eChapters

The agricultural sector is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the increasing use of digital technologies, such as precision agriculture, drones, and satellite imaging. One of the key outcomes of this transformation is the generation of vast amounts of data, which can be used to inform decision-making, improve crop yields, and enhance the overall efficiency of agricultural operations. Farmers, researchers, and policymakers require effective tools and strategies for managing and analyzing these data to extract valuable insights and inform decision-making. This is where Farmers’ Data Base Management and Analysis comes into play (Fig.6.1).
6.1 Importance of Data Management and Analysis in Agriculture
6.1.1 Effective Data Management and Analysis are Critical in Agriculture, as they Enable
• Improved crop yields: Data analysis can help identify optimal planting dates, irrigation schedules, and fertilizer applications, leading to increased crop yields and better quality crops.

Nano-bioinoculants are revolutionizing modern agriculture, empowering farmers with an innovative and environment-friendly approach to crop cultivation. This chapter delves into the fascinating world of these tiny technological breakthroughs that work seamlessly with nature to significantly enhance crop yields in a sustainable manner. Their remarkable ability to deliver essential nutrients directly to plants, fortify crops against drought and diseases, and minimize the reliance on harmful chemicals will be highlighted. By presenting real-world success stories, we will illustrate how farmers are harnessing these advancements to produce healthier food while conserving valuable resources. Nevertheless, the path to widespread adoption is not without its challenges; which will be confronted for critical issues such as costs, regulatory hurdles, and the transition of these solutions from laboratories to agricultural fields. Looking ahead, we will envision a future where nano-bioinoculants synergize with other cutting-edge farming technologies, paving the way for truly sustainable food systems that can meet the demands of our growing population.

1. Introduction
Oil spills are defined as the unintentional release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment, predominantly impacting marine ecosystems. This form of pollution, often caused by human activities, can also occur onterrestrial landscapes. Spills typically result from the discharge of crude oilfrom sources such as tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs, and wells, aswell as from refined petroleum products like gasoline and diesel (Smith etal., 2019). While such incidents are primarily accidental, they may arise fromvarious circumstances, including inadequate storage or poor maintenance,leading tocontainerleaks. Historically, one of the earliest documented oil spillsoccurred in 1907 in Batum, a region then part of the Russian Empire (moderndayBatumi, Georgia). This incident, involving a collision between an oil-ladenship and another vessel in the Black Sea, marked the beginning of recorded oilspill events, though historical records from that time remain limited (Johnsonet al., 2021). The consequences of oil spills are profound, affecting both theenvironment and the economy. On the ocean’s surface, oil disrupts aquaticecosystems by blocking sunlight penetration and depleting dissolved oxygenlevels, which are vital for marine life. Crude oil compromises the insulating andwaterproofing properties of fur and feathers, leading to hypothermia and deathin oil-coated birds and marine mammals. Additionally, ingesting oil can causeseveretoxicity, while damage to habitats and reproductive systems often delaysthe long-term recovery of affected species. Coastal vegetation, particularly inecosystems such as saltwater marshes and mangroves, is also highly vulnerable

Profitable broiler production demands dietary nutrients including energy, protein, mineral, vitamins and additives as per the body requirement to meet high growth of the birds. Though energy and protein are the principal nutrients required for growth of birds but the essential role of minerals in poultry production cannot be ignored. Minerals have multifaceted role in the body. They are the components of bones and other soft tissues and play significant role in acid base balance, osmotic pressure regulation and membrane permeability. Trace minerals have major role in functioning of various enzymatic, metabolic and biochemical reaction for effective utilization of nutrients. They are constituents of many proteins involved in metabolism of nutrients, immune defense systems and hormone secretion pathways. Deficiency diseases, metabolic disorders, poor growth rate, low production, low hatchability and low feed efficiency are normally observed on deficiency or imbalance supply of minerals to livestock and poultry.

Along with other trace minerals, selenium is supplemented in broiler ration as an essential trace mineral required for normal growth and production of broiler birds. It was discovered in 1817 by J.J. Berzelius.

Heavy metal contamination in soils and water is a risk to environmental health, agricultural production and human well-being. Conventional remediation methods are expensive and not particularly efficient, so nanobioinoculants are being accepted as a more sustainable solution for bioremediation of heavy metals. Combinations of nanoparticles and microorganisms work together to increase the removal or immobilization of toxic metals from contaminated environments. Nanobioinoculants provide advantage of the high surface area and reactivity of nanoparticles, alongside the metabolic diversity of microbes like bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. These microbes facilitate the heavy metal detoxification through the mechanisms such as biosorption, bioaccumulation, biotransformation, and nanoparticle assisted immobilization. Mostly microbial strains have metal tolerance and the ability of biofilm formation provides further protection and play a role in sequestration of the heavy metal. Nanoparticle integration with microbes increases their resilience to perform well in harsh conditions. With these advantages nanobioinoculants are found to be a sustainable and effective way of combating heavy metal contamination in the environment. The present chapter explores the synergetic action of nanotechnology and microbial inoculants, which is the role of nanobioinoculants in mitigating heavy metal pollution by sustainable

1. Introduction

Agriculture in India is livelihood for a majority of the population and can never be underestimated. Increasing population, increasing average income and globalisation effects in India will increase demand for quantity, quality and nutritious food, and variety of food. Therefore, pressure on decreasing available cultivable land to produce more quantity, variety and quality of food will keep on increasing. India’s food security depends on producing cereal crops, as well as increasing its production of fruits, vegetables and milk to meet the demands of a growing population with rising incomes. To reach world-wide food security, improved food production and food productivity, we need to approve innovative and futuristic advances and technologies to improve crop cultivation, yield and productivity.

Introduction 
Fossil fuel consumption is associated with a number of grave problems, including economic distress and increased greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming. The world’s population and environment are deeply concerned about these issues, which are a result of rising greenhouse gas emissions and the depletion of fossil fuels. Furthermore, there has been much discussion about the effects of relying so heavily on petroleum-derived fuels on the environment, the economy, and energy efficiency [1]. According, high process costs, inadequate infrastructure, and other technological challenges impede the manufacturing of second- and third-generation biofuels [2]. The main role of enzymes and other microorganisms during fermentation is as a catalyst to speed up the process of turning saccharides into alcohol. In this kind of biofuel production, lignocellulosic and algal material make up the majority of the biomass used to produce ethanol. The biochemical variety of microalgae is employed in numerous biotechnological and commercial applications [3]. The use of non-usable biomass has been enhanced with each new generation, which lowers production costs and speeds up the manufacture of biofuels. A wide variety of biofuels, such as biogas, bioethanol, biohydrogen, and biodiesel, can now be produced thanks to the application of nanotechnology. In order to convert triglycerides into biofuels, two important chemical events must occur: trans-esterification and esterification [4]. The majority of the nano-catalysts needed to produce biofuel come from microbial fuel cells. Nanoparticles, nanosheets, and nanotubes are examples of these nanocatalysts [5]. The utilization of nanotechnology in the biofuel production process holds promise for enhancing the effectiveness of current procedures. Compared to the production of biofuels, the synthesis of nanoparticles is much more interesting due to the potential applications, challenges, and opportunities that it presents [6]. Here, we review the literature on the application of nanotechnology to improve bioenergy production from algae processing. The different kinds of nanoparticles, including metallic, magnetic, metal oxide-based, and carbon nanotubes that are utilised in the production of bioethanol and biodiesel are covered on this page. A focus is placed on the application of these nanomaterials and how they affect the extraction and transesterification of lipids [7]. This chapter makes the connection between the advancement of nanotechnology and its contribution to the creation of a more efficient and sustainable technique for processing algal biomass to produce bioenergy.

Abstract

Nanotechnology deals with understanding and control of matter at 1-100 nm dimensions. Nano-sized materials have been part of everyday life in the form of biological entities and processes. Many of the structural building elements in foods are colloids in nature and are built up as a result of self assembly of nano-sized molecules in particles or at interfaces. The most important food raw materials-proteins, starches and fats undergo structural changes at the nanometer and micrometer scales during normal food processing. Unique phenomena occurring at this length scale are being exploited for novel food applications. Functional foods are products, in food or drink form, which influence specific functions in the body and thereby offer benefits for health, well-being, or performance beyond their regular nutritional value. Nanotechnology promises to provide means of altering and manipulating food products to efficiently deliver nutrients like proteins and antioxidants for precisely targeted nutritional and health benefits. Nanotechnology applications for functional food ingredients and additives offer range of benefits to the consumer in terms of innovative, tasteful and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation systems aid smart protection and delivery of bioactives so as to ensure their stability, taste, colour, safety and bioavailability. The advent of nanotechnology has opened up innovations in food packaging with improved stability and barrier properties. However, need exists to develop regulatory systems for managing any risks associated with functional nanofoods and the use of nanotechnologies in the food industry.

1. Introduction
Nanotechnology, which involves manipulating and controlling matter at the nanoscale, offers innovative solutions for enhancing soil quality, nutrient management, and remediation of contaminated soils (Lal et al., 2019). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2015), approximately 33% of global soils are degraded due to erosion, nutrient depletion, and chemical contamination. This degradation poses a severe threat to food security and environmental sustainability. Moreover, the world population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, placing further pressure on agricultural systems to produce more food without degrading soil resources (Tripathi et al., 2019). In this context, nanotechnology presents a promising avenue for sustainable soil management. The unique properties exhibited by nanomaterials enable precise monitoring, targeted delivery of nutrients, and effective remediation of soil contaminants. Nanosensors equipped with nanomaterials and nanoparticles allow real-time monitoring of soil parameters, enabling farmers to make informed decisions regarding irrigation, fertilization, and pest management (Gogos et al., 2017). For instance, a case study conducted by Smith et al. (2021) demonstrated the effectiveness of nanosensors in monitoring soil moisture levels and optimizing irrigation practices, resulting in a 20% reduction in water usage while maintaining crop yield.
Furthermore, nanotechnology offers innovative solutions for nutrient management in agricultural soils. Nanoencapsulation techniques allow controlled release of fertilizers, minimizing nutrient leaching and improving nutrient uptake by plants (Lal et al., 2019). In a case study by Johnson et al. (2020), the application of nanoencapsulated fertilizers resulted in a 15% increase in nutrient use efficiency and a reduction in fertilizer runoff by 30%, thus improving soil health and reducing environmental pollution.
Moreover, nanomaterials exhibit high sorption and catalytic properties, enabling efficient removal of heavy metal contaminants and organic pollutants from soils, thus mitigating soil contamination risks (Wang et al., 2022). A case study conducted by Chen et al. (2019) demonstrated the successful remediation of a heavily contaminated soil site using iron oxide nanoparticles, resulting in a significant reduction in heavy metal concentrations and improvement in soil health indicators.

Introduction 
The demand for alternative energy sources is on the rise as a result of global apprehensions regarding the swift exhaustion of fossil fuels, escalating energy usage, and significant environmental challenges (Lijó et al. 2019). Microalgae are regarded as highly favorable raw materials for upcoming energy sources, thanks to their various advantages, including rapid growth rates, elevated lipid contents and resistance to a variation of pH, temperature, light intensity, and salinity (Goswami et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2019; Das et al. 2011). As per a recent evaluation of the lipid production efficiency of microalgae biomass, numerous nations could derive their transport fuel (~30%) from microalgae biomass grown on non-agricultural areas (Moody et al. 2014). Apart from their higher lipid production efficiency in contrast to earthly raw materials, microalgae consist of lipids, polysaccharides, pigments, proteins, and nucleic acids, making them versatile raw materials for a range of finalized outcomes, including nutrients, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and bioplastics (Tang et al. 2020; Kim et al. 2016; Moody et al. 2014; Sharma et al. 2011). Additionally, microalgae are appealing for their efficient sequestration of CO2 during photosynthetic growth (Vargas-Estrada et al. 2020). In contrast to landbased oilseeds, microalgae can be cultivated in freshwater and contaminated or saline locations, eliminating the requirement for substantial nitrogen fertilizer application (Sharma et al. 2022; Rashid et al. 2019; Lam and Lee 2012). The positive attributes of microalgae as raw materials have prompted substantial research endeavours aimed at the commercialization of microalgal biofuels. Regrettably, microalgal biorefineries continue to encounter various technological and economic challenges (Khoo et al. 2020). In essence, nanotechnology involves the invention, creation, and utilization of resources at the nanoscale. Precisely, nanomaterials engineering explores the synthesis and designing of artificial or adorned nanoparticles to drive technological progress and enable applications that would otherwise be impractical. Nanomaterials possess surface areas hundreds of times greater than their weights, significantly enhancing their physico-chemical attributes (Husen and Siddiqi 2014; López-Serrano et al. 2014). Currently, nanotechnology-driven developments, with diverse potential features, have emerged as a burgeoning trend in various industries, including drug delivery, food industry, catalysis, coatings, agriculture, bioremediation, cosmetics, and materials science (Malik et al. 2023). Nanoparticle engineering offers practical and potential solutions to address the problems that arise at different phases of the microalgal biorefinery procedure. For instance, diverse nanomaterials have been proposed as ways to enhance transformation efficacy and the quality of green diesel. The distinctive capabilities of nanoscience and nanomaterial engineering exert a substantial impact on the commercial feasibility of microalgae derived products, including bioactive compounds, oils, lipids, and biofuels (Kumar et al. 2020; Milano et al. 2016). Nanoparticles have the capacity to boost intracellular fatty acid synthesis and complete microalgal biomass, leading to substantial reductions in production expenses. The presence of nanomaterials enhances the efficiency and speed of the microalgae harvesting, and the recoverability and reusability of these materials contribute to improved production efficiency.

National Horticulture Board

Commercial floriculture includes production of cut flowers, foliage plants, bedding plants and growing and forcing bulbs and corms of flowering plants for whole and retail sales. The floriculture industry has become highly specialized. Floriculture industry uses many devices to ensure steady supply of flowers and foliage plants irrespective of the season and minimum loss to industry, because of perishable nature of flowers.

2.1. Recommendation of expert committees

Commercial banks tended to concentrate more on industrial sector than agricultural sector.

Indian Central Banking Committee (1931), Agricultural Finance Subcommittee (1945), Rural Banking Enquiry Committee (1950), All India Rural Credit survey committee (1951), All India Rural Debt and Investment Survey (1961-62) and Informal Group on Institutional Arrangements for Agricultural Credit (1964) suggested that financing agriculture by commercial banks was not significant (Until 1950).

INTRODUCTION

Natural resources are the untamed natural essence of the environment which contain a significant amount of material as well as aesthetic values. Natural resources are broadly categorized into renewable, flow and non-renewable sources. While renewable natural resources primarily involve living sources such as forests, crops fish, reindeer, coffee, etc. and non-living sources like water and soil. Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations. Natural resource management is congruent with the concept of sustainable development. It is a scientific principle that forms a basis for sustainable global land management and environmental governance to conserve and preserve natural resources (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009). Though forest, water, agriculture land and crops, minerals, livestocks and many more constitute natural resources in India but forest represents the second-largest land use in India after agriculture, covering about 641,130 square kilometers, or 22 percent of the total land base (FAO 2005). Forestry is the second largest land use after agriculture and accounts for about 1.5 % of the nation’s GDP (World Bank, 2006) in India. On one hand, forests support the livelihood of the poor, especially the tribals, and on the other hand, it is remarkable to see that the poorest people of our country live in the rich forest and natural resource base (Narain, 2008).

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most alarming public health challenges of the 21st century, threatening the effectiveness of life-saving drugs and the future of modern medicine. This crisis is not limited to healthcare settings; it spans communities, agriculture, and the environment, impacting every facet of society. India, with its large population, high burden of infectious diseases, unregulated access to antibiotics, and considerable pharmaceutical manufacturing industry, stands at the forefront of the global struggle against AMR. The rise of resistant microbes stems from a complex interplay of factors: overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals, poor infection prevention practices, lack of sanitation, and environmental contamination from antibiotic waste. As a result, common infections are becoming harder to treat, surgical procedures riskier, and healthcare costs are escalating, all leading to increased morbidity and mortality. Tackling AMR requires robust intersectoral collaboration—no single stakeholder can succeed alone. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), industries, and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives form a critical triad in India’s fight against AMR. NGOs drive grassroots education, advocacy, surveillance, and policy change, often bridging gaps where governmental capacity is limited. The pharmaceutical and healthcare industries, responsible for antibiotic manufacturing, distribution, stewardship, and infection control, play a pivotal role in curbing environmental emissions, supporting responsible use, and promoting the discovery of new treatments. Meanwhile, CSR channels the resources and expertise of corporations towards sustainable, communityfacing projects that promote awareness, improve hygiene, foster stewardship, and drive systemic change.

3.1 Introduction

Internet of Things (IoT) allows computational devices and sensory support to connect with each other and access services on the Internet. The IoT idea was introduced to connect devices through the Internet and facilitate access to information for users. The potential application of IoT includes agriculture. The aim of this chapter is to explain the role of NodeMCU in the agriculture field. NodeMCU is IoT module which can be used to present the IoT concept as a basis for monitoring and control. The systems used in farm production processes. NodeMCU play a key role, with a focus on their realization by available microcontroller platforms and appropriate sensors. IoT based system provides opportunity to users to monitor and control the process remotely.

Water is a critical input for agricultural production and plays an important role in food security. Irrigated agriculture represents 20% of the total cultivated land and contributes 40% of the total food produced worldwide. Irrigated agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive per unit of land as rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for more production intensification and crop diversification. India has 18% of world’s population, having 4% of the world’s fresh water, out of which 80% is used in agriculture. India receives an average of 4000 billion cubic meters of precipitation every year. However, only 48% of it is used in India’s surface and groundwater bodies. In India, more than 60% population is still dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture. Most of the available water (more than 90%) is used in agriculture. From 1951 to 1997, gross irrigated areas expanded fourfold from 23 million ha to over 90 million ha, and irrigation continues to be the largest water user. The water availability in India is going to be worse as the agriculture-important states like Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are facing a steady fall in underground water table, and per capita availability of water fall from 3450 cubic meter (1951) to 1250 cubic meter (1999).

Introduction

In most developing nations, the primary method of managing insect pests on various crops is by synthetic insecticides. One of the fastest and most efficient ways to reduce insect populations is by chemical control where a farmer quickly achieves extraordinary results.

However, overusing pesticides indiscriminately and without proper research for longer periods of time led to a number of issues, including the risk of environmental contamination, loss of biodiversity, development of insecticide resistant pest populations, resurgence, outbreaks of secondary pests, increase in chemical inputs, toxicological hazards due to accumulation of pesticide residues in the food chain, etc.

Nutrients play a fundamental role in ensuring the health, productivity, reproduction, immunity, and overall welfare of animals. The balance and availability of macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water are crucial for optimal physiological and metabolic processes. This chapter explores the role of nutrients in different aspects of animal health and well-being.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for most animals, playing a critical role in sustaining metabolic processes, maintaining body temperature, and supporting physical activity. In ruminants, carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetate, propionate and butyrate, which serve as energy substrates.
Health: Adequate carbohydrate intake prevents energy deficits, which can lead to ketosis, fatty liver, or hypoglycemia, particularly in lactating animals. Production: Energy from carbohydrates drives milk production in dairy animals and growth in meat-producing species.
Reproduction: Insufficient carbohydrate availability can delay puberty, impair estrus cycles, and reduce fertility. Immunity: Energy deficits weaken immune responses, increasing susceptibility to infections.
Welfare: Optimal carbohydrate nutrition minimizes stress and supports natural behaviours like grazing or rumination.

There are number of internal and external factors that affect the production performance of animals, among which parasites and parasitism are major of concern constraints to animal’s productivity especially in tropical countries. Feed intake and nutrient requirements have been recognized for long time as an important parameter for determining the efficiency of animal production. Most of the parasitic infection in domestic animals is caused by gastrointestinal nematode, which may result in depression in appetite, impairment in GI functions, alteration in protein, energy and mineral metabolism and changes in water balance. Nutrition can affect the ability of the host to cope with the consequences of parasitism and to contain and eventually to overcome parasitism. Since it is proposed that the host gives priority to the reversal of the pathophysiological consequences of parasitism over other body functions, it is to be expected that improved nutrition will always lead to improved resilience. On the other hand, it is proposed that the function of growth, pregnancy and lactation are prioritized over the expression of immunity. Improved nutrition may affect the degree of expression of immunity during these phases and can thus influence the resilience and resistance of host to parasite infection.

Abstract
Fish populations are essential for global food security, marine biodiversity, and the health of ocean ecosystems. However, threats such as climate change, overfishing, and habitat degradation jeopardize their sustainability. Understanding fish population dynamics is vital for effective fisheries management and conservation. Insights into environmental factors affecting fish distribution, migration, and spawning are derived from oceanographic data collected using advanced technologies such as satellites, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), and remote sensing. By integrating these data with fish population models, predictive capabilities are enhanced, enabling proactive management and conservation efforts. Despite technological advances, data gaps and the complexity of biological and environmental interactions pose challenges. Integrating big data and artificial intelligence offers promising opportunities to improve predictive accuracy, optimize real-time fishery management, and tackle sustainability challenges effectively. This article discusses the role of oceanographic data in predicting fish population dynamics, the technologies involved, and the challenges facing current models.
Keywords: Fish population dynamics, Oceanographic Data, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), Forecasting models.

1. Introduction

Universal development through Education for all had been a prominent feature earlier during Millennium Development Goals and recently it has gained a fresh momentum when United Nations General Assembly set 17 inspirational Sustainable development Goals. Quality Education is the focus of SDG 4, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (Sustainable Development Goals, 2023). Role of education in achieving these sustainable development goals in developing countries is well recognized by OECD. OECD in its report on ‘Education at a Glance 2013’ states that “Educational attainment is frequently used as a measure of human capital and the level of an Individual’s skills. The level of educational attainment is the percentage of population that has reached a certain level of education. Higher levels of educational attainment are strongly associated with higher employment rates” (OECD, 2013). Furthermore, OECD in its report published in 2017 explains that “Making SDG 4 a reality will transform lives around the globe. Education is so central to the achievement of a sustainable, prosperous, and equitable planet that failure to achieve this particular SDG puts at risk the achievement of the 17 SDGs as a Whole” (OECD, 2017).

As per United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), organic farming is defined as a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) to a maximum extent and feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection. FAO suggested that organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and entrance agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods is exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.

The increasing awareness of the deleterious effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has led to the adoption of organic farming as an alternative method for conventional farming world-wide. It is gaining gradual momentum across the world and the growing awareness of organic food which is emerging as an attractive source of rural income generation especially in integrated farming systems.

In north west India where rice-wheat, cotton-wheat and pearl millet-wheat cropping systems are most prevalent. But now, these cropping systems are not proving farmers’ friendly due to higher water requirement, declining yield, susceptibility to insects and pests and adverse effect on soil health. Moreover, in the new millennium with the growing demand of agricultural commodities in national as well as international market due to ever increasing population and globalization, Indian farmers are forced to produce higher quantum of quality agricultural commodities at low cost from shrinking land and natural resources.

Mungbean - wheat cropping system requires less water and hence, can be grown in areas where water availability is limited in addition to beneficial effect of mungbean to supply N to the succeeding wheat crop which are favorable for organic farming. Wheat (desi) also known as tall wheat requires less water and is very responsive to low doses of nutrients. The dwarf wheat grown by farmers with the application of chemicals in the form of fertilizers, weedicides, insecticides and pesticides is not preferred by people and therefore, the demand of organic wheat is rising fast in national and international market. This cropping system can be taken successfully in farming systems for higher monetary returns.

There is need to shift a portion of cultivable land with organic farming as an alternate practice technique. Organic farming gives emphasis on sustainability, environmental safety and low cost production techniques over chemical farming. Keeping the issues of 21^st century agriculture in view following aspects also shows importance of organic farming: Reduce the toxic load; keep chemicals out of the air, water, soil and our bodies; reduce if not eliminate off farm pollution; protect future generations; build healthy soil; taste better and truer flavor; assist farmers of all sizes; promote biodiversity; celebrate the culture of agriculture etc.

Introduction

The ill effects of chemicals used in agriculture have changed the mindset of consumers in different countries, who are now buying organic products with a high premium for health. Policymakers are also promoting organic agriculture for the restoration of soil health and the generation of the rural economy, apart from making efforts to create a better environment. The world principles of organic farming have emerged in the form of biological farming, ecological farming, permaculture, biodynamic agriculture, green farming, bio-intensive farming, zero-input agriculture, etc..

Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agroecosystems that are socially and ecologically sustainable. Organic farming practices help in increasing carbon sequestration, soil and water conservation, and minimizing risk in agriculture. The important aspects of organic farming with respect to water conservation are mentioned in this chapter.

Organic liquid formulations (OLFs) are agricultural inputs derived from natural sources, designed for use in organic farming. These formulations, consisting of liquid solutions or suspensions containing organic compounds, nutrients, and beneficial microorganisms, play a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility, plant nutrition, and pest management, while promoting environmental sustainability and ecosystem health. Despite their eco friendly nature, OLFs demand careful consideration for their environmental impact and safety. They biodegrade readily, reducing long-term persistence and are less harmful to non-target organisms. While OLFs offer numerous benefits, they also face limitations in potency and effectiveness compared to synthetic pesticides, often requiring more frequent applications and leading to increased labor costs. Their impact can vary with pest species and environmental conditions, and they generally provide gradual rather than immediate pest control. Availability and accessibility can be limited, posing challenges for some farmers. This chapter explores the role of OLFs in achieving success in organic farming, highlighting their benefits and limitations, and emphasizing the importance of Integrated Pest Management strategies and careful consideration of various factors to optimize their use in promoting sustainable agriculture.

Soil is the product of various soil forming factors acting on the parent material over a period of time. The parent material is usually devoid of organic matter and consists of variable quantities of sand, silt, clay and carbonates. High temperatures and adequate moisture promote mineral transformations, but these effects are magnified by living organisms and the organic substances they produce. The biosphere and the organic substances they produce are directly or indirectly responsible for the following:

1. Decay of organic matter by microbes leads to the formation of CO₂ which is quantitatively the most important “aggressive” weathering agent because of its tendency to form carbonic acid with water [CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃].

As the population of the world rises, there is an increase in the demand for food production. Agricultural packaging helps farmers and makers to deliver food in the handiest approach with no loss. It eliminates unnecessary wastage of food during post-harvest treatment procedures, production process, storage, and transportation. It ensures short and long-term stability between the farmers and the consumers. Pesticides are completely toxic and reactive and thus need correct packaging. In agricultural packaging of pesticides, pouches with excellent quality standards are used that improve sealing and handling issues and avoid any malfunctioning. Ventilation is very important in agricultural packaging that permits the warmth and to cool quickly. Loss of water of the products should be minimized to let them stay fresh for a longer time.

In this century the usage of plastics had become very common. However, it is important to know as to what kinds of plastics are used for food handling and storage and the health hazards caused by using it. It has been observed that plastic packaging plays a significant role for the enhanced shelf life and in the ease of storage and cooking for many foods. Some kinds of plastic materials which are widely used for handling and storage of food and water include polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is used in soft drinks, water, sport drinks, ketchups, salad dressing bottles, peanut butter, pickle, jelly and jam jars. This plastic is strong, heat resistant, resistant to gases and acidic foods. It can be transparent or opaque. It does not leach any chemicals that are suspected of causing cancer or disrupting hormones and can also be recycled.

Usage of High density polyethylene (HDPE) has been found to be common in milk, water, juice bottles, yogurt, margarine tubs, grocery, trash and retail bags. High-density polyethylene is stiff and strong but is not heat stable (it melts at a low temperature). It does not leach any chemicals that have a role in causing cancer or disrupting the hormones. HDPE can be recycled. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is used into making films of various types, some bread and frozen food bags and also in the making of squeezable bottles. Low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent. Many of the films are not heat stable either and may melt the food in case it is touching it. However, polypropylene (PP) is more heat resistant, harder, denser and more transparent than polyethylene and is therefore used for heat-resistant microwavable packaging and sauce or salad dressing bottles. Polycarbonate is clear and heat resistant. It is also durable and often used to make refillable water bottles and sterilisable baby bottles, microwave ovenware, eating utensils, plastic coating for metal cans. Tiny amounts of bisphenol A are formed when polycarbonate bottles are washed with harsh detergents or bleach (sodium hypochlorite). At high levels of exposure, bisphenol A is potentially hazardous as it mimics the female hormone estrogen. In addition, polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are also used during food material transportation and handling in supermarkets. Modern food safe plastic bags are plasticizer-free which do not leach harmful chemicals into the food during cooking.

Probiotics are measured in colony forming units (cfu). CFUs are generally measured in the millions or billions per serving. Probiotics are most commonly beneficial bacteria, but can also be friendly fungal or other organisms, that are typically freeze dried to stabilize them in an inert state during storage and production. Then their continued stability and viability, as measured by CFU counts when cultured, is dependent on limiting their exposure to stimulating environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture. Besides refrigeration, this protection can be done by packaging in glass or by adding freshness packets that helps to absorb and reduce moisture in the package.

Introduction

The world of living organisms essentially consists of the kingdoms of plants and animals. Myriads of organisms representing these two, interact among them, ranging from symbiosis and mutualism to competition and predator-prey interactions. The last mentioned process is one the important components of ecological dynamics, that determine the balance of nature or equilibrium among the biota. To this category belong the predators, parasites (parasitoids), pathogens, and so on, all of which live at the cost of another organism, without affording any benefit to the ‘victim’, hence the victim is termed the ‘prey’. In an agroecosystem, when an organism, explodes into an unusually high number, devouring cultivated plants it often becomes a ‘pest’ from a man’s point of view. Sometimes the pest can be a human nuisance too. It is here, that the role of predators and parasitoids become relevant as biological agents against the pests.
 
A lion, which preys on herb-feeding antelopes, is also a predator. But, its roles become restricted to maintaining the balance of the antelope population. Left undeterred, antelopes can explode to levels that can threaten grasslands. Here lions play a very crucial role in maintaining (through hunting antelopes) the equilibrium of the grasslands, just sufficient for these plants to surge with every rain. Otherwise, the grasslands potentially may get denuded by the antelopes, or conversely it may override other ecosystems. This is part of the ‘food web’ and is found in every ecosystems; desert, aquatic, mountains, forests, agro-ecosystems, etc.

Abstract

Phosphorus is the second important key element after nitrogen as a mineral nutrient in terms of quantitative plant requirement. Although abundant in soils, in both organic and inorganic forms, its availability is restricted as it occurs mostly in insoluble forms. The dynamics of phosphorus in soil is closely related to the dynamics of the biological cycle in which microorganisms play a central role. They also participate in the cycles of the most important macro and microelements such as phosphorus besides their major role in the decomposition of plant residues, creation of humus and maintenance of stable soil structure. Microorganisms affect the amount of phosphorus accessible to plants by means of mineralization of organic phosphorus compounds, immobilization of available phosphorus and solubilization of non-soluble phosphorus minerals such as tricalcium phosphate. Mineralization is catalyzed by microbiological enzymes phosphatases secreted by a diverse group of bacteria, fungi and other groups of microorganisms. Organic phosphorus mineralization in soil depends on several soil and environmental factors such as temperature, pH, soil moisture, degree of aeration. In this chapter the major emphasis is given on the transformation of P through microbiologically involving different enzymes and also the microorganisms involved in the process. Emphasis is also given on the factors that have profound influence on the microbial transformation of P in soil and ultimately making it available for plant uptake. This chapter also focuses on the mechanism of P solubilization, role of various phosphatases, impact of various factors on P solubilization and potential for application of this knowledge in managing a sustainable environmental system.

Flowers are the reproductive structures of Angiosperms. The apical shoot meristem of the vegetative plant continues to produce new leaves and vegetative buds, which may develop into branches, but after sometime, the meristem, instead of producing leaves and branches, becomes transformed into specialized reproductive structures called flowers. The transformation of vegetative shoot apex into re-productive structure is called flowering. The process of flowering is controlled by two main important environmental factors, i.e., (i) the duration of light received by the plant called photoperiod and (ii) the low temperature treatment given to the seed or the plant referred to as vernalization (Figure 6.1).

Introduction

Feeding cost and the price of poultry products have recently increased due to increasing competition between humans and animals for the same feed resources having different valuable nutrients. As you know that like other living creatures, the birds do need several nutrients in their diets to maintain optimum body growth, normal health and maximum production of edible egg and meat. Accordingly the efforts should always be made to feed poultry with a diet adequately balanced with almost all essential nutrients so that they do perform efficiently within a normal physiological form.

Abstract

Genetic resource or germplasm are considered to the be the major building block of new varieties. However, on account of excessive pressures of development, deforestation and increasing  population, the valuable resources are fast eroding and a number of type have already been lost. If this trend is not checked the losses will continue. The germplasm has a pivotal role in the development of the fruit industry, hence, it is very important to, conserve, characterize and utilize the existing genetic resources as genetic resources are the common heritage of mankind and must therefore be made available to those who need them and must be suitably conserved to fulfill today’s and tomorrow’s demand through a systematic and well defined co-operative exchange network.

Abstract

Microorganisms that harbour in the root region are the most befitting candidates for use as biocontrol agents. The rhizosphere provides the frontline defense for root against attack by pathogens. Pathogens face a complicated phenomena of antagonism from roots. They also compete with each other for site of colonization on the root surface and plant nutrients. The ideal biocontrol agent introduces and /or promotes the antagonists only, whenever required and are most effective in minimizing the wasteful application of inoculum to non-targets. Many genera belonging to bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and viruses are used as biocontrol agents to combat several important plant diseases. The present review focuses on the use of bacterial antagonists ,particularly rhizobacteria, as biocontrol agents of fungal diseases of plants , their mechanism of action, molecular and genetic basis of antagonistic property and possible genetic manipulations to bring about desirable changes. 

Abstract

Soil salinity is one of the major environmental stresses affecting crop productivity and soil health drastically, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas. Most of the vegetable crops being salt sensitive, grow poorly in saline and alkaline soils. Soil salinity affects crops mainly due to the osmotic stress and excessive accumulation of toxic ions (Na⁺, Cl^-, and SO₄ ^2-), whereas alkali soils are generally characterized by poor physical conditions due to high concentrations of bicarbonate (HCO₃ ^-) and carbonate (CO₃ ^2-) as well as high exchangeable Na⁺. Excessive concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in soil or irrigation water can induce several morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses in plants leading to stunted growth and yield. This is due to osmotic (i.e., water deficit) and ionic (i.e., Na⁺ and Cl^-) effects on nutrient uptake/translocation and metabolic processes such as nitrogen assimilation, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis. Plant growth promoting microbes (PGPMs) are considered as promising tools to overcome the limitations of salinity on crop growth and productivity. Many PGPMs can enhance tolerance of crops to salt stress by increasing nutrient uptake through better solubilization of nutrients like phosphorus and zinc, and also by production of small peptides, volatiles and metabolites with hormone activities such as indole-3-acetic acid or auxin analogs in the rhizosphere. This chapter discusses the benefits of PGPMs in plant adaptations to salt stress conditions.

The classical idea of the existence of a hormone as a chemical  messenger was first reported by Darwin and Darwin (1880). However, Boysen-Jensen (1911) was first who actually demonstrated their prescence by a grafting experiment. Evidence  exist to show that early mankinds often  used these phytohormones  for rooting of cuttings, flower  induction, control of flower drop etc. The  modern age of phyto-hormones began in 1926 when  F.W.Went isolated  an active substance from oat coleoptile  tip which later on proved as IAA (Indole Acetic Acid) or auxin. A dramatic revolution in this field started after the discovery that a chemical  different in structure to IAA could exhibit auxin like activity such as rooting of cuttings (Zimmermann and Wilcoxon,1935) and by 1940,the use of synthetic auxins was well established with the progress in this field, the first generation phytohormones have been replaced with superior product and new crops are being added to take the advantages of its beneficial effects.

Introduction

Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which are termed ‘plant growth substances’. Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant and occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition: indole compounds, terpenes, adenine derivatives, steroids, aliphatic hydrocarbons and derivatives of carotenoids or fatty acids. In the context of rooted habit and iterative mode of growth, plant hormones are not produced in specialized glands, but in most parts of the plants. Plant hormones are required in minicule quantities and their concentrations at sites of activity are precisely regulated. Changes in hormones concentration and tissue sensitivity mediate a whole range of development processes in plants, many of which involve interaction with environmental factors. First five hormones discovered from the plants were gibberellins, abscisic acid, cytokinins, indole-3-acetiv acid, and ethylene as well as some compound shown more recently to have a regulatory role in plant development, namely, brassinosteroids, polyamines, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid.

Introduction

Ornamental plants, prized for their aesthetic appeal and vital role in horticulture and landscaping, enhance both private and public spaces with their beauty, contributing significantly to mental well-being and environmental health. These plants, encompassing a diverse array of species and varieties are cultivated not just for their visual splendour but also for their aromatic, structural and ecological benefits. The successful cultivation and maintenance of ornamental plants however require meticulous care and expertise, especially in managing their growth and development. This is where plant growth regulators (PGRs) become indispensable tools in ornamental horticulture Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are a class of naturally occurring and synthetic compounds that play a crucial role in the regulation of plant growth and development. These substances, even when applied in minute concentrations, can have profound effects on various physiological processes within plants, including cell division, elongation, differentiation, flowering, fruiting and senescence. The primary categories of PGRs include auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid, each contributing uniquely to plant development and stress responses. Auxins, such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), are pivotal in cell elongation, apical dominance and root initiation, making them indispensable in rooting cuttings and maintaining plant structure. Cytokinins, including kinetin and benzyladenine, promote cell division and shoot formation, thus enhancing branching and delaying leaf senescence.

Introduction

The term plant growth regulator (PGR) generally refers to organic compounds other than nutrients that influence plant growth and development at low concentrations. According to practical definitions, plant growth regulators are either natural or synthetic compounds applied directly to plants to alter their life processes or their structure in order to improve quality, increase yields, or to facilitate harvesting. The term plant hormone, when correctly used is restricted to naturally occurring plant substances. This fall into five classes: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, inhibitors and ethylene (gas). Plant growth regulators include synthetic and naturally occurring hormones.

Essential elements for plant growth

A large number of mineral elements are present in plants, but they do not require all these for growth. Out of the 107 elements in the periodic table, 90 elements are naturally occurring in plants and out of which only 17 elements are essential for plant growth.

Although common sense goes a long way in defining the concept of an essential element, Arnon and Stout in 1939, stated that an essential element should fulfil following criteria:

1. A deficiency in absence of the elements should make it impossible for the plant to complete its lifecycle.
2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific physiological function.

   To Arnon and Stout’s three requirements for essential elements should be added a fourth:

Abstract

Cancer is a potent disease causing nearly 6 million deaths per year worldwide. There are a number of cancers such as skin, brain, lung, breast, stomach, colon and blood cancer caused due to number of factors like unbalancing of hormones, smoking etc. Cancer could be treated by chemotherapies or through irradiation therapies.

Positivism emerged out of the modernist era, which experienced its fullest expression during the Enlightenment of the 18th century, but which had been stimulated through the earlier writings of philosophers such as August Comte, John Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Modernists believed that through the systematic application of logical mental process, ignorance and superstition could be replaced by progress, justice, and beauty. The tremendous optimism of the modernistic era was accompanied by an unrelenting faith in both the epistemology and methodology of positivism.

The foundation of positivism was grounded in a mechanistic worldview based on the assumption of predictable cause-and-effect patterns of relationships. Furthermore, positivism was grounded in the belief that there exist some laws in the natural and social worlds that are unaffected by one’s perspective and that can best be understood through reliance on objective scientific. Positivism led to positive thinking, positive attitude, and positive actions. Positive thinking leads to good mental and emotional health. So, there is a strong relationship between mental health and the role of positive thinking.

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

Laying and broiler breeding are the backbone of the poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are the two most important reproductive traits of breeder birds that highly influence the supply of quality day-old commercial chicks and growth of poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are parameters of economic viability (King’Ori, 2011; Malik et al., 2015) and interrelated heritable traits that vary among breeds, variety and individuals in a breed or variety. Fertility refers to the average percentage of eggs that were fertilized and hatchability refers to the proportion of chicks hatched from the total number of eggs set for incubation (hatchability on the basis of total egg set), and based on the total number of fertile eggs (hatchability on the basis of fertile eggs set) (Wolc et al., 2019).

Introduction

The livestock occupies a significant niche in the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent from the dawn of civilization. During the initial days of civilization, animals served human society in many ways. The livestock is not only producing high biological value products i.e., milk, meat but also provide manure for maintaining soil health, draught power for crop production, wool and fiber for apparel industry, low cost means of transport in rural and desert areas, companion for sports and of course a "readily disposable asset" for any kind of emergency expenditure. Hence, livestock represents one of the major driving forces for the growth of the rural economy. As a result, the livestock industry becomes one of the niche sectors of the national economy to propel faster growth along with securing the livelihood of millions of people. During the twentieth century, balanced ration was the key focal point of animal nutrition research either for enhancing the productivity or managing the livestock economy through interventions of knowledge in the areas of improvement of poor quality roughages, bypass protein, bypass fat, mineral supplements, complete feed blocks, vitamins, area specific mineral mixture, feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, hormones etc. However, during the beginning of the twenty first century, several issues appeared pertaining to the livestock sector such as feed quality and safety, designer animal products, healthy animal products, ecological treatment for digestive disorder, organic animal production, residues of antibiotics, hormones and heavy metals in accordance with the consumer preference and awareness. In the light of concerns on "transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from animal to human", several nations have imposed bans on application of antibiotics as feed additives. Keeping in view the above perspective, research is underway around the world to find alternatives to antibiotics to guard the gastrointestinal of animals without compromising productivity or product quality of livestock.

Introduction

Since the last century, nutritional science has made a remarkable contribution to the biological sciences through identification of diverse nutrients and their sources, functions, requirement, deficiency symptoms and their remedial measures etc. The advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies together with bioinformatic tools identified the presence of 100 trillion of microorganism belonging to all forms of life in the gastrointestinal tract. In fact, the whole gut microbial consortia are considered as a virtual organ in human and animals and is responsible for the development and functioning of series of essential physiological activities including digestion, absorption, metabolism, immunity, homeostasis, brain and gut development, resistance against disease etc. According to the modern scientific dogma, the human being is in fact a “Superorganism”, carrying consortium of numerous symbiotic Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea and Viruses. The gut microflora has been co-evolved with human and presumed to maintain an intricate balance among different microbial communities. Upon introspection about the functionality of the gut microflora, it is amply clear that a few of these microorganisms have the ability to make healthy state; while other members are responsible for health-related problems including food poisoning, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, indigestion, inflammatory bowel disease, predisposition to colon cancer, compromising immunity, allergy etc.

Introduction

In the relentless battle against crop weeds, farmers have traditionally relied on chemical herbicides and labour-intensive mechanical methods. However, concerns about environmental impact and herbicide resistance have driven the search for more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. One such solution is biological control, harnessing the power of predatory insects to manage weed populations naturally. This chapter delves into the fascinating world of biological control, exploring the key concepts, benefits, and implementation strategies of using predatory insects to combat crop weeds.

Introduction

Indiscriminate use of acaricides not only causes the development of resistance in phytophagous mites but are also harmful to their natural enemies, therefore, poses a serious problem of pest resurgence. Hence, worldwide attention has been focused to utilize the natural biocontrol agents and minimize the use of chemical pesticides for the control of mite pests in agriculture with a view to develop a suitable IPM strategy. Among natural enemies of phytophagous mites, predatory mites have been found to be most effective and efficient tool in IPM programme because of the fact that many of these are not only abundantly available in nature but are also voracious feeders and have proven ability to suppress the pest mite population below economic injury level. Beside this, predatory mite can locate, run and catch hold of the pest mites even the pest mite is hiding in rolled leaves, under webs or even in the galls or erinium, etc. Some of the predatory mites require very low population of pest mites as prey, for their survival and multiplication, which is an added advantage for potential predation. Some predatory mites such as Typhlodromus pyri have good synchronization with the prey mite, Panonychus ulmi as, both hibernate and remain active in orchards.