eChapters

Dairy industry has long dealt with issues of food pathogens and inadvertent adulteration; it is time to review the plant systems with a new perspective. Each plant has its own handling protocols, physical lay-out and employee policies. Milk and other materials entering the facilities, till the distribution of the finished product needs special attention.
 
I. INCOMING MATERIALS

In general, start by considering the milk, food ingredients, packaging, chemicals and other materials that come into plant facility and warehouses, and ensure that these product streams are secure, and that materials are stored in asecure place.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other. The most basic tools are simple machines. For example, a crowbar simply functions as a lever. The further out from the pivot point, the more force is transmitted along the lever. A hammer typically interfaces between the operator’s hand and the nail the operator wishes to strike.
A telephone is a communication tool that interfaces between two people engaged in conversation at one level. And between each user and the communication network at another. It is in the domain of media and communications technology that a counterintuitive aspect of our relationships with our tools first began to gain popular recognition.
Marshall McLuhan famously said “We shape our tools. And then our tools shape us.” McLuhan was referring to the fact that our social practices co-evolve with our use of new tools and the refinements we make to existing tools.

Concept of Inventory

‘Inventory’ may be defined as ‘usable but idle resource’. If resource is some physical and tangible object such as materials, then it is generally termed as stock. Thus stock or inventory are synonymous terms though inventory has wider implications. Broadly speaking, the problem of inventory management is one of maintaining, for a given financial investment, an adequate supply of something to meet an expected demand pattern. This could be raw materials work in progress finished products or the spares and other indirect materials. Inventory can be one of the indicators of the management effectiveness on the materials management front. Inventory turnover ratio (annual demand/average inventory) is an index of business performance. A soundly managed organization will have higher inventory turnover ratio and vice-versa. Inventory management deals with the determination of optimal policies and procedures for procurement of commodities. Since it is quite difficult to imagine a real work situation in which the required material will be made available at the point of use instantaneously, hence maintaining, inventories becomes almost necessary. Thus inventories could be visualized as ‘necessary evil’.

Since time immemorial when man used primitive tools and machines to carry his loads, to draw his water, to till his land and to fabricate his building materials, he has been faced with the prospect of maintaining these assets until such time as he considered their useful life to be ended. Maintenance is very important to extend the useful life of an asset. Maintenance is usually viewed only as a repair function. It is, however, “a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to, an acceptance condition”. In fact maintenance keeps or ensures that the entire production system is kept reliable, productive and efficient. All departments of a production system may have been designed beautifully without giving due consideration to maintenance management. The end result is obvious. Organizations like the National Productivity Council and others are playing a vital role in propagating the importance of Maintenance Management of all assets of the organization. In fact, all organizations must be having some assets, and hence the need for proper maintenance and ‘physical assets management’ which is synonymous with the word ‘Tero-technology’.

There are specific hazards associated with equipment, operation or a particular section. Such possible hazards and their preventive measures are discussed below.
I. Milk Reception Dock
    1.    Where the top of a vat, into which a 40 litre can of milk is to be dumped, is higher than the milk can, two men should lift and empty the can.
    2.    Where steam jet method of can washing is used, to avoid burning, employees would be furnished with protective equipment, including rubber boots and long aprons
    3.    Cans should be stacked in areas away from frequently used passage ways
    4.    Cans should not be stacked so high that they may fall and injure someone

Apart from the job content and specialization, the conditions or the atmosphere in which employees work is critical to their productivity. Work environment includes the tools and equipment provided to perform the job, the atmosphere at the work place, worker motivation etc.

Tools and Equipments

The quality of tools and equipment provided to a worker has a profound effect on the worker’s contribution to his job. A poorly designed tool can cause excessive physical burden on the worker and may result in fatigue. A faulty computer monitor can cause severe eyestrain, which might affect productivity in an office environment. Hence, tools and equipment should be appropriate for the production task. The design should consider ergonomic factors like grasping pressure, size, weight, ease of use etc. when designed properly, tools enable users to work efficiently, resulting in higher productivity. The equipment installed should be able to meet the capacity requirements of the job, have safety features and be easy to use. The use of the right tools and equipment can improve productivity in an organization substantially.

Employee motivation and job enrichment are described as two management techniques used to improve human behaviour and attitude towards work, with a view to utilize available human resources more efficiently and thus make man-management more effective. Just as the employee has certain wants that the organization is expected to satisfy, the organization too expects certain types of behaviour usually termed as ‘Direction’ or ‘Motivation’. Obviously this managerial function is not so easy, as it involves many problems, and it is these problems and their possible solutions that one is concerned.
Job enrichment is also a motivational problem created by the alienation of employees from their work, or by lack of their interest in their work. Here the problem is how to make the work more interesting, purposeful and acceptable to employees so that they may perform it more enthusiastically and with a greater sense of responsibility. Like motivation this is also a problem of human behaviour and work attitude. In fact both employee motivation and job enrichment are the problems which every supervisor and manager has to face while working and making their subordinates work.

TRANSFER

A transfer is a change in job assignment. It may involve a promotion or demotion or no change at all in responsibility and status. It is a change in assignment in which the employee moves to another job at approximately the same level of responsibility, the same skill, the level of pay. Transfer is to be distinguished from promotion and demotion which imply an ascending or descending change respectively, in the hierarchy of positions. A transfer may be either temporary or permanent, depending upon the need, and may occur within a department, between departments and divisions, or between plants or officers within a company/organization.

Whatever may be the nature and strength of resistance to the performance appraisal, management cannot relinquish this practice. Without employee appraisal, salary increases, reassignments or promotions cannot be administered rationally. Each of these areas has its specific problems and one of the solutions of modern times has been offered by an unusually promising frame work offered by Peter Drucker concept of Management by Objectives (MBO).
MBO calls on the subordinate to set his short-term performance goals in consultation with his superior. Goals explicitly state the actions which the employee will follow. Instead of being appraised in a traditional way by his superior, the subordinate appraises his own performance by evaluating it vis-à-vis the goals. Before establishing a goal, the individual studies his job, assesses his potentialities, and formulates some specific plans to reach the goal. The supervisor is not the evaluator, but directs the goal-setting process to ensure that it matches the objectives of the organization.

What is Performance Appraisal?

Performance Appraisal (PA) is the process through which an individual employee’s behaviour and accomplishments for a fixed time period are measured and evaluated. The major purpose of measuring and evaluating is to assess the worth or value of an employee. Performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging the relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his task. Performance appraisal helps to identify those who are performing their assigned tasks well and those who are not and the reasons for such performance.

Training is a major manpower management function. No organization can afford not to train its employees, regardless of his previous education, training, and experience. He has to be introduced into the work environment of his new employer inducted and taught to perform his assigned tasks in a new milieu. Moreover, changing technology, increasing automation in offices and factories and in almost all institutions is bringing about redesigned or altered jobs. People are constantly being “trained” and retrained by the way their superiors and other employees associate them with work. 
Training is a part of management development and also a form of organizational development. The most effective managers are those who can best develop the human resources of an organization for the purpose of achieving organizational goals and objectives. If the employees perceive training as a means to achieve their personal goals at work, they will welcome such opportunities. Some essentials about training may be borne in mind and they are:

RECRUITMENT 
Recruitment is the process of identifying the prospective employees, stimulating and encouraging them to apply for a particular job or jobs in an organization. It is a positive action as it involves inviting people to apply. The purpose is to have an inventory of eligible persons from amongst whom proper selection of the most suitable person can be made.

The Process of Recruitment
Before thinking of inviting people to apply for a job one has to decide what types of persons are to be invited and what their characteristics should be. This calls for fixing the ‘job specifications’ which may also be called ‘man specifications’. Job specifications are based on job description which is dependent upon the nature and requirements of a job. 

Thus, job specification will be different for each job. The various elements of job specification are:

Importance and Value of Human Resources

The employees are the human resources of an organization which are crucial for its functioning. The acquisition of human resources and their maintenance involves costs. Manpower costs include costs of research and designing of manpower programmes that is man-power planning, work study and designing of personnel policies etc. The costs of commissioning of man power, that is, costs of recruitment, induction, placement and training etc. The cost of maintenance of these resources is a very significant component of the total costs of an organization. Maintenance costs include wages and salaries, welfare and medical benefits, PF, gratuity and other retiring benefits etc. These costs form a substantial part of the total costs of an organization. In the last 30 years the treatment of manpower costs has been recognized as a separate division in accounting practices. The other assets like machinery, buildings etc come under depreciation. In contrast, human assets are the employees at all levels, as they grow in age and experience, add to their productivity and capacity to earn for the organization and become more valuable.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

In economics and business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even-point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has “broken even”. A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been paid, and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return.
For example, if a business sells less than 1000 liters of milk each day, it will make a loss, if it sells more, it will be a profit. With this information, the business managers will then need to see if they expect to be able to process and sell 1000 liters of milk per day.

SOURCES OF LOSSES
In most of the cases of excessive fat or product loss, a combination of several factors rather than any single factor are responsible.
 
Inaccuracy in weighing: Receiving room scales should be checked regularly with a set of weights. The check should be made immediately before weighing operations begin. Improper drainage of the weighbowl will permit a carry over into the next batch dumped, resulting in incorrect weighing. Errors in weight in bulk handling methods may be caused also by improper leveling of the tank, incorrect calibration of the measuring rod, or carelessness on the part of the person taking the measurement.
 
Inaccuracy in sampling: Failure to collect representative samples may sometime cause sizeable losses. Milk should be properly agitated before taking samples. The composite sample should be preserved and refrigerated and should be protected from mould growth.

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

“It  is not uncommon for animals to exhibit behavioral changes before an impending disaster. Wild animals often vacate areas, gather in strange groupings and sometimes will even enter into human habitats they normally avoid,” animal behavior expert Diana L.Guerrero said.Three days before the earthquake, thousands of toads roamed the streets of Mianzhu, a hard-hit city where at least 2,000 people have been reported killed.

Efforts to Mitigate Natural Disaster at National and Global Level

What is A ‘Disaster’?

It as ‘an event that has occurred unexpectedly with destructive consequences’ - (UNOCHA 2005). 
It as ‘a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great human suffering and distress, and large scale material damage’ - (IFRC2005).
None of the international agencies take animals into account in their definitions

Nuclear Disasters

What is NUCLEAR ENERGY or NUCLEAR POWER?

It is the energy released in nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
Motive power generated by nuclear reactor.
Where atomic energy of a substance get converted in to electrical energy.

WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”

    1.    What is the percentage of water in an adult’s body weight
        a)    50%    b)    60%
        c)    90%    d)    70%
    2.    __________ is a direct reactant in hydrolytic processes of many foods
        a)    Water    b)    Moisture content
        c)    Both a&b    d)    None
    3.    The bond angle of the isolated water molecule (vapor state) is
        a)    109°    b)    104.5°
        c)    109°28'    d)     103.6°

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

    1.    Life blood of food companies are
        a)    Existing products    b)    New Products
        c)     New packaging material    d)     Food technologists
    2.    New Products are developed to meet
        a)    Health & Nutritional requirements
        b)    Environmental & Social requirements
        c)     Convenience & handling
        d)     All
    3.    What are the characteristics of a line extension in a variant of an established line of food products 
        a)    Little research    
        b)    Minimum manufacturing changes
        c)     No change in logistics and supply chain
        d)     All
    4.    The following one is not a characteristic of new product development through line extension
        a)    New purchasing skills
        b)    No change in logistics and supply chain
        c)     No change in storage of RM &PM
        d)     Minimum R&D

    1.    Fortification of common salt is done with 
        a)    Potassium iodide    b)    Potassium iodate
        c)    Both a & b    d)    None
    2.    Vinegar is a 
        a)    Class-I preservative    b)    Class-II preservative
        c)    Natural preservative    d)    a & c
    3.    As per FSSAI regulations, the permitted level of Sulphur dioxide in RTS beverages is not more than ______ ppm
        a)    100    b)    70
        c)    150    d)    80
    4.    Sodium nitrite is a
        a)    Preservative    b)    Buffering agent
        c)    Curing agent    d)    Flavour enhancer

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None

    1.    Asepsis is a process of 
        a)    Removal of microorganisms    
        b)    Keeping out microorganisms
        c)    Hindering the growth & activity of microorganisms    
        d)    Killing the microorganisms
    2.    Self-decomposition of the food is prevented by
        a)    Inactivation of enzymes    b)    Delay of chemical reactions
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Commercially available fruit beverages are generally pasteurized at 
        a)    85°C for 25 to  30 min    b)    62.5°C for 25 to  30 min
        c)    71.1°C for 15 to  30 sec    d)    92.1°C for 15 to  30 min

    1.    Rice is a
        a)    Edible fruit    b)    Edible Vegetable
        c)    Edible flower    d)    All
    2.    Major components in cereal seeds are 
        a)    Endosperm    b)    Germ or embryo
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Bran is composed of 
        a)    Pericarp    b)    Testa
        c)    aleuron layer    d)    All
    4.    Oats contains ______________ percent of hull
        a)    50    b)    40
        c)    30    d)    20

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.

India occupies second position among the silk producing countries of the world, next only to China. Sericulture as a farm enterprise is highly suited to rural poor, especially small and marginal farmers and other weaker sections of the society, since it requires low investments but provides good and quick returns at individual family level. Several socio-economic studies have established that cost-benefit ratio in sericulture is highest compared to agricultural crops. Though there are limitations to the number of broods that can be raised per year in Himalayan region due to ecological conditions, net returns from sericulture activities are quite remunerative and effectively supplement the rural economy through part-time employment opportunities and utilization of local resources.

Introduction

Ever since its discovery, silk as a unique product of a plant-animal interface, continues to reign supreme despite the onslaught of natural and man-made textile fibres, because it is exclusive and the most beautiful of all textile fibres. It is associated with comfort, festivity and fashion.

Sericulture has established itself as an economic activity with a rural-base. It presents an intriguing example of an agro-industry whose potential to act as a safety-net for the poor in rural areas is unquestionable. From “Soil to Silk” activities, sericulture creates around 6 million person-years of incomegenerating opportunities. It generates employment @ 11 man-days per kg of raw silk production in a year in associated upstream and downstream activities. Sericulture is thus a labour-intensive cottage industry in all its phases, namely, host plant cultivation, silkworm rearing, silk reeling, and other post-cocoon processes such as twisting, dyeing, weaving, printing and finishing.

Beekeeping symbolizes the biological interdependence between insects, pollination and production of seed. Honey bees have been tirelessly rendering this yeoman service to benefit human-kind since time immemorial. Beekeeping is defined as “the science and art of rearing honey bees for man’s economic benefits”. Since, honey producing bees are restricted to the genus Apis beekeeping is also called ‘Apiculture’. A suitable place selected for housing honey bee hives, equipments and related accessories is referred to as an “apiary”. The invention of movable hive with separable frames in 1851 by L.L. Langstroth gave beekeeping the impetus to flourish. Further fine-tuning of scientific rearing techniques in these movable hives helped in spreading beekeeping to the newer areas.

Honey Producing Species of Bee

About 20,000 bee species are found worldwide. However, only four species viz. the European honey bee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), the oriental bee (A. cerana Fabricius), the dwarf bee (A. florae Fabricius), and the giant or rock bee (A. dorsata Fabricius) are commonly recognized as honey producing. Amongst these two, only A. cerana and A. mellifera are hived because these build multiple-combs in dark cavities. The other two build single comb nests in the open (Akratnakul 1987a, Ruttner 1987).

Abstract

The hilly regions of western Himalayas comprise of three states namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal which are divided into High Altitude Temperate, High Hill Temperate and Valley Temperate zones. Through observations, trial and error, man has developed skills related to cultivation, utilization and livelihood. These were transmitted through generations and in this way, a system of traditional knowledge developed and moved forward for the benefit of the society. Food is the basic necessity for the survival of human beings. Since ancient times, various methods have been used to process and preserve foods especially in the Himalayan regions. The food habits and preparation of various dishes depend upon the availability of crops and surrounding vegetation. On the basis of the substrate used, traditional foods and beverages of Himalayan region are broadly classified as Cereal and Legume based, Milk based, Fruits and Vegetables, and others. Some of the popular traditional foods of Himalayan region are Aenkadu/Askalu, Bagpinni/ pinni, Chhangpa, Chaulai ka bhat, Kutu ki roti, Lesuwa roti, Tilkuta, Kaddu ke khwaire, Mooli ke khwaire, Sarson ki dhusi, Arbi ke sukhe danthal, Chaulai ki kheer, Ogal ka halwa. Traditional fermented foods and beverages are very popular in the tribal and rural areas of western Himalayas. Besides being source of nutrition, these fermented foods constitute staple food (Bhaturu) in larger part of western Himalayas while others are consumed during local festivals, marriages and special occasions. A variety of indigenous fermented foods and beverages available are; Kinema, Marcha, Phab, Bekanthu, Gundruk, Sinki, Soibun, Sura, Chhang, Daru, Angoori/ Kinnauri etc.Due to lack of proper scientific technology the quality of such foods especially beverages (many- a- times) is uncertain and their consumption leads to a higher incidence of fatal diseases among the consumers. This chapter briefly reviews the preparation, significance and quality of indigenous foods of Western Himalayas which offer tremendous opportunity for sustaining livelihood of the people of Himalayan region and stimulating agro-industrial development even in the developing countries, after upgrading and sustaining their quality.

The relationship between man and plant resources of his surroundings is intimate. Of the 350 tribes inhabiting different parts of India, about 171 dwell in Himalayan region. The inhabitants of the mountain areas use native flora for food, fodder, fiber, fuel, timber and for health care of both human beings and their livestock. These plant resources, particularly medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), not only meet their health care needs but also support their livelihood. Recently the demand of MAPs has transformed from local and traditional needs to global needs. This has adversely affected availability and quality of raw material as also livelihood and health options of the local people. Most of the raw materials are gathered from the forests, and only a few plants are under cultivation. To avoid rampant exploitation of MAPs from nature, there is an urgent need to establish procedures for their cultivation and organized marketing. The present article deals with strategies and actions to protect livelihood options of the indigenous communities inhabiting mountain areas in western Himalaya as well as promote sustainable utilization of MAPs through scientific and technological interventions.

Introduction

India and China are two major Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) producing countries, providing 40% of the global diversity and availability of rare species. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has identified and documented over 9,000 species of medicinal plants that are significant for the pharmaceutical industry (AICRPE 1996). Of these, 2,000 to 2,300 species are used in traditional medicines while at least 150 species are used commercially on a large scale (EXIM Bank 1997).

The Himalayan region is recognized amongst the 34 global biodiversity hotspots. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) comprises of five biogeographic provinces, covers approximately an area of 591 thousand km² and extends from Jammu and Kashmir in the north-west to the Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The IHR is a source of great diversity of food, fuel, fodder, timber, dye and medicinal plants. It comprises about 18% of India and is more than 2,800 km long and 220 to 300 km wide, with altitudinal range of 200–8,000 m. The IHR alone supports about 8,000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of bryophytes, 1,159 species of lichens and 6,900 species of fungi. The state Himachal Pradesh is divided into four conspicuous zones, namely Shivalik/lower montain zone, mid-hills/middle mountain zone, high hills/temperate zone and cold dry zone. Five rivers namely Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Yamuna and Chenab with a large number of their tributaries flow through the state. The flora of the state consists of about 180 families comprising about 1,038 genera and about 3,400 species. The region is facing greater and more difficult challenges than ever before in achieving balanced economic growth, alleviating poverty, and sustainably managing the renewable natural resources. People’s dependence on forest and related natural resources is historic, cultural, and inevitable as other viable alternatives for earning a living have been few. The consequence of this trend has been the commercialization of forest products, mainly non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The NTFPs are the major bioresources among various natural resources available and provide various ecosystems services to the mankind. Like other parts of the IHR, in Himachal Pradesh people earn their livelihood from the forests in many ways i.e., earning cash income; satisfying their needs for fuel, medicine, shelter, and supplementary food; using traditional agricultural inputs such as leaf litter, fodder, small tools, and water; and cultivating land inside the forest boundaries as forest encroachers. Their dependence on forest resources is both historic and cultural to the extant that it is an integral component of the forest ecosystem of the region. Although, large amounts of NTFPs are collected by different communities in the state, no comprehensive study on the amount collected, number of people engaged in collection and trading, and the marketing chain involved has been carried out to date. Therefore, the present study focuses on conservation and sustainable utilization and market potential of different tradable medicinal plants/(NTFPs) in Himachal Pradesh, north western Himalaya.

Northwestern Himalayan region is spread between 28°43^'-37°05^'N latitude and 72° 40^'-81°02^' E longitude covering an approximate area of 33 million ha. The major natural resources of western Himalayas are water, forests, floral, and faunal biodiversity. Although there is wide spectrum of farming systems diversity in the region, yet there are quite a few commonalities viz. crop diversity, including mixed cropping as well as crop rotation of subsistence nature rather than commercial nature of agriculture, maintenance of soil fertility through natural processes. The variability in agroclimatic conditions in the hilly regions of India due to geographical location and climatic conditions require micro planning for assuring sustainable agricultural production. Introduction of horticultural crops is more recent phenomenon and it has penetrated the traditional farming systems of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and central Himalayan region for commercial benefits than the local consumption. Climatic conditions are optimal for growth of many food, medicinal and other commercial crops and live stock occur in these hills and the need is to exploit these opportunities for economic upliftment of the region, without degradation of natural resource base, therefore a long term development approach for sustainable farming system in these hills must have an eye on conservation farming for developing various production systems since this is a highly fragile system. The agriculture including livestock continues to be the dominant sector despite the fact that the area is exposed to adverse and harsh geophysical and agri-silviculture conditions. Strategies by planting fodder trees or grasses in the waste/ degraded lands (representing 7.9, 9.8 and 11.5% of the geographical area in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand, respectively), is needed for enhancing the fodder production. In addition, farm spaces on terrace risers and improved crop production technology coupled with integration of agroforestry will help in bridging the gap between demand and supply of the fodder. The indigenous agroforestry systems such as homestead (kyaroo), plantation crop combinations, scattered trees on farm lands/field bunds and bamboo grove are practiced by the farming community. The land management operations are predominated by different indigenous agroforestry practices which have proven potential and hold promise in alleviating the poverty among rural masses of this hilly region. The agroforestry systems provide unique opportunity for integration of different components in the farming systems, which help to optimize the ecosystem functioning and better management of land, water, and biological resources. These systems need to be further improved with suitable technological interventions considering the local population need, so that the socioeconomic status of the farming communities uplifted. Experiences gained in managing natural resources through well-tested agroforestry systems have been shared in this chapter.

Coldwater fishes exhibit enormous diversity and have great potential for generating livelihoods, mitigating poverty and unemployment. Coldwater fishery deserves attention for improving production by ensuring seed and feed supply. Other important issues in fisheries sector relate to marketing, value addition and farming. There is need to have separate action plan for low volume high values, and high volume low values fishes. Coldwater fishery sector can be strengthened using the available technologies such as hatchery and seed rearing, management protocol breeding and grow out protocols, fish specific feed formulations, exotic carp farming, and fish farming in polythene lined irrigation/ watershed tanks. The sustainable fishery development in hills requires attention on defining and granting appropriate ownership of resources, developing state of art infrastructure, initiation and implementation of fisheries conservation including focus on native and exotic species through enforcement of protective legislation. Strengthening of hill fishery education will play a central role. A “strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis” suggests an integrated approach by addressing the issues on genetic characterization and conservation, environmental impact analysis, development of niche specific aquaculture system, focus on post production and health management issues, implementation of demonstration programmes, enhancement of institutional capabilities, and development of human resources. Research areas relating to capture fisheries, culture fisheries, extension and transfer of technologies are also important.