous. It is marketed both in whole and ground form. Satureia hortensis Linn., the summer Savory or Garden type, is largely cultivated, although it also grows wild, to some extent. An annual, it is less developed than Satureia montana. Its stalks are herbaceous, covered with soft and linear leaves. The branches frequently are reddish in color. Flowers of the Garden Sage are whitish, dotted with red, growing in a bouquet from the summit of the branches. Satureia montana Linn., the winter Savory, as the French call it “Poivre Diane” grows wild on sunny and calcareous and hill-side of Southern France, especially in the Alpes-Maritimes. It is a hardy, shrub-like perennial, attaining a height of 8-14 inches with small, yellowish or slightly purple leaves, growing

The objective of the present study was to explore the therapeutic potential of hot alcoholic (100%), hydroalcoholic (70%) and cold aqueous extracts of Pterocarpus marsupium and hot aqueous extract of ITK formulation (mixture of gum acacia, black cumin, wheat and barley) against obese streptozotocin induced type 2 diabetes in male Wistar rats. In Phase I study, tested extracts were observed to possess carbohydrates, alkaloids, proteins and amino acids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, fixed oils and resins with additional glycosides in ITK formulation after screening by qualitative tests and further confirmed by semiquantitative analysis (by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) to possess active principles having antidiabetic, antioxidant, nephroprotective, cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. The extracts were evaluated for in vitro antioxidant (2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2, 2’-Azino bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assay) and antidiabetic (α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity) was determined. Aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts have potent antioxidant and alcoholic extract of P. Marsupium showed superior antidiabetic activity over ITK formulation. Further in Phase II study, 48 obese male Wistar rats were divided into eight groups viz. group I (Healthy Control), group II (Obese), group III (Obese Diabetic), group IV (Obese Diabetic + Metformin @ 50 mg/ kg b.wt.), group V (Obese Diabetic + ITK @ 435 mg/kg b.wt), group VI (Obese Diabetic + Aqueous P.marsupium @ 1 g/kg b.wt) and group VII and VIII were treated with hydroalcoholic and alcoholic @ 300 mg/kg b.wt.

Data collection is a tedious and time consuming work, particularly from remote places. So many times the collected data is noisy. But data is the base for future planning and management of water resources. Planning based on noisy data could lead to failure. The modern data collection and subsequent control system i.e. telemetry and SCADA, are introduced in this chapter.

2.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept and importance of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales;
ii) Identify the characteristics and uses of each scale type;
iii) Learn to select the right scale for different data and research needs;
v) Recognize the properties and tests for each scale’s adequacy;
v) Understand the challenges and limitations of using different scales;
vi) Stay updated on recent advancements in scale development;
vii) Apply nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales in research with practical examples and calculations;
viii) Understand different types of data structure.

Scales are having imperfectly keratinized superficial layers of the epidermis characterized by cracks or thin flakes.

Small volume cultures are useful for experiments such as studying cell morphology, titration of viruses, plaque assay, pock assay, SNT and to compare the effect of agents on growth and metabolism. However, there are other application where there is a need of large number of cells such as extraction of DNA/RNA from cells, production of viruses for vaccine production and a number of products namely interferons, interleukins, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, glycoproteins etc. The large quantity of cells can be obtained by using a large number of flasks/bottles but it is tedius, labour intensive, expensive and there is a risk of contiamination. Although the unit processes are more cost effective and efficient, it needs some modification to overcome limiting factors such as oxygen depletion, shear damage and metabolic toxicity. There are a number of aberrations available to scale up cell culture described below.

Introduction

Rice is known as the grain of life, and is synonymous with food for Asians. In addition to being a staple food and an integral part of social rites, rituals, and festivals in all Asian countries, it has a medicinal value too, which was clearly recognized by the medicine systems of the region. Ancient Ayurvedic treatises laud the Raktashali red rice as a nutritive food and medicine. The medicinal value of other rices such as Sashtika, Sali, and parched rice have been documented in the Charaka Samhita (c. 700 BC) and the Susruta Samhita (c. 400 BC), in the treatment of various ailments such as diarrhea, vomiting, fever, hemorrhage, chest pain, wounds, and burns.

According to late Dr. Richaria, the well known rice scientist, 4, 00,000 varieties of rice existed in India during the Vedic period. According to his estimates, even today 2, 00,000 varieties of rice exist in India - a truly phenomenal number. Farmers in every part of country have a deep knowledge of their own rice varieties, This has enabled them to harvest a crop even under the most severe stress situations. Traditional paddy varieties are location specific and has its own advantages viz. saline tolerant, drought tolerant, pest tolerant, used for specific purpose such as roofing material for houses etc.

Knowledge of structure is a basic element of biological research. Understanding structures of various degrees of complexity contributes to a better understanding of function, ontogenetic and physiologic processes, as well as phylogenetic relationships. In biological sciences, ultrastructure refers to the nanostructure of a biological specimen, such as a cell, tissue, or organ, at scales smaller than can be viewed with light microscopy. Electron microscopy (EM) has a great impact on our knowledge and understanding of ultrastructure.

Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object).

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria...etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes.

A Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that images a sample by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample producing signals that contain information about the sample’s surface topography, composition, and other properties such as electrical conductivity.

The types of signals produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light (cathodoluminescence), specimen current and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are common in all SEMs, but it is rare that a singlemachine would havedetectors for allpossiblesignals. The signals result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface of the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron imaging or SEI, the SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample.

8.1 Introduction

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was the first type of Electron Microscope to be developed and is patterned exactly on the Light Transmission Microscope except that a focused beam of electrons is used instead of light to see through the specimen. It was developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931. The first Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) debuted in 1942 with the first commercial instruments around 1965. Its late development was due to the electronics involved in scanning the beam of electrons across the sample. Electron microscope has been a valuable tool in the development of scientific theory and it contributed greatly to biology, medicine and material sciences. This wide spread use of electron microscopes is based on the fact that they permit the observation and characterization of materials on a nanometer (nm) to micrometer (µm) scale. Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the sample surface topography and composition. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of focus, greater resolution, and ease of sample observation makes the SEM one of the most heavily used instruments in research areas today.

The scapula is more regularly triangular than in horse, relatively, wider at the vertebral end and narrower at the distal end. The scapular index is about T.0.6. The spine is more prominent and is placed further forward, so that the supras- pinous fossa is narrow and does not extend to the lower part of the bone. The spine is sinuous, bent backward in its middle, forward below. Its free border is somewhat thickened in its middle, but bears no distinct tuber. Instead of little more prominent, and is prolonged by a pointed production, the acromion, from which part of the deltoid muscle arises. The sub scapular fossa is shallow. The areas for the attachment of the stratus muscle are not very distinct. The nutri- ent foramen is usually in the lower third of the posterior border. The glenoid cavity is almost circular and without any distinct notch. The tuberosity is small and close to the glenoid cavity. The coracoid process is short and rounded. The cartilage resembles that of the horse. The tuberosity unites with the rest.