eBook Chapters

Introduction

Agriculture is highly dependent on environment, and it’s very difficult to get favourable climate and other conditions for optimum crop growth and development as per crop need. Open field conditions are having a high direct affect of the prevailing weather conditions on crop growth, and also on population dynamics of viruses, fungus, bacteria, insects, etc. With time crops has adopted themselves to specific seasons, but the fast changing climatic conditions happening across the globe has changed the climatic characteristics of a season. This has resulted in untimely rains, high temperature fluctuations and changes in other abiotic and biotic factors in geographically varied locations where it was not supposed to be earlier based on various geographical factors deciding the climatic conditions of that area. Therefore, there is need to develop suitable technologies to sustain these challenges. How to address these issues, can we manipulate the climatic conditions or can we provide protection to the crops against climatic fluctuations and various other related stresses.

Since its founding in the early 2000s, Scopus - which describes itself as a “source-neutral abstract and citation database curated by independent subjectmatter experts” — has been recognized as one of the top research indexes. At the time of writing this blog post, Scopus includes over 25,100 titles from 5,000 publishers, spanning 240 academic disciplines - with a staggering 76.8 million core records. Scopus encompasses research across scholarly disciplines but consists primarily of science and technology articles (Fig. 4.1).
There are many benefits to having journals added to the Scopus database. In addition to its extensive content coverage encompassing virtually all subjects, Scopus is known for its high level of academic rigor, including an annual journal re-evaluation process, which it requires as “an incentive for journals to maintain their high content quality.”
Scopus also provides a wide range of metrics for indexed content, including
• Journal-level metrics such as Citescore, which both publishes an annual impact score and gives monthly updates on how things are currently shaping up for each of the indexed titles via the CiteScore Tracker
• Article-level metrics such as PlumX, which analyzes how readers are responding to content in the broader online context (i.e., via tweets, blogs, Wikipedia references, etc.)
• Author-level metrics such as the h-index, which aims to provide an objective measure of the overall impact of individual authors’ publication histories.

Aim: To obtain balanced two-phase supply from three-phase supply by Scott arrangement of two single-phase transformers.

The phase conversion from three to two phase is needed in special cases, such as in supplying 2-phase electric arc furnaces. Scott connection of two-single phase transformers is employed for conversion of a three-phase system to two phase system or vice-versa. Rating of one transformer should be 15% greater than that of the other, but in practical two identical transformers are used for interchangeability and spares. The 50% tap of one transformer (Main transformer) is connected to 86.6% tap of the other transformer (Teaser transformer). The secondaries for balanced supply system have equal number of turns.

Abstract

Investigations were carried out during 2005 at Rajgarh area of District Sirmaur in Himachal Pradesh for screening elite germplasm of Kaphal ( Myrica nagi Thunb). A wide range of variability was noticed for 14 fruit characters. Maximum fruit weight (834 mg), fruit length (12.94 mm), pulp weight (5.96 mg), pulp percentage (83.21%) and seed : pulp ratio (1 : 5.96) were recorded in Tree No. 35. maximum TSS (14.40 oB) was recorded in Tree No. 37. maximum fruit diameter (10.71 mm), fruit volume (650 µl), seed weight (154 mg) and seed breadth (7.51 mm) were recorded against Tree No. 25. maximum coefficient of variability was noticed for pulp weight followed by fruit weight and minimum for pulp percentage. Keeping in view the importance of large fruit size two elite trees (Tree No. 25 and 35) were marked which has fruit weight greater than 700 mg for collecting seeds to raise seedlings of this unexploited sub-temperate fruit

1. Introduction

Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) is a striking tuberous climbing plant with brilliant wavy-edged yellow and red petaled flowers. Glory lilies are grown commercially for a chemical compound, colchicine. The annual foreign exchange through the export of glory lily seeds is estimated to be Rs.100 crores (Alice and Sundravadana, 2012). It is used as anthemirtic, alexiteric and useful in ulcers, piles, abdominal pains and itching. It has abortifacient, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-leprotic properties (Gupta et al., 2005). Leaf blight disease was first noticed in  G.. Superba in West Bengal, India in 2004. The leaf blight disease was observed during June to September. Early symptoms appeared as small, circular to oval, light brownish spots, 2-6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently the spots enlarged and usually developed into concentric rings. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced and became irregular in shape, then the affected leaf blighted completely. The causal organism was found to be a fungus namely Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. The pathogen is greatly influenced by weather with the highest disease incidence reported in wet seasons and in areas with relatively high rainfall (Meena et al., 2010). The growth of A. alternata was maximum in pH range of 6-6.5 and temperature range of 25-30°C (Hubballi et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are biologically active compounds found in plants, which act as a resistance system for host plants and protect them from biotic and abiotic stresses. Phytochemicals act as antioxidants, which react with the free radicals present in the cell. Free radicals are formed in the cell as a result of aerobic metabolism and these radicals are biologically active that damages the macromolecules like DNA, proteins and lipids resulting in oxidizing chain reactions (Moussa et al., 2011). Oxidative stress damage leads to various disorders like autoimmune disorders, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, cataract, aging, cardiovascular diseases and other neurodegenerative disorders (Uttara et al., 2009). The major actions of antioxidant in the cells are to protect them against the damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Medicinal plants are good sources of antioxidants such as vitamin E, ascorbic acid and carotenoids. There are huge numbers of medicinal plants that are veiled in the environment. In ancient times, different plant species have been used for the treatment of human ailments from fever to cancer (Devendrakumar et al., 2009).

Recombinant DNA is advancement in molecular technology which allows manipulation of genomes of higher organisms and dissection of their complex regulatory circuits. This new methodology is being used to understand the biochemistry of living organisms. The isolation of gene begins with the cloning of fragmented DNA of the organism into appropriate vector. 

Abstract

Fusarium wilt is major disease in Central India, the major lentil growing region of country. The disease is soil borne causing heavy loss, development of wilt resistant varieties is most effective means of controlling this disease. Highly resistant sources of wilt in lentil have not been reported from the Indian lentil breeding programme. One hundred thirty lentil genotypes including one susceptible check were evaluated in control conditions of green house against wilt, based on controlled condition screening- LL 1370, IPL 333, PL4, RLG 195, RVL 14-4, L 4737, RKL 607-1, WBL 77, LL 1320, LL 1397, VL 525, LL1379, VL526, RVL14-5, L4717, VL126, L4076, RLG191 and VL150 have been identified as highly resistant genotypes. These can be used in hybridization programme for wilt resistance breeding and studying the inheritance of wilt resistance in lentil.

ABSTRACT

Chickpea is an important pulse crop of India and most suited to the use of rhizobia for its nitrogen requirement. Mesorhizobium ciceri which interact with the crop are poorly understood. Attempt has been made to select M. ciceri with several beneficial properties. Sixty four isolates of M. ciceri collected from the nodules of several chickpea varieties and mutant lines were screened for their growth properties on nitrogen free medium. Isolates MC59 and MC 18-7 showed normal growth and had ARA values at half level to that of Azotobacter. PCR amplification results suggested the presence of ACC deaminase gene sequence both in Azotobacter and M. ciceri. Invariably all isolates showed the presence of one plasmid in the range of 35 kb to 40 kb size.

Spontaneous contractions of the uterus are controlled and coordinated for various reproductive functions. The non-pregnant uterus facilitates ova and sperm transport, provides adequate embryo placement for implantation, and contributes to the expulsion of menstrual debris through increased contractility, or periods of relative quiescence (Hutchings et al., 2009). Uterine dysmotility has been implicated in the pathogenesis of certain infertilities, implantation failure, endometriosis, dysmenorrhea, and abnormal menstrual events (Kunz and Leyendecker, 2002; Aguilar and Mitchell, 2010). Although these conditions may not contribute to mortality but can significantly affect patient’s reproductive health, and considerably alter their quality of life (Jones et al., 2004; Weissman et al., 2004; Chachamovich et al., 2010). Dysmenorrhoea refers to the occurrence of painful cramps in the lower abdominal region during menstruation and is one of the unresolved gynecological disorders in adolescent girls and women of reproductive age (Wang et al., 2004; Harel, 2008). This condition is mainly characterized by cramping pain in the lower abdomen immediately before or during menstruation, which does affect the quality of their life and work (Davis and Westhoff, 2001).

ABSTRACT

In oil palm there are three fruit forms viz. dura, tenera and pisifera. The commercial planting material is tenera produced by crossing dura and pisifera (D X P). Dura has thick shell and less economic part, where as pisifera is an abortic, female sterile type and cannot be reproduced in the normal ways. When tenera is selfed, segregation takes place in the monogenic Mendelian ratio; 1 dura: 2 tenera: 1 pisifera. Since all these palm types are morphologically alike, they can be confirmed only after fruiting, and verifying the internal fruit morphology. Fruiting in pisifera is highly erratic and often prolonged to several years. Proper technique in identifying these palms has been puzzling the breeder all over. Hence, a shell thickness marker is very important for early identification of the oil palm varieties.

An attempt has been taken to screen PCR primers and select the probable primers linked to the shell thickness in the present study. ‘Bulk segregation analysis’ approach was adopted for the study and DNA isolation was carried out from 25 dura and 25 pisifera palms. All the palms were developed from same tenera x tenera crosses. DNA from all the 25 duras and 25 pisiferas were pooled separately. Two pooled DNA samples were subjected to RAPD analysis with 50 random primers using the standard RAPD protocol. The amplified samples were electrophoresed and documented.

Both the pooled samples showed same banding pattern with all the primers, except 10 primers showing differences. Since the genetic configuration of the pooled dura DNA was likely to be same as that of the pisifera pooled DNA, the primers showing difference in banding pattern were the putative primers linked to shell thickness. All the 10 primers would be used for amplification of individual dura and pisifera DNA for confirmation of shell thickness marker.

Abstract

This study was conducted to examine the response of photosynthetic pigments to heavy metal stress in a short-term toxicity test using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC pigment analysis of Euglena has resulted in 5 separated pigments: chlorophylls a, b and three carotenoids, which are 9-cis-neoxanthin, diadinoxanthin and b-carotene.

Introduction

Drought is one of the primary factors responsible for depressing rice yield in chronic areas and in destabilising rice production in drought-prone areas. It is a production constraint common to all rainfed rice cultures: wetland, upland, and deepwater (O’Toole and Chang 1979). Breeding for drought resistance, a major component of the International Rice Research Institute’s (IRRI) Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Program since the early 1970s, aims at countering the adverse effects of drought in unfavoured rice production areas.

Rice germplasm has such remarkably rich diversity that a continuous spectrum of genotypes differing in the various physiological mechanisms can be found and is available for genetic manipulation (Chang et al. 1982a). However, effective evaluation methods are essential for unravelling the specific mechanism(s) involved and for devising eficient selection criteria in a breeding program. Moreover, the broad spread in growth duration among rice cultivars makes it impractical to obtain uniform evaluation of a large number of cultivars when they differ in physiological responses that are specific to certain growth stages. Methods that can accommodate large numbers are essential to breeding program.

There’s no one-size-fits-all approach to writing a documentary script, but there are best practices that can streamline the process. Here are some key tips for crafting a compelling documentary script:

Choose a Story You’re Passionate About

Start by asking yourself why you want to create this documentary. What message do you want to convey? Why are you the best person to tell this story? These are questions that producers and executive producers will expect you to answer in a pitch, but it’s crucial to first address them for yourself. The answers will guide you to a story that you’re genuinely passionate about, making the long and challenging process of documentary filmmaking worthwhile. Once you have clarity on these questions, you can dive into the task of researching your material, identifying the story, and crafting the script.

This practical assignment is dealt with the appropriate writing of script for farm broadcast and telecast. Script writing is an art for disseminating the information to the users in an effective and interesting way. In agricultural journalism, script writing plays an important and crucial role to communicate the agricultural information to the farming community with its proper content and intent.

PURPOSE

To acquaint the students with the first-hand knowledge about the principles and technique of writing scripts for farm broadcast and telecast.

To provide the students an opportunity for developing and improving their skill in writing an effective radio/television script.

Represented by about 65 genera and 1,730 species, Scrophulariaceae are cosmopolitan in their distribution. About 60 genera and 360 species have been reported from India, chiefly from the Himalayas. Some of the genera along with their approximately reported species from world over are Pedicularis (500), Calceolaria (300-400), Scrophularia (300), Verbascum (300), Veronica (300), Penstemon (280, Linaria (150), Castilleja (150), Selago (150), Sutera (130), Mimulus (100), Antirrhinum (40) and Digitalis (20). The common names of the family (snapdragons, foxglove or figwort family) are because of its genera Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Digitalis (foxglove) and Scrophularia (figwort).
Selected Indian Genera
Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Linaria, Lindenbergia, Mazus, Verbascum, Veronica.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants: Include Angelonia angustifolia, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Calceolaria scabiosaefolia (slipperwort), Castilleja (Indian paintbrush), Chelone glabra (turtlehead), Collinsia grandiflora, Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), Linaria vulgaris (toadflax), Mimulus luteus (monkey flower), Nemesia versicolor (Nemesia), Paulownia tomentosa, Pedicularis canadensis (housewort), Russelia juncea (coral blow), Torenia asiatica and Veronica bungifolia (speedwell).

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 interconnected goals established by the United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals aim to address global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice (Fig. 14.1).
14.1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The SDGs provide a universal framework to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. Following is the list of the 17 SDGs
1. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-Being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Principle

The SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) performs:

Separation of proteins according to their molecular weight

Ascertain whether a given protein is actually present in a sample,

Assessment of purity of the preparation

Estimation of the approximate quantity of the protein, and

Measurement of the size of the protein.

Introduction

Electrophoresis is the migration of charged molecules in solution in response to an electric field. Their rate of migration depends on the strength of the field; on the net charge, size and shape of the molecules and also on the ionic strength, viscosity and temperature of the medium in which the molecules are moving. As an analytical tool, electrophoresis is simple, rapid and highly sensitive. It is used analytically to study the properties of a single charged species, and as a separation technique. SDS-PAGE is the most widely used method for qualitatively analyzing any protein mixtures. The method is based on the separation of proteins according to their size and then locating by binding them to a dye. It is particularly useful for monitoring protein purity and determines their relative mass. The SDS-PAGE enables the students to understand the theory behind the techniques in checking the purity of the protein and identifying the protein in a test sample.

Separation of Proteins

Proteins are amphoteric compounds; their net charge therefore is determined by the pH of the medium in which they are suspended. In a solution with a pH above its isoelectric point, a protein has a net negative charge and migrates towards the anode in an electrical field. Below its isoelectric point, the protein is positively charged and migrates towards the cathode. The net charge carried by a protein is in addition independent of its size - i.e.: the charge carried per unit mass (or length, given proteins and nucleic acids are linear macromolecules) of molecule differs from protein to protein. At a given pH therefore, and under non-denaturing conditions, the electrophoretic separation of proteins is determined by both size and charge of the molecules.

Introduction Sea buckthorn berry belongs to Elaeagnaceae having 6 species (Hippophae rhamnoides, Hippophae neurocarpa, Hippophae salicifolia, Hippophae gonicarpa, Hippophae tibetiana and Hippophae litangenis) and 12 subspecies grown all over the world. India, is having its plantations in chilly and barren conditions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Berries and fruits are believed to have such bio-active compounds like antioxidants in them that it has constructive consequences on health of human beings. Moreover, they are been proven in lessening the cardiovascular diseases, age related issues,cancer etc. Berries of Sea buckthorn is an abundant provenance of these bio-active compounds. One of the major lipophilic compounds is carotenoid pigments. And the concentration of the same has difference depending upon origin of plant, harvesting period and weather conditions. Nutritionally, the fruits have a substantial amount of carbohydrate, protein, organic acids, amino acids, and vitamins. Moreover, it also contains bioactive compounds like carotenoids, dietary minerals, antioxidants, flavonoids, vitamin C, minerals, monosaccharide, organic acids, tannins, etc. Sea buckthorn plant parts are becoming one of the useful and promising nutraceuticals for the food industry and all over the world.

Introduction

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae Spp) a treasure house of vitamins, belonging to the family Elaeagnaceae, and it is a valuable medicinal plant, since its fruit contain high amount of bioactive substances. It is a thorny, temperate bush, tree and is widely distributed throughout the dry temperate regions of Europe and Asia. As the name indicates Seabuckthorn, the plant grows from sea level to high altitude mountain regions but mainly distributed in higher elevations of Indian Himalayas, from Ladakh (J & K) to Lahaul - Spiti (H.P.), Kumaon and Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Chauhan 1999). It is seen under natural conditions Seabuckthorn grows on slopes, well drained soil with silt, river banks, lakes, sea shores & waste lands. It is well adapted to dry conditions. Seabuckthorn the wonder plant of cold arid Himalaya, grows in wastelands, dry rocks and along river belts in Indus, Nubra, Chanthang, Suru, zanskar and Lauhal - Spiti valleys in India (Singh and Chaurasia 2000).

Seabuckthorn or Siberian pineapple or Leh Berry is an emerging new horticultural crop of temperate region in the world. In India, its importance was realized in 1992 when the author found its wild abundance in cold desert of Leh /Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir State and named it as Leh Berry. Perhaps Chinese were the first to use this plant as medicine even before 8th century. In traditional Chinese medicines, seabuckthorn products are used as health drinks, for cardiovascular and digestive diseases and ailments related to lungs and skin. Chinese Olympic athletes were served seabuckthorn based health drinks to improve their physical performance and endurance. Seabuckthorn figures in folklore medicines of China, Mongolia, Tibet, India ,Russia, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Ancient Greeks were taken by surprise before 12th century to find their horses, strong and energetic again with a shine on their hair, which were let loose to die a natural death. These horses used seabuckthorn wild growth as their fodder.

Seabuckthorn is an important plant of India and other regions of the world, where it is being widely used as an orchard plant for fruit production and in the ecological rehabilitation of waste lands and eroded areas. In India, seabuckthorn has been developed into a major environmental resource. Many areas that are virtually treeless and losses huge soil due to erosion, seabuckthorn has turned out to be useful because it withstands severe weather and grows huge root systems in poor soil. This is the reason that seabuckthorn is grown in Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir which is known as cold desert. In Mongolia several wild animal species have found a habitat in the sea buckthorn forest, including pheasant, hare and fox.

In Garhwal Himalayas, various economically important tree species including Seabuckthorn (Hippophae salicipholia) have been over exploited for fuel, fodder and seed, therefore presently exist only in some patches here and there. Due to excessive lopping for fodder, the seed are generally not available for natural regeneration. Hence, there is a need of developing technique for mass multiplication of these multipurpose tree species for afforestation and general well being of the rural people.

Food packaging

Food packaging is an external means of preservation of food during storage, transportation and distribution and has to be provided at the production center. It forms an integral part of the production process and has an important function in the distribution of food. In today’s consumer oriented market, a package is an extremely vital link between the manufacturer of the product and the ultimate user. There is great awareness among the consumers today regarding their right to obtain proper quality and correct quantity of the product at a fair price in an aesthetic and hygienic package. Hence the basic function of food packaging is to protect the product from physical damage and contaminants, to delay microbial spoilage, to allow greater handling and to improve the presentation.

Need for packaging of fish and fishery products

Fish is a highly perishable food item and should be handled at all times with great care, in such a way so as to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Fish is having a unique biochemical composition and its quality deteriorates rapidly and the potential shelf life is reduced if they are not handled and stored properly. The quality and type of packaging materials and the methods of packaging and storage are, therefore, of great importance for preserving the quality of fish. Fish and fish products can generally be grouped into fresh fish, frozen fish, thermally processed fish, dried fish and other value added fishery products. Each category requires special requirements for packaging and storage and hence different packaging materials.

Abstract
The growing demand for fish products, recognized for their nutritional composition and contribution to a healthy diet, has led to a significant increase in seafood processing waste, including shells, bones, skins, and other by-products. This chapter explores the potential of utilizing these seafood by-products to develop edible films and coatings, aligning with circular bio economy principles of, resource efficiency, sustainability and waste reduction. Edible films and coatings derived from seafood waste, such as chitosan, proteins, gelatin etc. offer various advantages, which include extention of the shelf life of products, preserving sensory qualities (aroma, taste, and appearance), and reducing the need for synthetic packaging materials. These biodegradable films also demonstrate antimicrobial, antioxidant, and mould-inhibiting properties, which contribute to improving food quality and safety. However, despite the benefits, challenges remain in terms of the physical properties of these films, including water resistance, mechanical strength, and consumer acceptance. The commercial application of these biopolymer-based materials is still limited by these issues, as well as by the complexities involved in scaling up production processes. To optimise the qualities of edible films and coatings made from seafood waste, more research is essential, particularly through the development of composite materials and innovative gelling systems. With ongoing advancements in biopolymer technology and processing techniques, edible films from seafood waste hold great promise as a sustainable, eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastic packaging, contributing to the circular bio economy and reducing environmental pollution.
Keywords: Biodegradable, Edible coatings, Edible films, Seafood Processing waste

Food Safety has been the buzz word in recent days as there are increasing consumer awareness on hazards present in food as well as the ombudsmen role played by independent media. Although regulatory regime across the world has taken proactive steps, in most of the cases it has been a knee-jerk reaction to the impending crisis. Defining the actual goal of food safety has been an arduous task as there are umpteen interrelated factors that influence the intended goals. Some of the definitions on food safety put forward by international agencies are as follows:

Introduction

Seafood provides about 25% of the global intake of animal protein and fetches a huge economy for developing nations. Many challenges concerning food safety and quality exist due to globalization and liberalization of the global f ish trade. International food safety regulatory bodies such as WTO and CAC through SPS and TBT Agreements work on ensuring food safety and quality. Adoption of risk-based analysis and implementation of the HACCP system are encouraged to maintain high seafood safety standards. International regulatory bodies set maximum residual limits for various environmental pollutants and contaminants to ensure consumer safety. Consumer education programs play important role to enhance awareness and improve transparency in the seafood supply chain. Internationally traded seafood products therefore need to meet the standards prescribed for food safety and quality requirements. In case of non-conformance, they could be detained, rejected and destroyed.

The global demand on seafood quality and safety requirement and the complexities of seafood supply chain make difficulty to ensure authenticity and traceability of seaood products in the market. Most seafood is exported from the country where it is caught while part of it via. a third country. Seafood pass-through complex supply chains involving, capture/culture, transshipment, processing, packaging, wholesale, retailing, and consumer. The global trade of seafood has led to a significant concern associated with seafood fraud.

12.1. Seafood Fraud

Seafood fraud is the practice of providing misleading information to the consumers about their product for financial gain. There are nine types of seafood fraud, which include species substitution, fishery substitution, IUU substitution, species adulteration, chain of custody abuse, catch method fraud, undeclared product extension, modern day slavery, and animal welfare

It is always advantageous if there is a senior scientist,a mentor or a Guru ( I have not used the term teacher as all may be teachers but may not be Guru as per Indian mythology) who can recognize your talents and may believe that you may achieve some unusual goals, if properly guided or encouraged. This is important for carrying an important task to its fruitful results. Here what we are referring a Guru is not in the sense as is presently used for searching a god father. There is a vast difference between the two. The perception about god-father is that he may not possess the required knowledge but is perfect in manipulating situations in his favor so that work is done by all means. In scientific world, this is mostly applied to the persons who have contact with higher ups helping in getting promotions or foreign trips. These god fathers are good only to provide some material gifts but are not best in their scientific achievements hence cannot replace a Guru or a good scientist.

When you are assigned with your thesis problem or some problem is puzzling you, the first step is to search the related literature ; here the term literature is used not as it is used in humanities but this means the literature related to the research work published by the earlier scientists on the topic. The searching of literature is a most important and first step in conducting research on a particular topic. This not only acquaint you with the work of other scientists who tried to solve the problem but also confirms the possibility that previous scientists might have solved that problem and yours will be a repeat attempt ; in that case you may tackle other aspects of the problem, if at all they are existing and important in present circumstances.

Population studies have been traditionally used to monitor large scale, long term changes in avian population and to assess both habitat quality and the responses of birds to both management practices and natural and human caused environmental changes (Wiens, 1989). Species composition, abundance and behaviour of birds are known to vary seasonally (Morrison et al. 1980). Some species are permanent residents in an area, others occupy an area only during winter or summer months. In this chapter, seasonal variations of wetland bird community in the Kole wetlands are described in terms of species richness, abundance, diversity and density.

METHODS

Seasonal pattern

The study area has three distinct seasons viz. dry season (December to April) wet-I, the period of southwest monsoon (May to August) and wet-II, the period of northeast monsoon (September to November). Based on the arrival of migratory birds, the months are divided into migratory season (September to March) and non-migratory season (April to August). Occurrence of birds in each month obtained through the daily census data was used for the seasonality analysis. Monthly changes and seasonal changes of the community were analysed. Species richness, abundance, diversity indices of each season and also in migratory and non-migratory season were calculated and presented. Population fluctuations of 36 wader species in the four intensive study areas during three migratory seasons were estimated. Apart from these, detailed information on the population fluctuation of selected bird species was presented.

Tropical forests support a stable population of birds throughout the seasons in comparison to the temperate forests, where there is marked variation in tune with change of seasons (Wright, 1970). The seasonal changes of bird community at Silent Valley and Mukkali are presented in this chapter. There are two seasons namely monsoon (June to November) and summer (December to May). The availability of food at Silent Valley was studied to find out the relationship between seasonal changes of the community and the abundance of food.

Seasonals or annual flowers refers to the group of herbaceous plants which complete their life-cycle i.e. both vegetative and reproductive phase within one year or one season. They are most popular among garden lovers and amateurs as they are easy to culture and moreover they also provide a beautiful and instant display of colours in the garden. Seasonals are mostly preferred for growing in pots, beds, borders, window boxes, hanging baskets or as cut flower for interior decoration. They enhance the aesthetic value of a place within a short span of time and create the instant landscape. Seasonals are generally grown in beds either individually with or without perennial plants in borders. They are also grown for cut flowers for interior decoration or for loose flower purpose. Some of the seasonals are valued for their naturally dried flowers like straw flower, paper flower etc. Some of annuals the annuals also provide sweet fragrance to the garden.

Agricultural Seasons

Season is defined as “part of the year during which a distinguished type of weather prevails”.

A) Seasons of Temperate region

1. Spring (March – May) is the first season of the year in which plants being to grow and leaves emerge.
2. Summer (June – August) is the second and warmest season of the year out side the tropics during which plants flourish
3. Fall or Autumn (September – November) is the third season of the year in which leaves turn brown.
4. Winter (December – February) is the last and the coldest season of the year. Many trees loose their leaves.

Introduction

Seaweeds are referred to as the wonder plants of the sea, macrophytic marine algae which are a primitive type of plants lacking true roots, stems and leaves. They usually grow in shallow coastal and marine water. Based on the occurrence of pigments, seaweeds are classified into three groups: Green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) having the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b; Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyta) having the pigment fucoxanthin; and Red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) having the pigment phycoerythrin.

There are various training programmes being conducted in Tamil Nadu to promote seaweed cultivation and its various applications. The one-day SCSP training programme organised by ICAR-RVS KVK, Tiruneveli, Tamil Nadu, and the three-day SCSP training programme on seaweed for food and industrial application by Jehovah Shamma Aqua One Centre, both sponsored by MANAGE, Hyderabad, seem to have been well received by the coastal population of Tamil Nadu. The training programmes covered topics such as the status and distribution of seaweeds on the Indian coast, by-products from marine seaweeds, and nutraceutical products from marine seaweeds. These are important areas of knowledge that can help the coastal population explore the various opportunities available in seaweed cultivation and to utilise the seaweed species to their full potential.

Introduction
 
Whilst food has long been used to improve health, our knowledge of the relationship between food components and health is now being used to improve food. Although most foods can be considered “functional”, in the context of this review, the term is reserved for foods and food components that have been demonstrated to provide specific health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Widespread interest in select foods that might promote health has resulted in the use of the term “functional foods”. Seaweeds are known for their richness in polysaccharides, minerals and certain vitamins [1], but they also contain bioactive substances like polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and polyphenols, with antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal, as well as many such other properties [2]. This gives seaweed great potential as a supplement in functional food or for the extraction of compounds. Physiologically active substances in marine algae are classified into two types based on the difference in the mechanisms viz. (i) non-absorbed high-molecular materials like dietary fibres, and (ii) low molecular materials, which are absorbed and which affect the maintenance of human homeostasis directly. Seaweeds are among the first marine organisms chemically analyzed, with more than 3,600 articles published describing 3,300 secondary metabolites from marine plants and algae, and they still remain an almost endless source of new bioactive compounds [3].

It is one of the common epithelial skin tumors. It is more common in head but also recorded in other sites such as back, tail, limb, trunk and eyelids. It is a tumor of sebaceous cells. In sebaceous gland adenoma, it has predominantly sebocytes with less of basaloid reserve cells while in sebaceous epithelioma variant, more of basaloid reserve cells are seen with less of sebocytes.

It produces contraction of the unstriped muscular fibers, hence a constringent feeling throughout the whole body. This produces an anemic condition, coldness, numbness, mortification and gangrene. A useful remedy for old persons with shriveled skin- thin, scrawny old women. All the Secale conditions are better from cold; the whole body is pervaded by great heat. Haemorrhages continued oozing, thin, fetid, watery black blood. Debility, anxiety, emaciation, though appetite and thirst may be excessive. Facial and abdominal muscles twitch. Secale lowers the flow of pancreatic juice by raising the blood pressure.

Menstrual colic, with coldness and intolerance of heat. Passive haemorrhages in feeble, cachetic women. Burning pains in uterus, brownish, offensive leucorrhoea. Menses irregular, copious, dark, continuous oozing of watery blood until next period. Threatened abortion about the third month. During labor no expulsive action, though everything is relaxed. After-pains. Suppression of milk; breasts do not fill properly. Dark, offensive lochia. Puerperal fever, putrid discharges, tympanitis, coldness, suppressed urine.

Background: Indian Agriculture

The share of agriculture in GDP of India has increased from 17.8% in 2019-20 to 19.9% in 2020-21 (Economic Survey, 2020-21). According to fourth advanced estimate, the food grain production in the country in 2019-20 was 296.65 million tonnes. In spite of lower contribution to GDP than industries and services sector, a trend that is expected in the development process of any economy, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food, while roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. While agriculture’s share in India’s economy has progressively declined due to the high growth rates of the industrial and services sectors, the sector’s importance in India’s economic and social fabric goes well beyond this indicator. First, nearly three-quarters of India’s families depend on rural incomes. 

Abstract

Women work two-third of the world’s working hours, produce half of the world’s food yet 60% of the world’s hungry are women. They earn only 10% of the world’s income and own less than one per cent of the world’s property. It reveals deep-rooted gender disparity in human society. But I perceive the secondary agriculture an emerging area with vast opportunities for socio-economic transformation and women empowerment across the globe in a way that conventional agriculture doesn’t have. Secondary agriculture is less affected by climatic factors, relatively stable and more amenable to feminization because of off-field nature. If properly supported it could be an effective tool to promote women empowerment and narrow down gender disparity in rural areas. Secondary Agriculture is not a Secondary Sector economic activity and it broadly embraces to product development through agro-processing (food and nonfood), within the all enterprise classes of small or medium or large scale industry. Being entrepreneurial in nature it assures better remuneration and socio-economic security than primary agriculture. An orientation from production agriculture to product development is an essential pathway to sustainable women empowerment as it will lead to shift from subsistence farming to business farming. Later has the potential to contribute to a range of social and economic developments such as employment generation, income generation, poverty reduction and improvements in family nutrition, health and overall food security to the persons engaged in agri-business farming.

7.1 Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and almost 70 per cent of the total population depends on it. After independence, India achieved self-sufficiency in primary agriculture like food grains, fruits, vegetables and milk, etc. Now it is time to think and focus on secondary agriculture. It is assumed that with the adaption of secondary agriculture, India can achieve the goal of doubling the income of farmers. The secondary agriculture can be defined as, value addition to agricultural products, generating basic facilities for primary processing and add value to the basic agro commodities to allow farmers to get better revenues from their farm produce. It also has job creation opportunity in the rural sector to grow rural economy, which is purely based on agriculture. Further, it can also be elaborated that secondary agriculture as a production activity and invented strategy which includes sustainability of production, monetisation of farmer’s produce, straightening of extension service and recognising agriculture as an enterprise. Secondary agriculture can help drive growth of primary agriculture in the three areas i.e. (i) value addition to primary agriculture production, (ii) farmer – industrial linked and (iii) effective utilization of crop residues of primary agriculture.

The value addition to a primary agriculture production can be achieved by establishing direct linkage of farmers with market through grading of agricultural produce, cluster farming, marketing skill and financial literacy. The farmer – industrial linkage is closely associated with rural off-farm activities such as bee keeping, livestock production, etc. it can be promoted as a part of an integrated farming system. The crop residues effectively can be utilized for energy generation. There is scope of establishing rural based agricultural entrepreneurship in the field of biofuel. Agribusiness incubation can help farming community and provide reliable market linkages to improve farmer’s realisations.

Acid soils occupy one fourth of the land in India. The formation and distribution of acid soils depend upon several factors like temperature, vegetation, parent material and hydrological conditions etc. For this reason, these soils have low pH, poor base saturation, high sexquioxide content, which affects the transformation and availability of plant nutrients.  Secondary and micronutrient deficiency as well as toxicity are major problems in cultivation of crops in acidic soils. These soils are generally deficient in Ca, Mg and S and adequate in Fe, Mn and Cu. Apart from the secondary nutrients, Zn, B and Mo deficiencies affect crop production. In lowlands, rice crop suffers from toxicity of Fe. Aluminum toxicity, common in highly acidic soils, also pose major problems in crop production. Management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils for agriculture is a national priority to achieve food sufficiency and sustainability.

Pulses are important ingredients of human diet and principal source of protein of high biological value particularly for vegetarians. These are excellent feed for animals endowed with an unique ability of biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, soil amelioration, capable to sustain under harsh climate and an integral component of sustainable crop production system. It is expected that by the year 2050 world human population will climb to 9.7 billion, India 1.6 billion and that of Odisha will be more than 5.75 crores. It will be a great challenge by agricultural scientists for assured food security of billions of hungry human mouth with nourishing food especially pulses, oilseeds and other dietary ingredients. Current production of pulses are not sufficient to meet the requirement. In Odisha it is expected to have a shortage of 1.7 lakh tones of pulses towards 2030 if the current rate of production will not increase. The fact is almost similar for nation although India contributes 24 per cent of global pulse production but imports about 2.0 million tones every year. The deficit will further mount as the per capita consumption on dal of an Indian is increasing. It necessitates to increase pulse production which is not happening keeping pace with need (Jena et al., 2015).

Secondary enterprises can play a crucial role in improving the livelihoods of farmers by diversifying their income sources, reducing risks associated with dependence on a single crop or farming activity, and increasing overall
economic resilience. In addition to primary farming activities, many farmers engage in secondary enterprises to diversify their income, reduce risk, and ensure year-round employment. These activities add value to agricultural produce or provide services linked to the agri-sector, often through microenterprises, cottage industries, or village-level entrepreneurship.
Definition
Secondary enterprises refer to non-farm or off-farm activities that are directly or indirectly linked to agriculture, often based on local resources, skills, and traditional knowledge. Here are several ways that secondary enterprises can serve as effective livelihood components for farmers:
1. Value-Added Products
Farmers can engage in the production of value-added products. This may include processing raw agricultural products into items such as jams, cheeses, dried fruits, or specialty sauces. By doing so, they can enhance the market value of their products and tap into niche markets.
2. Agri-Tourism
Farmers can diversify their income by participating in agri-tourism. This could involve offering farm tours, educational workshops, farm stays, or events like harvest festivals. Agri-tourism not only generates additional income but also helps connect consumers with food sources. 

Secondary Growth in Dicot Stem

The formation of secondary tissue from the lateral meristem is called secondary growth. It increase in diameter of the stem. A stem with secondary tissues is called secondary stem. Secondary tissues are formed by two types of lateral meristem, vascular cambium and cork cambium or phellogen. Vascular cambium produces secondary vascular tissues while phellogen form periderm. Secondary growth occurs in perennial dicots such as trees and shrubs. It is also found in the woody stems of herbs. In such cases, the secondary growth is equivalent to one annual ring, e.g. sunflower.

Formation of secondary vascular tissues

They are formed by the vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is produces by two types of meristems: intrafascicular and interfascicular cambium.

1. Intrafascicular cambium is a primary meristem which occurs as strips in vascular bundles.

2. Interfascicular cambium arises secondarily from the cells of medullary rays which occur at the level of intrafascicular strips.

3. These two types of meristematic tissues get connected to form a ring of vascular cambium

Summary

Plants produce over 200,000 metabolites, which are important source of drugs and industrial materials. They have been traditionally classified as primary and secondary metabolites. The primary metabolites like sugars, amino acids and fatty acids that are needed for general growth and physiological development of plants are widely distributed in nature and are also utilized as food by man. Secondary metabolites are natural products, the absence of which does not result in immediate death, but in long term their impairment may lead to malfunction and reduced survivability. These plant secondary metabolites can be divided into groups that share the same core substructure, originated from the same biosynthetic pathways. Secondary metabolites play a major role in the adaptation of plants to the changing environment and in overcoming stress constraints. In this chapter we discussed the structure, properties, classification and functions of some of the important groups of plant secondary metabolites such as phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids and alkaloids. A brief overview of some of the important fungal secondary metabolites, their structures and importance has also been discussed. Biotechnological approaches which can be adopted to engineer plants for production of secondary metabolites have also been discussed.

Plant secondary metabolism produces products that aid in the growth and development of plants but are not required for the plant to survive. Secondary metabolism facilitates the primary metabolism in plants. This primary metabolism consists of chemical reactions that allow the plant to live. In order for the plants to stay healthy, secondary metabolism plays a pinnacle role in keeping all the of plants’systems working properly. A common role of secondary metabolites in plants is defense mechanisms. They are used to fight off herbivores, pests, and pathogens. Although researchers know that this trait is common in many plants it is still difficult to determine the precise role each secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are used in anti-feeding activity, toxicity or acting as precursors to physical defense systems.

5.1. Importance of Secondary Nutrients in Agriculture

Secondary nutrients such as sulphur (S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are the macronutrients that are required in relatively large amounts for crop growth. Among the secondary nutrients, Ca is the 5^th most abundant element in the earth’s crust while, Mg and S are ranked 8^th and 13^th, respectively. The average S content of the earth’s crust ranges from 0.06 to 0.10%; whereas, Ca in soil solution of temperate region soils is 30 to 300 ppm and soils of tropical areas is 8 to 45 ppm (Tisdale et al., 1997). In case of Mg, its’ concentration ranges from 5-50 in temperate region and 120-2400 ppm in tropical region. The Ca and Mg are the most abundant cations occupying the exchange sites of the soil colloids. Thus, most soils with the possible exception of highly weathered, leached acid soils, contain enough Ca and Mg for crop growth. In soils, occurrence and reactions of S are different from those of Ca and Mg. The plant available S is SO₄^2- ion which is relatively mobile in soil solution. Like nitrogen (N), S is also subjected to chemical and biological oxidation-reduction reactions. On the other hand, Ca and Mg are much more stable and they exist in soil as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ cations and present in association with soil colloidal fraction similar to that of K. In general, Ca and Mg are the most abundant cations occupying in the exchange site.

Secondary nutrients in soils may be lost due to several reasons such as (i) crop removal, (ii) leaching, (iii) erosion, and (iv) volatilization. The amount of Ca and Mg attain importance in areas where soils are either strongly alkaline or acidic. These soils are often deficient in Ca and Mg. The Ca deficiency is most widespread in acidic soils. The alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), being neutral to moderately alkaline in reaction, have sufficient bases on their exchange complex and Ca deficiency is, therefore, rarely found in these soils. However, alkali soils may contain inadequate quantities of Ca due to dominance of Na⁺ on the exchange complex. Magnesium deficiency is found in sandy soils with low exchangeable Mg²⁺, acid soils and those with high in native or applied K. Alkali soils have high exchangeable Na⁺. The Ca²⁺ is a suitable ion to replace this Na⁺ from the exchange complex when Ca²⁺ is supplied through gypsum (CaSO₄.2H₂O). The replaced Na⁺ forms Na₂SO₄ which is then leached down to remove the salt away from the root zone of the crops. Gypsum also reacts with Na₂CO₃ to form CaCO₃ and Na₂SO₄ which is leached down the profile. A thorough leaching of the soil with irrigation water should be done after application of gypsum to free it from Na₂SO₄.

Secondary nutrients is a triad of three essential plant nutrients namely, Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Sulphur (S). Of these three, Ca and Mg are taken up by plants as cations, while S is taken up as anion SO4 2–. Among the secondary plant nutrients, sulphur is emerging as a major plant-nutrient de?ciency in crops grown in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, spread over 13 million ha in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh (Khurana et al., 2008). From the Indian point of view, S de?ciency has emerged in a large part of the country and needs to be attended. Uptake of Mg and S by some crops is given in Table 10.1.