eChapters

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) is an important cucurbit crop throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. It is an annual creeping vine and native to the Southern part of Africa, most probably the areas around the Kalahari Desert. Presently, more than 1200 cultivars have been developed and are being grown in nearly 122 countries with tropical and subtropical climates. Watermelon is mainly valued for its ripe ‘pepo’ fruits which are consumed as fresh-cut dessert or as juice. The fruits are a rich source of carotenoids, minerals, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamin C and Citrulline, a non-essential amino acid. The red colour of the watermelon flesh is due to the presence of lycopene, the content of which is 40% more than that of tomato. Besides, there is good variation available for f lesh colour ranging from red, pink, yellow, orange, white and green. Owing to the ability to prevent several chronic diseases due to the presence of pigments like lycopene, anthocyanin, carotene, xanthophyll etc., presently watermelon is also considered as a functional food. The exocarp (rind) is also consumed as stewed, pickled or stir-fried or may be used for the preparation of ‘tooty fruity’. Watermelon seeds are considered a good omen and are gifted during Chinese New Year in East Asia. The seeds are also used in the baking and confectionary industries as these contain a characteristic nutty flavour. The seeds are also rich in protein, vitamins as well as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

Melons are annual plants that have up to three meters of climbing, creeping, or trailing vines. Several of them are consumed as dessert fruits while a few varieties/types are used for vegetable purposes. Generally, the fruits of commercial varieties are sweet, juicy, delicious with good nutritional and medicinal properties and a daily intake of 120-150 g can help in weight loss, better eye and skin health (Shivapriya et al., 2021).

Currently, muskmelon is being cultivated throughout the world, especially under tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. In India, muskmelon is grown in 54,000 ha with a production of 1.23 million tons (NHB, 2018). The estimated national seed requirement per year is about 27 tons with a value of about Rs. 27 crores. The crop is cultivated mainly in rabi season (November to February sowings), thus limiting its availability in the market during summer. Rarely, melons are cultivated for the off-season market, and those fetch a premium price. The total value of muskmelon fruits in the domestic market is estimated as Rs.1231 crores.

Cucumber, both slicing and pickling types, is one of the most popular vegetable crops of the family Cucurbitaceae. Like other cucurbitaceous crops, the cucumber also requires a warm season for commercial cultivation and has little or no tolerance to frost. Temperatures above 20°C are optimal for cucumber growth and development. Currently, its cultivars are generally classified as either pickling or slicing types, each with its own set of quality attributes. Pickling types typically have more prominent warts (tubercles) and lighter-coloured skin. They are harvested more frequently at the immature stage, when their length and diameter (LD) ratios are lower. The LD ratio for pickles typically falls within the range of 2.8 to 3.2. On the other hand, slicing cucumbers are harvested and commonly sold in lengths ranging from 12 to 25 cm, with diameters ranging from 1.5 to nearly 7.5 cm. Most slicing cucumbers have cylindrical-shaped fruit with blocky or slightly rounded ends that taper slightly from the stem to the blossom end. Generally, slicers have an LD ratio greater than 4.0, a smooth surface, and thicker skin compared to pickling types. This difference is accentuated because slicers are harvested at later stages of maturity than pickling cucumbers.

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a nutritious protein-rich legume vegetable crop cultivated in all parts of the world except Antarctica. Immature pods are consumed as vegetables, and matured pods are used as grain legumes (Allem, 2013). French bean is cultivated in 1.65 million hectares of area with a production of 26.98 million tonnes and productivity of 16.36 tonnes per hectare for vegetable purposes. As a grain legume, French bean was cultivated in 33.02 million hectares with a production of 28.90 million tonnes and productivity of 874.1 kg/ha during 2019 globally. In India, French bean is grown in 2.56 lakh hectares for vegetable purposes and 126.91 lakh hectares for grain legume purposes with a production of 7.26 lakh tonnes as immature pods and 53.10 lakh tonnes of grain legumes with a productivity of 2.83 t/ha of green pods and 418.4 kg/ha as grain legumes (area, production and productivity of livestock, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2020). However, the area, production and productivity statistics of beans in FAO statistics may also include other beans such as mung bean and others (Sharma et al., 2013). French bean is also known by other names such as common bean, kidney bean, dwarf bean, haricot bean, string bean and garden bean. In India, French bean is also known by different names as Frash bean and Rajmah in Hindi, Shravanghevada in Marathi, Thingalaware in Kannada and Fras bean in Punjab.

Dolichos bean, [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] var. typicus (2n=22) also known as Indian bean or sem is one of the vital leguminous vegetables grown in India for its tender green pods. Both pole types and bush types are commercially grown. It is predominantly cultivated in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and North-East India. Protein, minerals, vitamins and f ibers are abundant in Dolichos bean. Bush-type vegetable dolichos unlike the pole-type dolichos (which are generally grown during the winter season as they require short day) are thermosensitive and can be grown year-round.

Dolichos is a versatile and valuable leguminous crop, offering multiple benefits. It boasts a high protein content of 3.6% and fiber content of 1.8%. The dry seed is composed of a protein content ranging from 23.0% to 28.0%. The pods are abundant in phenols, with levels ranging from 1.7 to 9.67 mg/100 g, making them a valuable source of antioxidants. Furthermore, dolichos serves as an excellent source of amino acids, particularly lysine, along with vitamins such as A, C, and riboflavin, and essential minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, S, Na and P). The seeds of dolichos contain a flavonoid, kievitone, recognized for its potential in combating breast cancer. Additionally, the presence of tyrosinase in the seeds indicates promising possibilities for treating hypertension in humans. Dolichos beans are utilized for various medicinal purposes, acting as stomachic, anthelmintic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, digestive, febrifuge, and carminative agents. Furthermore, they are rich in bioactive compounds that offer significant benefits in treating specific ailments such as liver problems, diabetes and tumors.

The onion, or Allium cepa var. cepa L., 2n=16, is one of the most important vegetables that are grown and eaten globally (Kiani et al., 2023). It is referred to as the 'queen of the kitchen' because of its wide range of culinary applications (Selvaraj, 1976). It can be eaten raw or prepared in a variety of ways, including as pickles, soups, frying, boiling, and baking (Cattivelli et al., 2021). Apart from being consumed raw, onions also provide excellent raw materials for the processing sector. They can be processed into onion pastes, dehydrated powder, flakes, rings, shreds, and onions in vinegar or brine (Gnanasundari et al., 2023). Additionally, it possesses several health promoting factors such as antihyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, immune-protective, anti-obesity properties, and rich in several minerals and vitamins (Pareek et al., 2017). Medicinal value of onion has been known since antiquity; the third or fourth century A.D.'s "Charak Samhita" is one of the medical treatises that mentions it (Ray et al., 1980). Allicin, ajoene, allixin thiosulfinates, sulphites, and other significant biochemical components are found in onion, giving them considerable use and nutraceutical value.

Organic farming necessitates a shift from conventional to non-chemical agricultural methods and practices. For this, it needs creation of facilities for the production of organic inputs, adoption of crop rotation, green manuring and other best management practices for the organic production of crops and livestock. Further, the ‘towards organic approach’ in intensive agricultural areas and ‘scientific organic farming’ in niche areas have to be implemented for development of an organic farm. The synthesized information on how to convert an inorganic farm into an organic farm followed by its sustainable maintenance is the need of the hour. This chapter holistically deals with designing and maintaing the whole ecosystem organic.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, the growers, policymakers and consumers are talking about organic farming (OF) across the globe. For practitioners, it is still a confusion regarding what and how to practice OF. There is a wrong notion that simple addition of organic manures and the use of chemical pesticides for growing different crops is considered as organic farming. In sense real, organic farms are the cultivated fields without addition of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, livestock additives, etc., and only organic and (or) non-chemical methods are practiced, and the concept or practice is known as organic farming. A large number of farms have been converted from conventional into chemical farms during the last more than 50 years by using synthetic chemicals. In view of the increasing demand for organic products and spiraling soil and human health problems, there is need to transform them gradually into organic farms. So that, it can help enhance soil organic carbon status and fertility which in turn can support crop growth and produce healthy foods besides protecting the environment. However, the extent of chemical used might be varying from one farm to another depending on the crops cultivated, nutrient requirement, pest/ disease severity, availability and accessibility to chemical use, socio-economic condition of the farmers, geographical location, etc.

All hybrids and varieties perform better under conventional farming in response to excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which are harmful to humans, animals and environment. Hence, there is a need to develop varieties/hybrids exclusively for organic farming. Breeding aspects of organic farming include breeding tools/methods which are used to breed varieties/hybrids including testing and multiplication under organic conditions duly following the principles of organic farming as defined by IFOAM. These cultivars should have high nutrient use efficiency, resistance to diseases and pests, competitive ability against weeds, higher yield and stability across environments along with enhanced nutritional quality. This book chapter briefly discusses the aspects of breeding that are involved in generating cultivars suitable for organic farming.

1. Introduction

Currently, organic farmers rely heavily on conventionally developed and produced varieties. Nevertheless, in order to optimize their production under organic agriculture, it is necessary to develop cultivars that are more suitable for organic cultivation. According to some studies, the naturalness of organic agriculture should go beyond simply by avoiding chemical inputs and substituting natural and organic components during the transition from conventional to organic farming.

Increased awareness of the importance of quality and nutrient-rich food among the majority of the population created a need for the development of organic production systems and suitable varieties/hybrids for cultivation. The quality of soil, water and air is affected by the overuse of agrochemicals in agriculture. The use of organic varieties helps in reducing the use of various agrochemicals and high-quality pesticides. Organic varieties can address environmental issues and climate change. The world organic seed market is valued at USD 4.2 Bn in 2022 and it is expected to grow at an annual rate of around 8.7% between 2022 and 2031. The demand for organic seeds in the market has created new opportunities for organic farmers. By following standard organic crop production practices and seed certification guidelines, they can produce quality organic seed or planting material on their own farm.

1. Introduction

Worldwide, organic agriculture is a rapidly growing sector. The demand for organic food markets is increasing recently with the fast-growing movement of community support for organic agriculture. A total of 96.4 m-ha were grown organically with 2% of the worldwide agricultural land. The region with the most organic agricultural land is Oceania (53.2 m-ha) followed by Europe (18.5 m-ha), Latin America (9.5 m-ha) Asia (8.8 m-ha), North America (3.6 m-ha) and Africa (2.7 m-ha). Australia stands first in area with 53.0 m-ha followed by India (4.7 m-ha) and Argentina (4.1 m-ha) (FiBL & IFOAM, 2024). The global organic farming market will grow from $169.04 billion in 2022 to $287.83 billion in 2027 at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.3% (Organic Farming Global Market Report, 2023).

Organic liquid formulations (OLFs) are agricultural inputs derived from natural sources, designed for use in organic farming. These formulations, consisting of liquid solutions or suspensions containing organic compounds, nutrients, and beneficial microorganisms, play a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility, plant nutrition, and pest management, while promoting environmental sustainability and ecosystem health. Despite their eco friendly nature, OLFs demand careful consideration for their environmental impact and safety. They biodegrade readily, reducing long-term persistence and are less harmful to non-target organisms. While OLFs offer numerous benefits, they also face limitations in potency and effectiveness compared to synthetic pesticides, often requiring more frequent applications and leading to increased labor costs. Their impact can vary with pest species and environmental conditions, and they generally provide gradual rather than immediate pest control. Availability and accessibility can be limited, posing challenges for some farmers. This chapter explores the role of OLFs in achieving success in organic farming, highlighting their benefits and limitations, and emphasizing the importance of Integrated Pest Management strategies and careful consideration of various factors to optimize their use in promoting sustainable agriculture.

Crop residues are valuable natural resources that may be managed to maximize various input use efficiencies. These are a great source of organic materials for improving the soil structure, water holding capacity, the soil's ability to withstand pH variations, increasing the cation exchange capacity, reducing the phosphate fixation, as a storehouse for micronutrients and secondary nutrients especially in organic farming. Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil fauna and microbes, which are the main agents controlling the decomposition and release of mineral nutrients in organic soil ecosystems. Crop leftovers are frequently burned by farmers, especially after harvest, which depletes the soil's nutrient content and microbial population and produces greenhouse gases. Each year, a sizable amount of crop residue is produced and if used efficiently, they may provide partial or full amount of the nutrient budget required under organic farming for the production of annual or perennial crops besides achieving resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

1. Introduction

Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts like straws, stubble, stover etc., that remain in the field after harvesting the economic product. Crop remains from threshing sheds such as groundnut shells, oil cakes, rice husks, corn and sorghum cobs or discarded during crop processing can also be utilized in organic farming. India produces 108.75 MT of wheat, 121.46 MT of rice seed, 30.24 MT of maize seeds, 49.66 MT of millets seeds (jowar, bajra, ragi, and small seed millets), 392.8 MT of sugarcane, 46.11 million bales of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 25.58 MT of pulses and 36.57 MT of oilseed (Agricultural statistics at a glance, 2021).

Insect pests are responsible for 10.8% of crop losses on an average. Their management is crucial in agriculture to protect crops and boost output. In organic farming systems, preventative measures are taken more often than curative. Understanding the impacts that the local climate, topography, soils, and all other facets of the production system are expected to have on crop performance and potential host/pest complexes is essential for developing successful organic crop protection techniques. Crop rotation, soil health management, host plant resistance, field location, monitoring pests and their natural enemies, vegetation management to enhance natural enemies and exert direct effects on pest populations, releases of bio-control agents and use of approved insecticides of biological origin are highlighted in organic farming in order to reduce pest damage. The safe and environmentally friendly methods for managing the pests in organic farming are discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

The fundamental tenet of organic pest management is the use of environmentally sound measures as outlined by worldwide and national organic agricultural standards. The emphasis of organic farming's pest management strategies is on the employment of numerous and diverse strategies integrated into the cropping system, which ultimately lowers the pest incidence. Pest and disease options mainly dependent on preventive measures in organic farming rather than curative and maintaining healthy ecosystems is priority. The farmer should have a better grasp of the pests and beneficial organisms that exist in the specific crop ecology when practising organic farming. The farmers must follow a monitoring mechanism in which they may able to act on the pest before they reach devastating levels.

Trichoderma is fungus is well adapted to different ecosystem and identified > 250 species for agricultural use. It is primarily used as a bio-fungicide because of the variety of secondary metabolites produced and applied mainly for biocontrol and bioremediation and growth promotion activities. Bio-control potential of Trichoderma used for the control of soil borne diseases through various mechanisms responsible for broad range of cell wall degrading enzymes, anti-microbial and organic volatile compounds produced by Trichoderma. During abiotic stress, Trichoderma play an important role in plant growth promotion through mobilization of various nutrients. Presently Trichoderma is used as an effective biocontrol agent against plant parasitic nematodes. It is also used for one of the alternate remedy for improving the quality of the soil by removing the heavy metal in agricultural field, makes them suitable for cultivation.

1. Introduction

Trichoderma is one of the genus of fungus species which belongs to Ascomycetes (Order Hypocreales) present in diverse soil ecosystems, colonise under various agro ecological niches and most of the prevalent are culturable microorganism. They are primarily used as efficient biocontrol agents against a variety of soil-borne plant diseases. However, they have also shown potential in processes like bioremediation, promoting plant growth, and managing nematode populations.

The concept of insect pest management and the strategies employed have evolved over the time. With the increased emphasis on safe agricultural practices and elevated demand for safe and healthy food, the various solutions for pest management have shifted more towards use of biocontrol agents. Bio- rational pest management methods have now evolved as important pillar of the integrated pest management to replace the synthetic insecticides and also other associated advantages. They include the use of botanical pesticides, insect growth regulators, pheromones and allelochemicals. The major positive attributes associated with all of them are their low mammalian toxicity, safety to beneficial and non-target organisms, higher specificity, low risk of development of resistance and low environmental persistence. Though bio-rational insecticides are considered to be safe, in an organic ecosystem, it should be done with caution because over reliance on them for longer periods may facilitate the target insect pests to develop some kind of resistance against them. So, proper deliberations on the positive and negative attributes of bio rational pest management strategies should be done so as to facilitate their long term usage in organic farming.

Since many years, there has been an extensive use of synthetic pesticides against which has caused pest resistance, resurgence, residues environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. Therefore, attention is given towards the alternate methods which are ecologically, economically sustainable. Botanical pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. As they have promising role in organic farming, they help in reduction of pest load and improve crop quality and thereby increase crop yield without disturbing the environment and helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems. This book chapter, discuss about the active functional ingredients of each botanical pesticide and mode of action, its importance in organic farming, their commercial formulations, major insect pests suppressed or controlled, their challenges in usage in agriculture and horticulture and its future prospects.

1. Introduction

Synthetic pesticide use has caused pest resistance, environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. It is essential to follow alternate methods because these synthetic pesticides have led to acute and chronic poisoning in farm workers, applicators, and even customers. Employing botanical pesticides, is the most effective way to replace the widespread use of synthetic pesticides, is one of the important alternative strategies. Among them, plant-based bio pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. Botanicals being natural and non-toxic to humans, animals, and the environment, have a significant role in organic farming as they help in promoting plant growth, controlling pests and diseases, and enhancing soil health. The use of botanicals is an essential component of organic farming as it helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems, improves crop quality, and increases yield without the negative impacts of synthetic chemicals. As the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers is prohibited in organic agriculture. Organic farmers rely on natural methods to protect their crops from pests, diseases, and weeds. The beneficial insects, crop rotation, and natural remedies such as neem oil or garlic sprays are used to protect the crops. The use of natural methods to manage pests and diseases promotes biodiversity, maintains soil health, and minimizes the environmental impact of farming. Thus, plant protection is crucial in organic farming to ensure sustainable and responsible agriculture practices.

Globally, organic oilseeds constitute an important element in organic production. Their products are important feedstuffs (oilcake) and also relevant for human consumption (soya products, oils), and demand for these is continually growing. Almost half of the global organic oilseed area is occupied by soybeans, and another almost 20% is for sunflower seeds and sesame. Rape and turnip rape constitute about 6% of the organic oilseed area. Oilseeds are of pivotal significance in the Indian agricultural economy supporting income of millions of farmers practicing mainly rainfed cultivation. Nine annual oilseed crops are cultivated in India that includes groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, soybean, sunflower, sesame, niger and safflower that are edible and non-edible oilseed crops include castor and linseed. Organic agriculture is one among the broad spectrum of production methods that are supportive of the environment. The principal method of organic farming includes crop rotation, green manures and composts, biological pest control and reduced tillage. The performance of annual edible oilseed crops and development of package in relation to organic management for sustainable agriculture are discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

In India, both annual and perennial edible oilseed crops are cultivated. Annual edible oilseed crops include groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, soybean, sunflower, sesame, niger and safflower. India, the 4th largest vegetable oil economy in the world, stands first in the production of castor, sesame, safflower, and niger oils, whereas second in groundnut, third in rapeseed mustard, fourth in linseed and fifth in soybean oil. About 14 million farmers are engaged in oilseeds production and another million in their processing. Whereas, the perennial edible oil seed crops include oil palm and coconut. Edible oils are also produced domestically from secondary sources such as rice bran, cotton seed, corn, and other tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs), besides some minor oil producing species of forest origin.

Organic farming in groundnut cultivation is gaining global recognition as an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible approach. Groundnut is a versatile crop with high nutritional value and economic importance. This chapter explores the principles and practices involved in organic groundnut farming. It focussed on soil management, organic fertilization, pest, disease and weed management without using synthetic chemicals. This approach minimizes impact on the environment and reduces the presence of pesticide residues in the final produce. Moreover, organic practices help maintain soil health, conserve biodiversity and reduce environmental pollution. Thus, farmers can produce high quality groundnuts and fetch higher price and profits.

1. Introduction

The groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is known by different names such as monkey nut, goober, earth nut etc., and belongs to leguminosae family. It produces flowers above ground but the fruits/pods underground (Sanders, 2003). It can be grown successfully in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Globally, groundnut covers 32.7 M ha with a production of 53.9 MT with a productivity of 1648 kg ha-1 (FAOSTAT, 2021). Among the developing countries, Egypt has the highest productivity of groundnut with 2.70 t ha-1 (Nautiyal, 2001). Globally, India ranks first in groundnut area (5.42 m-ha) and is the second largest producer in the world with 10.1 MT with a productivity of 1863 ha-1 in 2021-22 (agricoop.nic.in). India ranks second next to China (34%) with 19% of world groundnut production in 2021. Gujarat is the largest producer contributing 36% of the total production of groundnut followed by Rajasthan (17%) and Tamil Nadu (7.5%). Groundnut accounts for 18% area and 26.8% production of the total oilseeds in India (CARP, 2022).

The unsustainable, faulty, environmentally detrimental modern agricultural practices and their plausible deleterious effects on one side and challenges like global climate change, ever shrinking land and water resources and loss of biodiversity on the other hand are the main problems that Agriculture is facing. Hence, there is a need to adopt a set of ecofriendly and climate smart practices to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). Agroforestry and organic farming (farming without chemicals) are the two important concepts projected to mitigate the effects of climate change, enhance soil health, encourage crop diversification, promoting biodiversity and achieving climate resilience. We made an attempt to synthesize the available information on the role of agroforestry in promotion of organic farming.

1. Introduction

Agroforestry is a land use system that integrates trees, crops and animals in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable, practically feasible and socially acceptable to the farmers (Nair, 1979). It is a collective name for land use systems and technologies, where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same piece of land management units as agriculture crops and/or animals in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. It includes both ecological and economical interactions among the different components. Nearly 43% of world’s agricultural land has at least 10% tree cover, which suggests that agroforestry is widespread and infact, it is present in all continents. Agroforestry accounts for nearly 45.4 m-ha globally and 23.25 m-ha of land in India (Rizvi et al., 2019; Anonymous, 2020).

1. Introduction

In India, though organic crop production and certification system is reasonably well established in India, the organic livestock and poultry sector is in its budding stage. Organizations such as APEDA, FSSAI and BIS along with research establishments like ICAR- National Meat Research Institute are now putting serious efforts to establish the protocols and promote organic livestock production and certification in India. As a result, in the last few years, livestock farmers are gradually getting encouraged to take up organic production and around 3000 farmers mostly from Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh have taken up organic dairy, sheep and poultry farming. Export of organic milk and ghee from India to different countries has just begun and is expected to grow very fast in volumes and revenues in the years to come.

Agricultural sector, with the technological advancements, is also contributing to global climate change, loss of biodiversity and degradation of resources. Further, there is a serious global concern about chemical residues, healthy food and healthy planet earth. Organic and natural farming are acclaimed to be the best alternative non-chemical production pathways to reverse the ill effects of modern agriculture. However, these systems are not contemplated to meet the food security and other requirements of ever-growing human population, particularly in developing countries. In this chapter, based on the available and documented protocols and production practices of these systems, the additional research, extension and policy needs to strengthen these production pathways to attain economic, ecological and social sustainability are discussed while considering the Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) of United Nations.

Organic food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century. Greater environmental awareness, coupled with concerns over the health impacts of pesticide residues and consumption of genetically modified (GMO) crops, fostered the growth of the organic sector. Realizing the benefits of organic food, especially after COVID-19, consumers are also demanding organically grown food and fiber and are willing to pay premium price. But to tap the market, there is an inevitable need for certification. Recently launched Food Safety and Standards (Organic Food) Regulation, 2017 mandates that all food products sold as organic must be certified and comply the basic requirements of the Act. The organic food offered or promoted for sale shall also comply with all the applicable provisions of either National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) or Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS India). Organic certification is a process certification. The requirement to confirm that the product is organic include labelling on the package and traceability for both domestic and export needs to be understood. For import and export of organic produce, transaction certificate issued by an Accredited Certification Body is required. These requirements are essential for fresh and processed food items. In this chapter, we tried to eloborate the process and procedures for organic certification.

1. Introduction

Organic farming is gaining a lot of importance in recent years owing to raising awareness among the consumers of the agricultural commodities about the health concerns of the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Anonymous 2015; Lakhsman et al., 2024). The increasing demand for organically produced agricultural commodities and the premier prices have attracted the farmers’ interest and motivated them to switch over to organic production systems. The shifting to organic farming by the farmers needs careful consideration of several issues starting from the suitability of soils, selection of crops, adoption of package of practices, processing, storage and marketing. There are several finer aspects which the farmers have to gloss over before they decide to change their production system to organic farming. Although the broad contours are known to all the farmers, there is a need to look into the research findings in the areas of farmers’ interest for changing over to organic farming. The research evidence on the practical viability in a newer area will boost the confidence of the farming community for undertaking the organic farming. It further helps in systematic planning by the policy makers. The traditional research carried out with the modern agricultural practices may not be appropriate for organic farming. There are fundamental differences in the approaches followed in the organic farming research where the emphasis is on using all the natural resources in a complementary way so that there is hardly any need for synthetic inputs in the form of fertilizers and pesticides. It calls for systematic inventorization of resources available and additional organic inputs needed to make organic farming successful. It begins with assessing the suitability of soils, agro-climatic conditions, selection of crops, adoption of management practices, harvesting, processing, storage and marketing of organically-produced food commodities. The practical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability of organic farming in newer areas need to be established through sound organic farming research before it is taken to the farming community.

Migration is a worldwide occurrence that can be attributed to various factors such as disparities in economic development, regional differences, and varying living standards among socio-economic groups. It is driven by both push and pull factors. Pull factors include opportunities for better employment and higher wages, while push factors encompass the lack of job prospects in underdeveloped areas, droughts, and scarcity conditions. Unlike the biological factors of mortality and fertility, which operate within a biological framework, migration is influenced by the desires of individuals. Although most migratory movements are intentional, there may be exceptional cases where this is not true. Therefore, migration is a response by individuals to economic, social, political, and demographic forces in their environment and serves as an important indicator of social change in society.

A thorough examination of relevant literature is crucial in any scientific investigation and research. Apart from identifying previous work conducted in the problem area or the specific field of study, the primary function of a literature review is to provide insights into the methods and procedures used, while also establishing a foundation for interpreting the findings. A literature review involves a comprehensive and critical assessment of prior research, offering a summary and overview of a particular research area. This allows readers to understand why the current research program is being pursued. A well-executed literature review delves into the reasons behind selecting a specific research question, integrating and evaluating previous studies, and demonstrating how they relate to the proposed research program. It is important to present all sides of the argument in a clear manner to avoid bias, while also highlighting areas of agreement and disagreement among the existing literature.

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a concise overview of various studies and writings related to migration. This overview serves to enhance our understanding of the significance and purpose of our current research. Some relevant reviews have been categorized and presented under the following sub headings:

Theoretical orientation involves the scholarly and theoretical process that shapes the precise definition and written content of a complete research project. It involves incorporating conceptual ideas, logical discussions, and the quest for knowledge to develop a theory that aligns with the defined objectives and research design established during the research process.

3.1 Migration

Migration refers to the process of individuals or groups of people moving from one place to another with the intention of establishing a new permanent or semi permanent residence. It involves the relocation of people across geographical, political, or social boundaries, typically over long distances. Migration can occur within a country (internal migration) or involve crossing international borders (international migration).

People migrate for various reasons, including economic opportunities, seeking better living conditions, escaping persecution or conflict, joining family members, pursuing education or career opportunities, or being forced to leave their homes due to natural disasters or environmental factors. The motivations behind migration can be complex and multifaceted, influenced by a combination of push factors (negative circumstances in the home country) and pull factors (attractive opportunities in the destination country).Migration can take different forms, such as labour migration, where individuals move to another region or country for employment purposes, or refugee migration, where people flee their home countries due to fear of persecution or violence. It can be temporary or permanent, with some migrants returning to their home countries after a period of time, while others settle permanently in their new location and may eventually become citizens of that country.

4.1 Introduction

The research setting pertains to the comprehensive details of a specific area’s social environment where the study is carried out. The study area typically encompasses a distinct geographic region such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the convenience of the researcher who possesses sufficient knowledge about the locality, including its communication infrastructure. This ensures easy access to every part of the area for collecting data.

Migration is a complex phenomenon that has significant implications for individuals, communities, and countries worldwide. It involves the movement of people from one geographical location to another, either within a country or across international borders. The research setting of migration refers to the specific context in which migration patterns and processes are studied. Understanding the research setting is crucial for comprehending the underlying factors, dynamics, and consequences of migration.

4.2 Profile of the State

4.2.1 General Information of the State

West Bengal is a state located in the eastern part of India, situated along the Bay of Bengal. It has a population of over 91 million people and covers an area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 square miles). West Bengal ranks as the fourth most populous and thirteenth-largest state in India in terms of area, and it is the eighth-most populous country subdivision in the world. The Bengal region, which is a part of the Indian subcontinent, shares borders with Bangladesh to the east, Nepal to the north, and Bhutan to the northwest. It also shares boundaries with the Indian states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Sikkim, and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, which is the third-largest metropolitan city and the seventh-largest city in India by population.

The methodology has been carefully considered in order to comprehend the idea, procedures, and approaches used in the design of the study, information gathering, data analysis, and finding interpretation for the identification of relevant truths and the development of hypotheses. The methodology and a process employed in the study are covered in this chapter.

5.1 Locale of the Research

The rural areas of Darjeeling-Pulbazar CD block, Jorebunglow-SukhiaPokhri CD block in Darjeeling district in West Bengal was selected for the study. The area had been selected for the study because of the availability of appropriate respondents, people as well as the local language.

5.2 Pilot Study

Prior to beginning the actual research, a pilot study was carried out to better understand the regions, its inhabitants, institutions, and programmes activities associated to the migration process in the research area. During the pilot study period, the respondents’ situational and historical data were gathered.

In this chapter, the study’s findings are presented in a structured manner, accompanied by a discussion based on the analysis. The study aimed to present its findings in alignment with its objectives. Towards the end of this chapter, connections between the findings are established, explanations are provided, and an effort is made to uncover the underlying causes. The results and their corresponding discussion are organized according to the specific objectives of the study.

Result: Table 6.1 presents the distribution of 16 independent variables (x1-x16 ) and 3 dependent variables (y1 y3 ) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

According to the study the maximum value for the independent variable Age at survey (x1 ) is 46.00, and minimum is 25.00. The study’s overall distribution was determined to have a mean of 32.938 with a variance of 22.895 and standard deviation 4.785. The high level of consistency is indicated by the variable’s coefficient of variation, which is 14.527%.

According to the study the maximum value for the independent variable Marital status (x2 ) is 18.00 and minimum is 0.00. The study’s overall distribution was determined to have a mean of 3.838 with a variance of 15.783 and standard deviation 3.973. The low level of consistency is indicated by the variable’s coefficient of variation, which is 103.527%.

Migration is an integral part of civilization. Everyone is born in a location, wherein, for education he/she needs to migrate elsewhere and after completion of education, there would be further migration for jobs. During Covid-19 it was harshly depicted that more than 50 million migratory workers were forced to quit their job place and when the Covid-19 pandemic apocalypse was over they started re-migrating. Both Push and Pull factors are responsible for Migration. Pull factors incubates choices for migration ad push factors creates a compulsion for migration.Young people from all backgrounds are looking into different ways for rural and urban youth to get about in the town of Darjeeling. Urban adolescents are faced with downward mobility and endure disappointment in their hopes for professional professions and ‘modern’ lives, whereas rural kids enjoy certain types of upward mobility when they relocate into the metropolis (Brown, T. 2015). It is recognized that the main driving force behind migration is the pursuit of better job prospects, and the extent and direction of migration are predominantly influenced by employment opportunities (Khan, 1983). Furthermore, rural areas in Darjeeling have experienced a noticeable trend of male-selective migration in search of better opportunities in the past few decades. This migration primarily occurs towards urban environments within the district and major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, to name a few important destinations. Several factors have contributed significantly to this phenomenon, including population pressure, degradation of common property reSources like forests, long neglect of the region, economic and social backwardness, low agricultural productivity, and lack of opportunities. While this migration brings in much-needed income, it also diminishes the available workforce in the home villages.

8.1 Limitations

1. The research was limited to a specific geographic area.

2. The study was constrained by limitations in time and reSources.

3. The study relies on the subjective opinions of the participants, which may be influenced by their individual perspectives and biases, despite the researcher’s efforts to gather them as objectively as possible.

4. It would have been advantageous to include a broader range of relevant variables in the study.

5. A suitable statistical model could have been employed to provide thematic support for the behavior and functioning of the system.

6. The selection of variables could have been expanded by incorporating additional variables that would have demonstrated resilience in domain interactions.

Nearly 19.9% of India's GDP (Statistics Times.com, 2021) and 54.6% (According to the 2011 census of India) of the people are employed in agriculture, which is important for the country's economy. Despite making up the majority of landowners, small and marginal farmers confront a number of obstacles including restricted access to government services, contemporary technologies, and financial choices. In addition, they frequently experience crop failures and are heavily dependent on shady middlemen and local loan sharks. Following the Y.K. Alagh Committee's recommendations, the Indian government introduced the idea of Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO) in 2001. These organisations are designed to empower small-scale farmers by giving them the ability to communicate directly with consumers and strengthen their negotiating position.

Small-scale farmer groups known as FPOs band together to promote their shared products and pool resources. In India, there are already over 7,300 FPOs registered, with over 1.5 million farmers joining. The Indian government wants to bring together over a million farmers under the FPO umbrella by setting an ambitious objective of 10,000 new FPOs being established by 2024–25.

3.1 Entrepreneurship

3.1.1 The Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the active search for possibilities using originality and innovation. Taking prudent risks, effectively mobilising and managing resources, and adjusting to shifting market conditions are all part of it. By adding value and having a beneficial effect, entrepreneurs want to expand both commercially and socially.

3.1.2 Meaning of Entrepreneur

The French word "Entrepredre," which means "to undertake" is where the name "Entrepreneur" got its etymological roots. It was originally used to refer to a commander or planner of military missions in France during the 16th century when the phrase first gained popularity.

An entrepreneur is someone who has the knowledge, drive, and vision necessary to launch, run, and succeed in a new business venture while accepting the risks involved in doing so with the intention of making a profit. A common illustration of entrepreneurship is the act of founding a new company. Entrepreneurs are acknowledged as sources of innovation since they bring new concepts and creations to market, frequently displacing preexisting ones.

For proper conceptualization and interpretation of data in social science research, it is essential to have a thorough grasp of the traits, attitudes, and behaviours of people in a certain field. This comprises a thorough analysis of the socio-demographic makeup of the local populace in a rural area. The physical, social, or experimental context in which the research is conducted makes up the research setting, which is important since it affects the results. A study's publication must appropriately describe the research environment since it has a significant impact on the findings and how they are interpreted.

For instance, when studying the social behaviour of chimpanzees, researchers must provide detailed information about the observation environment, such as whether the chimpanzees were observed in the wild or in captivity, the number of chimpanzees observed, their social group dynamics, geographic location, time of the study, weather conditions, availability of resources, and environmental factors. Considering these factors helps researchers understand the interplay of various components and factors within the research context.

4.1 Study Area

The present study was carried out in West Bengal, with a focus on the two districts of Uttar Dinajpur and Nadia. The research team specifically selected Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) that are operating and present in certain blocks (Kaliyaganj, Hemtabad, Hanskhali, Ranaghat-1) in these two districts.

The research methodology is a comprehensive plan and guide that outlines the process of conducting a study. The purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with a clear understanding of the concepts, approaches, and techniques employed in designing a study, collecting data, analyzing it, and interpreting the findings to establish validity and develop theories. For better comprehension, the entire chapter has been divided into the following subsections:

i. Research location

ii. Sampling strategy

iii. Pilot study

iv. The variables and their measures

v. Data collecting strategies

The provided table displays the distribution characteristics of seven dependent variables (y1-y6 ) and 18 independent variables (x1-x18 ). It includes their minimum, maximum, mean, variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation.

In terms of the respondents' average age (x1 ), the graph indicates a value of 48.17, which suggests a highly consistent distribution with a coefficient of variation (C.V.) of 19.24.

Similarly, the table reveals that the respondents' average level of education (x2 ) is 7.02, indicating an average education duration of around seven years per respondent. The variable demonstrates a fairly consistent distribution with a C.V. of 41.72.

Examining the respondents' average years of business experience (x3 ), the table indicates a mean value of 21.05. This implies a similar level of business experience across most respondents, with a fairly consistent distribution and a C.V. of 47.54.

Regarding the typical family size (x4 ), the table shows an average value of 3.92, indicating an approximate average family size of four. The distribution of this variable is also fairly consistent, with a C.V. of 37.21. The mean family education (x5 ) of the respondents is reported as 2.58, which corresponds to an average education level of 3 for the families. The variable exhibits a fairly consistent distribution, with a C.V. of 38.14.

The present research focuses on studying the Entrepreneurial Communication of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) Members: The Process, Impact, and Innovation. The study was conducted in selected blocks of West Bengal, with a comparative analysis being carried out.

Fifteen Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) located in Uttar Dinajpur and Nadia districts of West Bengal were chosen. To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research area, a pilot study was conducted to explore the geographical landscape, understand the local population, assess relevant institutions, analyze communication channels, and evaluate the extension systems.

With the help of CBBO, an exhaustive list of FPOs was prepared to ensure a representative sample. From this list, a random sampling method was employed to select seventy-five respondents for the study. Primary data were collected using structured interview schedules conducted through personal interviews.

The main objective of this research is to gain valuable insights into the entrepreneurial communication practices of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) members and assess their impact on entrepreneurship. Additionally, the study aims to explore potential avenues for innovation within FPOs. By conducting a comparative analysis of various FPOs in West Bengal, this research seeks to shed light on their communication processes, effectiveness, and contributions to the overall entrepreneurial ecosystem. The findings of this study have the potential to significantly enhance entrepreneurial communication practices within FPOs, promoting innovation and facilitating the growth of agricultural entrepreneurship in the region of West Bengal.

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