eBook Chapters

Previous Year Questions

1. Different Classes of Seeds?

2. Various parameters of field & seed standards for breeder seed production?

3. Factors that affect the longevity of seeds during storage in warehouses?

4. Initial Seed Quality?

5. Seed Testing?

Different Classes of Seeds

1. Nucleus Seed: It is handful of seed maintained by concerned breeder for further multiplication. The nucleus seed will have all the characters that the breeder has placed in it and it is of highest genetic purity. The quantity of nucleus seed is in kilograms.

2. Breeder Seed (BS): Breeder seed is a seed or vegetative propagating material directly controlled by the originating or sponsoring plant breeder of the breeding programme or institution and or seed whose production is personally supervised by a qualified plant breeder and which provides the source for the initial and recurring increase of foundation seed. Breeder seed is exempted from certification. However, the breeder seed crop is being inspected at appropriate stages by a Monitoring Team consisting of breeder, representative of NSC and representative of Seed Certification Agency. The breeder seed lots are affixed with Golden Yellow tags. The genetic purity of breeder seed crop should be maintained at 100 per cent.

Seed certification is a legal programme to maintain and make available to the public high quality seeds and planting material of genetically distinct crop varieties. Under seed production programme, quality seed is produced by govt. farms research stations, progressive farmers and seed producers using careful quality control, pedigreed plant stock, field inspections during the growing season and seed inspections after the harvest. Certification is an officially recognized method for maintaining varietal identity of the seed. In India certification is carried out by State Seed Certification Agencies.

Seed multiplication and production was controlled by a legally sanctioned system called Seed Certification. Seed certification procedures and designed to ensure physical and genetic purity, freedom from weed seeds and diseases and good germinability of the certified seed. Seed certification is done by the Seed Certification Agency (SSCA) of the concerned state or by NSC.
 
Objectives of Seed Certification

The objective of seed certification programme was formulated by Douglas, 1971
 
i)    to ensure genuineness and quality of seed.
ii)    The identification and their rapid increase of new varieties under accepted names.
iii)    The systematic increase of superior varieties
iv)    Continuing supply of quality material and their maintenance.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a legally sanctioned system for quality control on seed multiplication and production.
2. Certification consists of _____ phases.
3. In single application, the maximum area that can be offered for certification is _____.
4. AOSCA stands for_____.

Seed certification

It is a legally sanctioned system for quality control and seed multiplication and production. It involves field inspection, pre and post control tests and seed quality tests. As per Indian Seed Act seed certification is voluntary and it is not compulsory. The seed that is sold in the market is of two types certified seed or truthfully labelled seed. Whereas truthfully labelled seed is one which is being produced and marketed by the producing company by maintaining the labelling standards.

Introduction

Seed certification is a legally approved system for quality control of seed multiplication and production. Seed certification procedures are designed to ensure physical and genetic purity, freedom from other crop seeds, objectionable and other weed seeds and designated diseases with good germinability of the foundation and certified seed. Seed certification is done by the State Seed Certification Agency of the concerned state (SSCA) notified under section 8 of the Seeds Act, 1966 or by National Seed Corporation (NSC), where State Seed Certification Agency does not exist. The General Seed Certification Standards are applicable to all crops, which are eligible for certification, while field and seed standards are applicable to individual crop, constituted as the minimum seed certification standards. The word ‘seed’ or ‘seeds’ as used in these standards also includes all the propagating materials. Seeds or propagating material, which does not meet the standards of seed certification prescribed in the Indian Minimum Seeds Certification Standards, 2013 (Gunasekaran and Trivedi, 2013), are not certified by the Seed Certification Agency. The general seed and field standards for various crops are given at the end of this chapter.

1. SEED CERTIFICATION

Seed Certification is a legally sanctioned system for quality control on seed multiplication and production. It involves field inspection, pre and post control tests and seed quality tests.

1.1. Phases of Seed Certification

Certification shall be completed in six broad phases listed under

The collection of cones/fruits and seeds is the first step in the harvest, processing, and storage of seed in which man interacts with nature in determining ultimate seed quality. Successful collection, therefore, depends on understanding seed maturation and dispersal characteristics of each species, knowing local weather trends, and evaluating crop quality. Collection of propagating material is an expensive process and it is therefore also important that areas wherein cones and seeds are to be collected are evaluated to determine whether a sufficiently heavy crop to permit economic collection of seeds is present and whether the seed zone and elevation represented by the candidate area is appropriate for the production of seedlings needed in the reforestation program. Remember that properly collected, processed, and stored seeds may remain viable for a decade, so evaluation of seed needs may be projected well in advance of current harvest schedules through proper planning and organization of seed collection.

After harvesting and threshing, the seed usually arrives at the cleaning plant with trash, green leaves, weeds, other crop seeds and insects, etc. If the seed contains leaves, etc. and other high moisture materials, it cannot be accurately cleaned and safely stored until most of the foreign material has been removed. The process of removing the unwanted materials from a seed lot is known as seed conditioning. Seed conditioning is an essential component of seed technology to ensure that the farmers get the seed of high quality.

• The seed production of varieties and hybrids should be carried out carefully by following various techniques in the region where they are well adopted.
• The various factors affecting quality seed production includes,
  1. Agro climatic factors / Ecological factors - edaphic and climatic factors
  2. Production factors
  3. Post harvesting handling of seed
  4. Seed quality control factors

Concept of Delinting

Cotton seed clumps because of linters getting trapped on them after ginning. Gin-run seeds have very low flowability and do not singulate, making cleaning, upgrading, and precise metering in planting operations challenging or impossible. To singulate the seed and increase flowability, a variety of techniques have been and are employed. Most of the techniques entail removing the tags and linters entirely or partially, although other coating techniques have also been attempted with mixed results, both financially and technically (Mezynski, 1966; Webber and Boykin, 1907).

Methods of Delinting

1. Mechanical Delinting

Mechanical delinting is the usual technique used to improve the flowability of cotton seed. As previously indicated, mechanical delinting basically involves resharpening with finer, closer-spaced saws to remove part of the commercially valuable linters.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is defined as deteriorative mechanism occurring with time that increase the seeds vulnerability and decrease ability to survive.
2. Lettuce seeds develop red necrotic lesions in cotyledons known as _____.
3. _____ morphological changes occur in ground nut due to deterioration.

1. DEFINITION

Seed deterioration is defined as deteriorative changes occurring with time that increase the seed’s vulnerability to external challenges and decrease the ability of the seed to survive

The important events involved in seed development and maturation include

• Pollination
• Fertilization
• Development of the fertilized ovule by cell division
• Accumulation of reserve food material
• Loss of moisture content

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. 

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Seed technological point of view, seed may be sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, sets, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose. Quality seed, therefore, can be defined as the seed which fulfills the minimum requirements of getentic and physical purity, seed germination and vigour freedom from weeds and other crop seeds and other relevant seed standards.

Seed dormancy

Plants evolve many mechanisms that ensure their survival. For instance, some species produce prodigious number of seeds so that even if only a small proportion germinate and grow, some seedlings will survive. Alternately, dormancy can be defined as: a seed characteristic, the degree of which defines what conditions should be met to make the seed germinate. This definition may be more useful in understanding dormancy because it suggests that dormancy is variable, rather than constant, which is the situation that we generally encounter in the native populations of many species. The staggering of germination (dormancy) is an advantage for seeds that mature in late summer to early fall, since immediate germination would leave vulnerable seedlings exposed to harsh winter conditions.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ refers to lack of growth due to any external or internal cause.
2. _____ refers to a state in which viable seeds fail to germinate even when given favourable environmental conditions.
3. _____ is a condition in which seed can germinate upon absorption of water.
4. _____ is otherwise known as primary dormancy.
5. A condition that develops to prevent germination after the seed has been detached from the plant is called _____.
6. Dormancy related to the embryo is called _____.

1. INTRODUCTION

In general, seed dormancy refers to lack of growth due to any external or internal cause. It also refers to a state in which viable seeds fail to germinate even when given favourable environmental condition i.e. adequate moisture, appropriate temperature regime, a normal atmosphere and in some cases light.

There are various degrees of dormancy varying from very slight to very strong (deep). Sometimes the development or degree of dormancy changes during the lifetime of the seed, usually as a response to external conditions. Hence, dormancy may be innate, develop, be broken and redevelop in seed.

Several types of dormancy exist, and sometimes more than one type of dormancy occurs in the same seed. In nature, dormancy is broken gradually or by a particular environmental event. The type of event that may break dormancy depends on dormancy type. Dormancy caused by a hard seed coat may be overcome by a gradual or an instant abrasion, and darkness induced dormancy by exposure to light. In seed handling, the natural dormancy breaking mechanism is applied or simulated during the process of pretreatment. “Pretreatment” is a term used for conditions or processes applied to break dormancy prior to germination, while “treatment” is used for application of pesticides for control of pests and diseases.

Drying is an important unit operation in seed processing in order to maintain seed ability and vigor . it is advocated that seeds should be harvested soon after they attain physiological maturity to obtain better quality seeds and to minimize field losses. The traditional method of sun drying is inadequate, uncontrolled and time bound, which may not meet the high demand of quality seeds in time. Hence artificial drying, the effect of certain drying parameters like seed moisture content, drying air temperature, airflow rate, depth of seed loading and time of exposure on drying characteristics and viability of seeds are to be determined for safe and economical drying of seeds.

I. FILL UPS

1. The process of eliminating moisture from the seed is called_____.
2. _____ is the common conventional method, in which drying of harvested crop is carried out in the field.
3. In _____ method the outside air is heated with the help of burner heater and circulated into the godown.

Vegetable seed drying is the most critical stage for any shop floor activities. Only properly dried seed will be taken for processing and all the other activities from seed receipt to storage. Seed producers harvest the seed which will have more moisture than packaged seed. For example onion seed harvested when its moisture at 60% but eventually dried to 10-12% for safe storage and packaging. Seed drying is highly skilled and specialized activity without affecting the seed quality. Proper drying procedures are vital for storage and field performance of seed lots. Drying prevents germination of the seed, the growth of bacteria and mould and it reduces the conditions for development of insects. The moisture content of a seed is influenced by the humidity of the air because they are very hygroscopic in nature. The more moisture in the air, the higher the moisture content of the product. If seed are harvested during warm, humid weather, the moisture content of the seed will be high because the relative humidity of the air is high as well. It is necessary to dry the seed before it can be stored safely. The method of drying depends on the local conditions (climate, season, volume of the seed, type of seed etc)

Vegetable seed drying is the most critical stage for any shop floor activities. Only properly dried seed will be taken for processing and all the other activities from seed receipt to storage. Seed producers harvest the seed which will have more moisture than packaged seed. For example onion seed harvested when its moisture at 60% but eventually dried to 10-12% for safe storage and packaging. Seed drying is highly skilled and specialized activity without affecting the seed quality. Proper drying procedures are vital for storage and field performance of seed lots. Drying prevents germination of the seed, the growth of bacteria and mould and it reduces the conditions for development of insects. The moisture content of a seed is influenced by the humidity of the air because they are very hygroscopic in nature. The more moisture in the air, the higher the moisture content of the product. If seed are harvested during warm, humid weather, the moisture content of the seed will be high because the relative humidity of the air is high as well. It is necessary to dry the seed before it can be stored safely. The method of drying depends on the local conditions (climate, season, volume of the seed, type of seed etc)

1. SEED DRYING

The process of elimination of moisture from the seed is called drying.

2. STAGE OF MOISTURE ELIMINATION

The moisture from the seed is eliminated in 2 stages

1. Surface moisture of the seed that initially removed by the drying air.
2. The removal of the moisture in the surface cause an imbalance in the moisture potential in the surface of the seed and the inner portion of the seed which leads to the migration of moisture from the inner organ to the surface.

The migration of moisture to the surface is slower than the evaporation and a moisture gradient is developed in the kernel. Elimination of moisture from the seed depends upon the relative humidity and temperature of the environment surrounding the seed.

Introduction

Seed is regarded as carrier of new technologies. Therefore, the seed needs to be protected so as to deliver it as an efficient input. When seed is planted during an environmental stress like heat or drought chemical reactions in the seed may not go as smoothly as when the seed is under little or no stress. All the crops are liable to face varying degree of water stress and it is most crucial at the time of germination and plant establishment. Successful stand establishment under all conditions is the key to assured production. The early sown varieties of various crops faces the problem of heat stress at early vegetative stage. Moreover, due to global warming there is uncertainty regarding the physiological response of crops to enhanced atmospheric temperature. Any significant change in climate on a global scale directly affects crop production and then would impact local agriculture.

Seed enhancement is the process or technology to further improve seed performances under very specific regimes and with certain planting equipment. Three major seed enhancement technologies are as follows (Copeland and McDonald, 1995). 
        Seed hydration 
        Biological seed treatments 
        Seed coatings

1.1 Problem
    1.    Compare the seed quality at different physiological maturity stages
    2.    Compare the seed recovery in acid and fermentation method

1.2 Materials
    ·    Tomato fruits – 4 batches
    ·    Plastic bucket/ Beaker
    ·    Water

In tomato seed extraction is the very important operation. Tomato seed can be extracted by following way.

1. Fermentation methods: Red ripe fruits should be picked and crushed in non metallic pots. Profuse foam formation indicates that fermentation is completed. Fermentation of seed material should not be prolonged beyond 72hr to get seed of high germination. Preferably the seed should be washed free of pulp after 48hr require temperature uses.
2. Acid treatment methods: In case of urgency seed may be washed by using 1.0 to 1.5 liters of 35 to 38% concentrated HCL/g tomato fruit pulp. Fermentation is completed in about 30 minutes. Clean seed are obtained by stirring and washing procedure are quickly as possible.
3. Alkali treatment methods: In case Alkalie 10% sodium bicarbonate is mixed in equal volume of pulp or 300 g washing soda dissolve in 4 liter of boiling water is sufficient for 4 liter fruit pulp.
4. Mechanical methods: It is used for large scale operations put the ripe fruits into the mechanical seed extractor for crushing and separation of the seed and gel from the pulp. By acid 0.8% solution of acetic acid for 24hr at or below 21⁰C (1kg seed/10 liter of acetic acid).

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed removal in wet fruits is known as _____.
2. The seed removal in dry fruits is known as _____.
3. _____ is used for mechanical extraction.

1. SEED EXTRACTION

The processing of seeds starts from the extraction of seed material from the plant parts. The seed removal in dry fruits is known as threshing, while that of wet fruits is known as extraction.

2. METHODS OF SEED EXTRACTION

2.1. Dry extraction

Dry extraction is done either manually or mechanically. Manual extraction is by beating with pliable bamboo stick or by beating against a hard surface. Threshers are used for mechanical extraction. In this, care should be taken to avoid mechanical injury. Eg. All agricultural crops.

1. OVULE DEVELOPMENT

The development of ovule occurs within the ovary, which provides a location for nurture and development of the female gametophyte, its sexual fusion with in the male gametophyte, and embryo development, survival, and eventual regrowth (Fig. 1). Ovule growth begins as a small outgrowth within the nucellus. As megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis continue, the region of the nucellus that is to become the ovule enlarges and differentiates into definite morphological characteristics. Secondary outgrowths, or collars (integuments), soon appear around the periphery of the nucellar outgrowths and envelop it. These usually consist of the inner and outer integuments and ultimately become the testa (seed coat) of the mature ovule.

Fumigation is a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous pesticides to suffocate or poison the pests within. It is utilized for control of pests in buildings, soil, seed, and grain produce. It is also used during processing of goods to be imported or exported in order to prevent transfer of exotic organisms. Fumigants are chemical compounds in gaseous form that enter the body of insect through the spiracles spread all over via trachea and tracheoles. The important fumigants are Methyl bromide, Ethylene dibromide, Aluminium phosphide, Ethyl formate, Hydrogen cyanide, Chloropicrin etc.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the progeny of nucleus seed.
2. Genetic purity of breeder seed is _____.
3. Physical purity of breeder seed is _____.
4. The colour of tag for breeder seed is _____.
5. _____ is the progeny of breeder seed.
6. Genetic purity of foundation seed is _____.

1. SEED CLASSES

Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme, which basically depends upon

3.1. Seed generation system

Seed multiplication is nothing but production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage.

Seed germination

It is defined as the emergence and development from the seed embryo, of those essential structures, for the kind of seed in question, indicates its ability to produce a normal plant under favourable conditions. The seedlings devoid of an essential structure; showing weak or unbalanced development; decay or damage affecting the normal development of seedling are not considered in calculating the germination percentage.

I. FILL UPS

1. The process whereby seeds sprout and begin to grow is known as _____.
2. During germination of a seed, the water is absorbed through _____.
3. _____ is the onset growth of a seed often following a period of dormancy.
4. _____ is a type of germination in which cotyledons and shoot are carried above the soil level.
5. _____ is a type of germination in which the cotyledon or comparable structure remain in the soil.
6. Water moves into the tissues and cells by _____.

Introduction

Germination is the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Most seeds go through a period of dormancy, where there is no active growth; during this time the seed can be safely transported to a new location and/or survive adverse climatic conditions until circumstances are favourable for growth. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling. In short, seed germination is the ability of a seed to develop in to a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil (ISTA, 1985) or the process by which the dormant embryo wakes up and begins to grow is known as seed germination.

1. SEED GERMINATION

The process whereby seeds sprout and begin to grow is known as germination.

Germination is the onset growth of a seed, often following a period of dormancy, in response to suitable environmental conditions. During germination (the growth and development process) of a seed, the water is absorbed through micropyle, and the formerly dormant embryo resumes growth and emerges from the seed.

Fish seed grading and quality assessment are crucial steps in ensuring successful fish rearing in aquaculture. Grading helps separate fish based on size and other characteristics, while quality assessment evaluates the overall health and suitability of the seed for stocking. This process improves the efficiency of rearing and the survival rate of the fish.
SIZE GRADING TOOLS, SURVIVAL RATES, DEFORMITY
CHECKING
In aquaculture, the early stages of fish development—larvae, fry, and fingerlings—require careful handling and management to ensure maximum survival and healthy growth. Among the most critical practices in nursery and hatchery phases are size grading, survival rate monitoring, and deformity checks. These practices ensure that only high-quality, vigorous fish seed is reared or sold for grow-out operations.
Size Grading Tools
Size grading involves separating fish seed based on size to ensure uniform growth and reduce competition, aggression, and cannibalism.

In aquaculture, seed health management focuses on maintaining the health of the aquatic organisms, primarily fish, from their early stages (broodstock, eggs, and larvae) to ensure healthy growth and survival throughout the culture cycle. This involves preventing and controlling diseases, improving water quality, providing adequate nutrition, and ensuring proper handling practices.
COMMON DISEASES IN HATCHLINGS AND JUVENILES
Disease Management
Seabass are vulnerable to various diseases caused by parasites, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. In addition, health issues can also arise from environmental stressors and nutritional deficiencies, which have been increasingly recognized in aquaculture settings.
Viral Disease
Lymphocystis Disease
Lymphocystis disease is commonly seen in seabass juveniles, particularly those measuring 4 to 7 cm in length and raised in cage culture systems. The disease is prevalent across a range of water temperatures and occurs more frequently in high salinity environments. A characteristic symptom is the abnormal enlargement of dermal cells, which gives the skin a cauliflower-like appearance. This condition is transmissible between individual fish.

Seed Health Testing

Science of determining the presence or absence of disease causing agents such as fungi, bacteria and viruses and insects in the seed samples.

Seed Borne disease

The seed primordial or the maturing seed may be infected either (i) directly from the infected plant through the flower or fruit stalk and the seed stalk or directly from the seed surface, or (ii)infection from outside may be introduced through stigma or ovary wall or pericarp, and the flower or fruit stalk, and later through the seed coat. A pathogen may penetrate several of these parts of the seed and in turn infect them. The infestation /contamination of the seed may occur during harvesting, threshing and processing. Visualizing the importance of seed borne diseases the Central Seed Certification board has prescribed certification standards for foundation and certified seed for several diseases.

The pathogen may carry with the seeds in three ways.

• Admixture: Pathogens are independent of seeds but accompany them. They are mixed with health seeds during threshing.
• External:The pathogen may be present on seed surface as spores, oospores and chlamydospores.
• Internal: Pathogens establish within the seed with definite relationship with seed parts.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ refers to the health status of a seed.
2. A group of fungi that infects developing seeds on the plant in the field, but before it is threshed is called as _____.
3. _____ fungi invade seeds at (or) after harvest.
4. _____ method is used particularly for smut and bunt fungi in gramineous host.
5. _____ method is used for detection of karnal bunt of wheat.

1. INTRODUCTION

Seed health refers to the health status of a seed. Sowing healthy seeds of high quality is our concern to improve crop yields, thus increasing food production. It has a great concern to farmers and seed producing agencies where the disease is high and average yields are low and where more food is needed to feed the ever-increasing population. So, it is important to test the seeds for disease organism before they are sown in the field and to avoid harmful organisms traveling from infected to non-infected areas within a country or across international boundaries.

1. Hallow heart in pea occurs due to

   a) Calcium deficiency

   b) Molybdenum deficiency

   c) Boron deficiency

   d) Zinc deficiency

2. Presence of pathogen on the surface of the seed is termed as

   a) Admixture

   b) Infestation

   c) Infection

   d) Contamination

The International movement of seed takes place for (i) germplasm for R&D purposes, (ii) experimental lines and hybrids for screening purposes, (iii) basic seed for multiplication purposes, and (iv) commercial varieties and hybrids for marketing (Ranganathan, 2019). Vegetable seed import and export for research purposes is handled by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi where the importing research organization in India first gets an import permit from NBPGR following due procedures as available on NBPGR website (www.nbpgr.ernet.in). Once the importing research organization, like ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities, private seed companies, etc get the import permit which specifies the list of material to be imported and the seed source, the import permit is sent to the research seed supplying agency who in turn attaches a phytosanitary certificate along with the copy of the import permit to the consignment and sends the same to NBPGR. NBPGR retains part of seed and releases the seed to the indenter after necessary quarantine test and charging quarantine fee. The importing organization is expected to give a brief report about the material to the NBPGR after its evaluation at its farm/lab.

The bulk seed import (vegetable seed for commercial purposes) is handled by Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad, Haryana (www.ppqs.gov.in) with no condition of testing by government system. This exemption of testing is not available for field crop seed. It needs to be clarified that the bulk vegetable seed import has been simplified as per New Seed Policy-1988 which has put the vegetable seeds among others under OGL (open general license) and this provision facilitates the vegetable seed in bulk and the private seed companies have taken advantage of this provision. The Indian private seed companies are importing large quantities of seed of cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, beet root and even vegetable peas. The bulk vegetable seed import for commercial purposes is done as per following procedure.

Seed is the most important component for productive agriculture. Significant advances have been made in production of food crops in India during the last four decades. The quantum jump in the food production primarily accounted for by increased productivity and production in rice and wheat was the result of introduction of improved varieties and their seeds often nicknamed as Green Revolution. The food production which was nearly 50 million tones during 1950 – 51 reached to a level of 210 million tones during 2003 – 04. During the same period the productivity increased about 3 folds (Table 20.1).

I. FILL UPS

1. RCA stands for _____.
2. Expert standing committee was set up in _____.
3. In _____year, All India Co-ordinated maize improvement programme was started.
4. First maize hybrid was released in the year _____.
5. All India co-ordinated bajra and sorghum improvement programme was started in _____.
6. First sorghum hybrid was released in the year _____.