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Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory.

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan, (L.) Millspaugh, 2n = 2x = 22, an often crosspollinated crop with 20 – 70% cross-pollination, family-pea family Leguminosae or Fabaceae, genome size 808 Mbp) is a short-lived perennial shrub that is traditionally cultivated as an annual crop in developing countries.. It is grown in Asia, Eastern and Southern Africa, Latin America and Caribbean countries. On an average, it is cultivated worldwide on 4.92 million hectares (M ha) with an annual production of 3.65 Mt giving a productivity of 741 kg/ ha. India is the largest producer followed by Myanmar and Eastern and Southern Africa (principally Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

Lentil (Lens culinaris, 2 n = 2 x = 14, family Fabaceae/Leguminosae, subfamily Papilionaceae, essentially self-pollinated annual) has average global area, production and yield during 2015-17 as 5.56 million ha, 6.55 million tons of production and 1178 kg/ha as per FAOSTAT. The top ten lentil producing countries globally are Canada, India, Turkey, USA, Nepal, Australia, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, China, and Kazakhstan. India produced 0.94 million tons of lentil from 1.60 million ha with a productivity of 587 kg/ha during 2010-11. The corresponding figures for the year 2018-19 are 1.56 million tons, 1.51 million ha and 1033 kg/ha indicating a significant gain in the productivity over the years (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2020). The top states in lentil production in India are Madhya Pradesh (40%), UP (30%), West Bengal (11%) and Bihar (9%). Rest of the states is insignificant. The plant was given the scientific name Lens culinaris in 1787 by Medikus, a German botanist and physician.

1.1. Background Introduction

We live in a world with “throw-away” societies that are involved in a pattern of consuming packaged products that don’t even last past a single use or even a year and discarding the waste. This lifestyle generating waste is negatively impacting public health, environment and imposing socio-economic problems on us. The waste is continuously consuming our land, resources, and energy for storage, management, treatment, and disposal. Solid waste was an urban issue initially but has reached every corner nowadays. 

Fungi are very primitive eukaryotic microbe on the earth which are evolved with the earth and its atmosphere. These may be the ancestor of the plants in the process of evolution (Borkar, 2001). The group of ancestral fungi is thought to be represented by the present day chytridiomycota, although the Microsporidia may be an equally ancient sister group. The first major steps in the evolution of higher fungi were the loss of the chytrid flagellum and the development of branching, aseptate fungal filament, which occurred as terrestrial fungi diverged from water molds 600 million to 800 million years ago. The easily recognizable mushroom fungi probably diversified 130 million to 200 million years ago, soon after flowering plants became an important part of the flora and well before the age of dinosaurs. A relatively recent evolutionary radiation perhaps 60 million to 80 million years ago, of anaerobic chytridiomycota occurred as grasses and grazing mammals became abundant, the chytrid fungi serve as symbionts within the rumen of such animals, thereby enabling the grazing mammals to digest grasses.

1. The disease Beri - beri is caused due to deficiency of vitamin
   1. D
   2. C
   3. B
   4. A
2. Which of the following vitamin is found in Fish liver oil?
   1. Vitamin D
   2. Vitamin C
   3. Vitamin K and C
   4. Vitamin A

Environmental Ethics is a conceptual term which consist various aspects of environmental fundaments, Enviromental ethics is responsible to protect and sustain the resources and ecological system.

Big Data refers to extremely large, very fast, highly diverse, and complex data that cannot be managed with conventional data management systems, tools or processes. In the perfect world, Big Data may include all kind of data, which can deliver the right information, to right person, in the right quantity, at the right time, to help in making the right decisions.

Ultrasonography or sonography is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses echoes of ultrasound pulses to produce images, of the objects or of the areas of different densities in the body, on the screen. This diagnostic procedure is performed through ultrasound machine. Sonogram is a visual image produced from ultrasonography.

Liver is situated in cranial abdomen. Scanning of abdomen is started with the examination of liver. Hepatic ultrasonography is a non-invasive diagnostic modality to evaluate liver parenchyma. Differentiation of focal disease from diffuse disease, cystic lesions from solid masses, and obstructive jaundice from non-obstructive jaundice is possible by hepatic ultrasonography.

Q. 1 Which of the following is not a type of grinder ?
(A) Attrition mill      (B) Burr mill
(C) Hammer mill     (D) Solvent extraction mill

Study of living organisms in soil is referred to as soil biology (Greek word bios= life, logos = study). The soil is teeming with millions of living organisms which make it a living and a dynamic system.

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. 

Now-a-days, a watershed management or watershed development has been fully recognized as a unit for over all development of rainfed areas (Gupta, 2006a and b). Hydrological problems such as excessive runoff, large scale soil erosion, inadequate or faulty drainage and occurrence of droughts are the most significant problems in almost all the rainfed areas. These problems, however, can be alleviated through running watershed based development programmes that recognize the natural topography and water movement patterns of the land.

15.1 Data Visualization

Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By using different visual elements like charts, graphs and maps. Data visualization tool provides easy way to see the understand the data and related trend/pattern.

1. There are multiple tools available for data visualization using which we can perform data visualization.

2. In python we can use a library called “matplot” for data visualization.

3. Python based plotting library “matplotlib” enables us to produce 2D as well as 3D graphics i.e. charts/graphs.

4. Pyplot interface of matplotlib is used for representing 2D graphs.

Snack foods have become an essential part of the diet throughout the World and they are prepared from natural ingredients or components to yield products with specified functional properties. Extrusion cooking technology getting more popularity over other traditional processing technologies because extrusion shows continuous efficient cooking, mixing and forming process.

A large proportion of the body of mammals including domestic animals, is made up of water. This water is an essential attribute for the life of the animals. Animals deprived of food but provided water will survive much longer than the animals provided with food but deprived of water. Water is the basis of the liquid environment of the cells, which Claude Bernard called the milieu interieur, and Cannon the fluid matrix.

The functional efficiency of the respiratory system depends on the ability to oxygenate the blood and to remove CO2 as it passes in the respiratory
circulation resultant. Interference with this function can occur in a number of ways but the resultant defect in all cases is lack of adequate oxygen supply to
the tissues. The respiratory insufficiency like anoxia or hypoxia is responsible for most of the clinical signs of respiratory diseases leading to respiratory
failure and finally death.

The basic purpose of the immune system is to provide defense to the body from various types of infections. But, sometimes, the system which is aimed to provide protection become damaging or even life-threatening. There are situations when immune response against harmless and inert antigens is exaggerated and cause diseases.

One of the greatest achievements in science is the development of vaccines. Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. They have prevented a large number of deaths caused, every year, by dreadful diseases like smallpox, polio, hepatitis etc. Diseases like smallpox and polio have been successfully eradicated by vaccination.

The wellbeing of a person depends on his immune system. Any deficiency in any component of the immune system is called immunodeficiency and it may impair the normal functioning of his body and makes the person more susceptible to infections.

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens. But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. The self antigens against which the immune system responds are called autoantigens and the antibodies produced against self antigens are called autoantibodies.

Lotus

(Nelumbo nucifera)

Family: Nymphaeaceae/Nelumbonaceae

Origin: Southern Asia

Flower colour: White to deep pink

Plant part used: Flower (almost all parts)

Basic chromosome number: X=8

Somatic chromosome number: 2n =16

Low external input agriculture developed as a response to the criticisms surrounding Green Revolution technology being neither sustainable nor feasible for many small-scale farmers around the world. The concept aimed to redesign the agricultural system by optimising the use of biological resources, keeping changes to the natural ecosystem as well as the use of external inputs at a minimum (Pimentel et al., 1989).

Plant parasitic nematodes can be controlled by several methods. The nematode control aims to improve growth, quality and yield by keeping the nematode population below the economical threshold level. The control measures to be adopted should be profitable and cost effective. It is essential to calculate the cost benefit ratio before adopting control measures.

The non-glutinous, easily digestible and alkaline forming characteristics make millets superior in nutritional point of view. Among various cultivated millets 6 in India, barn-yard millet, little millet, brown top millet, guinea millet and kodo millet are the most important minor millets (Nazni and Karuna, 2016). The Barnyard millet, Sawa millet or Japanese barnyard produces a crop within six weeks and considered as the fastest growing minor millets among the all minor millet (Veena et al., 2005). Japanese millet or Barnyard has several existing varieties.

Plants have served as an important food source in the human diet since times immemorial. In recent times, available plant food sources are facing the threat of limitation due to many reasons viz., shrinking of agricultural land, changes in traditional lifestyles, population growth, rapid urbanization, changes in climate and a variety of plant diseases (Strange and Scott, 2005). Technological, development in agriculture and food processing are associated with both benefits and drawbacks impacting the human health globally with people suffering from chronic hunger, malnutrition to over-nutrition and nutritional imbalances.

After long back of continuous steep turn down in cropping and consumption pattern of traditional grains, once again time is rolling back for them as is evident from available integrated meal or composite research formulations distributed all around the market. Today’s food market is segmented majorly with them and also emphasize more of healthy consumptions owe to adopted governmental strategy as a promotional trends such as subsidies, mid day meal programmes, selection of grain of the year by FAO, 2014 and revised labeling policies etc. are the real time examples. Present lifestyle, ongoing food habits, hike in grain prices, adulteration practices, demand in functional foods and many more reasons lead to the time which emphasizes on its own for consumption of traditional grains.

Teff (Eragrostis tef) popularly known as Williams love grass or super grain or annual bunch grass originated in Ethiopia, South Africa has recently gained popularity with widespread cultivation and consumption in India, USA, South Africa and Eritrea (Arendt and Zannini, 2013). It generates around 500 million USA dollars as income to local farmers of Ethiopia. It is the second most important cash crop (Minten et al., 2013). 

Fonio is an indigenous cereal crop of West Africa. Fonio grain belongs to genus Digitaria Haller that consists of 230 to 325 grass species, both annual and perennial. The fonio species is a part of Poaceae family, sub- family of Panicoideae, and the tribe of Paniceae. Fonio grains have a protective covering (husk) outside the kernel, similar to rice.

To constantly move towards advancement, points towards the addition to the tradition that converts to modernization. Today with the drawing waves risking health and diet of an individual, there is a constant demand of rolling back the traditional grains which lost its significance with the turning over of era. Family Amaranthaceae for a long time with the turn of events existed among the staple diets of people in different regions of Asia as China, Africa, America and some parts of India due to its complementary effects with different cuisines as well as the nutrient fulfillment (Olawuyi et al., 2016).

Management is the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve a goal. Management is a built-in function of business. It is essentially a decision-making process based on information and experience, in order to achieve desired goals and objectives. It involves creating an internal environment. It is the management which puts into use the various factors of production. Therefore, it is the responsibility of management to create such conditions which are conducive to maximum efforts so that people are able to perform their task efficiently and effectively.

Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of North Eastern India from some plants closely related to Saccharum spontaneum (Barber, 1931). Brandes (1956) concluded that tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania countries most probably in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall tropical canes have been grown from ancient times. Parthasarathy (1946) believed that India is the original home of Saccharum officinarum.

The word “baked products” refers to a vast variety of foods, such as cakes, bread, cookies, pastries, and crackers, and a variety of other items, and it might be difficult to find a common thread that connects the members of this a varied group. The strongest common connection is that all of them include wheat flour in their recipes.

Food provides a sense of wellbeing and comfort and makes people feel good. In this world of a growing population, the need for affordable, safe and good quality food is rising constantly. On the other hand, there is growing awareness of customers who demand that food be produced and supplied hygienically in socially responsible and eco-friendly ways.

Development of fungicide resistance in a fungal disease pathogen is a major concern for some of the important diseases in their management. This can be overcome by designing of fungicide use strategies to manage the threat of fungicide resistance.

Plant growth regulators or phytohormones are organic substances produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. Thimmann in1948 proposed the term Phytohormone as these hormones are synthesized in plants (Thimmann, 1963).

Crop: Plants grown in association, sown (or planted) and also harvested by human being, are collectively known as crop.
Crop plants have some economic values and there is an interaction or competition among the plants.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Sugarcane is an important agro-industrial crop of tropical and subtropical region of the world. Sugar industry is next to textile industry provide employment to large number of people. It is the main crop of earning foreign exchange. It shares about 2% GDP.

Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)

Importance (Second largest agro-based industry)

• It is cash crop used for sugar, Jaggery (Gur) and Khandsari.
• Green top is used as green fodder. Dry leaves used as mulching and as a fuel.
• Bagasse (By product) is used as fuel, for the production of fibre board, paper etc. and for power generation (electricity).
• Molasses is used in distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol and is also used as an additive to feed livestock.
• Press mud is used as soil amendments, organic manure

Introduction

Both beneficiary and deleterious microorganisms are present in food. Beneficiary microbes are used for the preparation of a number of dairy and meat products and are called Probiotics, whereas deleterious microbes can cause food poisoning. The quantitative analysis of food products is necessary to find out the presence of types of microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Food sample
2. Mechanical blender
3. Sterilised distilled water
4. Steilised distilled water blanks (9 ml)
5. Petri plates
6. Sterile Pipettes (1 ml)
7. Eiosin Methylene Blue agar medium
8. Incubator
9. Colony counter
10. Marker

Procedure

1. Weigh 1 g of well blended

The basic methods for wastewater sewerage (collection, treatment, and disposal) are as follows:

• Off-site sewerage
• Separate sewerage system
• Combined sewerage system
• On-site sewerage

Many nations have implemented separate sewage systems that transmit sewage and storm water through separate pipelines in order to separate the two. Storm water often does not contribute to a wastewater treatment facility (WWTP). Domestic sewage contains 99.9% or more water. The remaining portion is made up of bacteria

Weather and climate have profound influence on agriculture of a region. There are some differences between these two terms. Weather describes the state of the lower atmosphere of a place with respect to temperature, precipitation, wind direction, wind speed, humidity, cloudiness and pressure etc. over a short period of time. The short term variations over minutes to days are indicated as weather of a location. It says whether the atmosphere is hot or cold, rainy or dry, sunny or cloudy, still or cyclonic and so on usually for period of 24 hours. The weather may vary from place to place and from time to time due to difference in temperature, cloudiness, humidity, rain and other events of atmosphere. It may be sunny at one locality, but rainy at another locality.

Abstract

In biocatalysis, isolated enzymes, enzyme mixtures, immobilized enzymes or microbes (enzymes that are still present within the living cells) are used to perform chemical transformation of organic compounds into novel compounds. Both in academia and across chemical and pharmaceutical industry, biocatalysts are used as isolated preparations or in whole cell format or as recombinant proteins produced in alternate host cells. Biocatalysts catalyze novel small molecule transformations that are usually difficult or impossible using traditional synthetic organic chemistry. Biocatalysts exhibit high chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity and enantioselectivity towards their substrates. As a result, the use of biocatalysts during chemoenzymatic synthesis minimizes the issues of unwanted side-reactions such as decomposition, isomerization, racemization and rearrangement. The process of biocatalysis has become an important tool in the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and enantiopure compounds. Biocatalysis offers a more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting methods for the production of APIs and advanced pharmaceutical intermediates. Biocatalysts have received tremendous attention in pharmaceutical industry because they typically catalyze reactions under mild conditions, so they do not consume much energy or emit much greenhouse gas. Biocatalysts are currently employed for the development of products in different fields, such as pharmaceuticals or intermediates of their production (e.g., antibiotics, statins, and enantiopure building blocks), fine chemicals (e.g., amino acids and vitamins), and food ingredients (e.g., sweeteners, lipids, and nutraceuticals). However, it would be helpful for the pharmaceutical industry to take advantage of developments in biochemistry, molecular cloning, random and site-directed mutagenesis, advanced tools for enzyme discovery, enzyme-directed evolution, high-throughput laboratory evolution techniques for biocatalyst optimization, immobilization, and fermentation technology to gain access to a new class of biocatalysts (enzymes), cells and other microbes.

Abstract

Fruits like orange (citrus sinensis), mango (mangifera indica), banana (musa paradisiaca), guava (psidium guajava) and pomegranate (punica granatum) contain numerous vitamins, minerals, fibre. These fruits also contain phytochemicals, antioxidant and bioactive compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponin, terpenoids, which enhance the nutritional value and reduce the free radicals and oxidative stress in human body. These fruits also show the anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-obesity, anti- diabetic, anti-proliferative, anti-hypertensive properties and are very effective against the pathogenic bacteria, which causes the harmful disease in human body. The chapter provides the production data of these fruits in different countries, their bioactive compounds and their utilization in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries.

Introduction

The digestive system and its auxiliary organs main functions include digestion and the absorption of nutrients required for cell metabolic processes. Digestion is the mechanical and chemical or enzymatic breakdown of large nutritional macromolecules into simpler molecules that cells can absorb. It takes place in the aqueous milieu of the digestive system and is secreted by the salivary glands, stomach and mucosal glands, pancreas, and liver.

Digestive enzymes are secreted almost throughout the digestive tract. Salivary enzymes such as lingual lipase and α-amylase initiate the breakdown of fat and carbohydrates in the mouths of young animals (e.g., calves) and omnivores (e.g., rats, pigs, and humans).The optimum pH for oral digestion is 6.7 (6.2-7.6).

The gastric juice contains pepsinogen, HCI, and intrinsic factors. The pepsinogen enzyme is secreted by the stomach’s chief cell. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin at acidic pH ranges of 2.0 to 3.5 and initiates the digestion of proteins in the stomach of monogastric animals. Also, the stomach’s parietal cells secrete HCI and intrinsic factors. Cyanocobalamin, is a synthetic form of vitamin B₁₂ requires an intrinsic factor in ruminants to be absorbed. The abomasum of young ruminants secretes proteolytic enzymes such as rennin or chymosin. Rennin acts on milk at a pH of 6.5.

1-1. Identify the current state of environmental policies in Indian agriculture and the challenges faced in their effective implementation.

1-2. Evaluate the importance of implementing environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to ensure sustainable development.

1-3. Analyze key international standards, such as ISO 14001 and EMAS, and how they can be applied in the context of Indian agriculture.

1-4. Compare and contrast best practices and case studies of companies and organizations that have successfully implemented environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to draw insights and lessons learnt from them.

According to the Indian economic survey of 2018, more than 50% of the Indian workforce is employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture contributed to 17–18% to the country’s GDP. Agriculture’s share in India’s economy is less compared to the industrial and services sectors. The industrial and service sectors have higher growth rates. The significance of the agricultural sector in India’s economic and social growth goes well beyond. Nearly 60% of India’s families depend on rural incomes. In addition to this, the majority of India’s poor population (around 70 %) lives in rural areas. Also, as the population is growing at a fast rate, food security in India depends on producing cereal crops and in increasing the production of fruits, vegetables and milk to sustain the needs of a growing population. To achieve this we need a productive, diversified, competitive, and sustainable agricultural sector. India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, spices and milk. It has the world’s largest cattle herd and the largest area under wheat, rice, and cotton. India is also the second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep & goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea.

The communication which is the core of the Communication Mix plays an important role in promoting the product to the outside world and especially to the target market. In the marketing of rural products, application of latest, innovative and enhanced technologies is crucial for effective communication with urban consumers. This also helps in conveying the features of rural products. The adoption of the latest technologies ensures the economic well-being of the rural marketers by increasing the reach of the products and in creating awareness about the product. The technology helps in faster dissemination of the rural product information to the consumer.

The market research process is equally critical to rural marketing as to urban marketing because of two main reasons:

• The marketer has a limited understanding of the rural/urban consumer
• The marketer who is urban-oriented may need to find different ways to understand the decision variables in the urban market.