eBook Chapters

1. SEED INDUSTRY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) constituted in 1925 suggested the following for seed improvement

There should be a separate organization within agriculture departments to deal with seed distribution and seed testing.

The seed distribution enterprise should be self-sustaining.

Seed distribution should be organized through co-operatives, other associations, seed merchants (whenever they are available), through seed agents, as well as through agricultural department staff and any other agency which could be considered suitable.

Seed merchants of proven enterprise should be given every encouragement.

Inventory management system is a computer based system for creating work orders at a processing plant, tracking inventory levels in the go downs, , sales and seed movement out of the processing plant. These modern systems avoid book maintenance and save lots of space. It will also tool for avoiding overstock or delay in movement of seed material for packaging. In most of the processing plants SAP is the most popular inventory management tool which is more efficient than others. SAP is basically a tool of enterprise resource planning which help in material management. The customised software can be used very effectively in a processing plant for the following operations.

Introduction

Development of improved crop varieties is vital for sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity. Timely supply of quality seed is equally significant since the contribution of quality seed alone is estimated to be 15-20 per cent to total crop production. Seed quality attains more significance in view of emerging biotic and abiotic stresses, issues related to quality and phytosanitary measures, competition in domestic and international markets and emerging food needs. Measures of seed legislation with respect to quantity and quality were initiated in the country by establishment of National Seed Corporation during 1963 under Ministry of Agriculture. The seed sector in India during the period was dominated by the Public sector. The National Seed Corporation was the Central Body to produce seeds of superior dwarf varieties in rice, wheat, and superior hybrids in maize, pearl millet and sorghum. This was followed by various seed legislations enacted by Government of India. Further, AICRP-NSP (Crops), popularly known as National Seed Project was launched during 1979-80. The NSP-Project came into operation in three major phases and continues to produce breeder seed to cater the needs of the Indian farmers. The project resulted in achieving breeder seed production surpassing the indents in all major crops. The seed programme of the country was further strengthened with NSP II (World Bank) Project starting in 1989-90, which not only supported the ICAR and SAUs, but also Department of Agriculture, Seeds Corporations, Seed Certification Agencies and Private Seed Industries to a great extent in production, processing and in providing quality seeds to the country.

The basic aim of seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality of seeds sold to farmers. So long as Agriculture remains tradition and static, there is little justification for regulating seed quality. However with technological advancement and the systematic application of science to Agriculture, it becomes compulsory to regulate the quality of seeds through seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement to ensure that seed buyers are not made to run undue risks.

TYPES OF SEED LEGISLATION

Seed legislation can be broadly divided into two groups.

1.    Sanctioning legislation

2.    Control legislation

Sanctioning Legislation

Which authorizes, establishes or otherwise legally sanctions such activities as formation/establishment of advisory bodies, seed certification agencies, seed testing Labouratories, foundation and certified seed programmes, recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries, appellate authority etc.

Seed marketing is one of the most vital components of seed technology. Broadly, it includes such activities as production, processing, storage, quality control and marketing of seeds. In the narrow sense, however seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities. Seed marketing comprises the following:

1. Demand forecasts (assessment of effective demand)
2. Marketing structure
3. Arrangements for storage of seeds
4. Sales promotional activities
5. Post-sales service
6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ refers to the actual acquisition and selling packed seeds, intermediate storage delivery and sales promotional activities.
2. _____ entails using marketing information for the purpose of planning.
3. _____ is one of the major channel through which bulk of paddy seeds, pulses seeds and oil seeds are marketed in the state.

1. DEFINITION

Seed marketing is the one of the most vital components of seed technology. On it depends the size and scope of the seed industry. Broadly it includes such activities as production, processing, storage, quality control and marketing of seeds.

Seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities.

1. SEED MATURITY

Harvesting should be done after the attainment of physiological maturity, when the seeds reached complete maturity to avoid harvesting of immature and ill-filled seeds.

1.1. Physiological maturity

It is the stage of accumulation of maximum drymatter within the seeds. It is expressed by maximum seed weight, germination and vigour potential. The moisture content of the seed at this stage is around 25-30% depending up on the species.

1.2. Harvestable maturity

The physiological maturity is represented to a seed and this maturity will not be the same for all the seeds of a single plant / population, due to continuous differential flowering habit. Hence, the stage of attainment of physiological maturity by 80% of the population is considered as the harvestable maturity stage. The moisture content of the seed will be lesser than the physiological maturity stage (18-20%).

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the stage of accumulation of maximum dry matter within the seeds.
2. The stage of attainment of physiological maturity by 80% of population is considered as _____ stage.
3. In rice, during harvestable maturity the moisture content of long duration varieties will be _____.
4. For short and medium duration varieties of rice, the moisture content will be _____.
5. Rattling sound of kernel is the physiological maturity symptom of _____.
6. The harvestable maturity indices of cotton is _____.
7. The harvestable maturity indices of bhendi is _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is one of the most important deciding factors of seed viability and quality during storage.
2. Indirect method of moisture estimation is_____.
3. Karl fisher titration method is _____ method of moisture estimation
4. For volatile oil containing seeds moisture is estimated by_____.

1. SEED MOISTURE

Seed moisture is one of the most important deciding factors of seed viability and quality during storage. Hence, determination of seed moisture content and drying to the safe moisture content is utmost important before transit and storage.

According to ISTA (1985), moisture content of the sample is defined as that loss of weight when it is dried in accordance with the rules or the amount of water collected when it is distilled. It is expressed as percentage of the original weight of sample (wet basis).

1.1. Principle

Moisture present in the seed is removed completely as much as possible without oxidation or decomposition or loss in other volatile substances by applying heat. The weight loss due to drying is estimated and the moisture content is calculated.

The seed moisture content is the amount of water present in the seed. It is generally expressed in percentage of dry and wet seed weight. It is the loss in weight of the original sample when it is dried. High moisture content in seed sample favors the mechanical damage, seed longevity, incidence of disease and insect pests.

Objective

i. To know the moisture content of seeds by suitable methods
ii. To suggest the seed drying.

Multiplication and distribution of high quality seed of improved varieties is a crucial step in agricultural production of any country.

When an entry is identified by the workshop of the concerned project, the breeder begins the seed multiplication of the strain in the following crop season. The seed produced by the breeder after a strain is identified, but before it is released as a variety is termed as the “stock seed”. This seed is known as breeder seed after it is released and notified. In the crop season following notification foundation seed of newly released variety is produced. In the second crop season following the release of variety, certified seed of the variety is produced. Thus the farmer is able to obtain certified seed of a newly released variety for commercial cultivation only in the third crop season following in the notification of the variety. However the seed of such variety reach the farmer even before its release through mini-kit trials. Many other farmers would obtain the seeds from those farmers who conducted the mini kit trials and so on in the next two years. Thus an outstanding variety is likely to reach many farmers even before its certified seeds have been put on sale.

Abstract

Although  people have harvested seeds and fruit from trees for centuries, only after World War II, the science and theories of forest genetics begin to be seriously applied to and practiced in operational forestry around the world. The genetic improvements, or gains, need to be captured, packaged, and mass produced so that these gains could be deployed in operational forestry systems. This can be accomplished through seed orchards which is a link between tree breeding and silvicultural activities. Seed orchards are by far the most frequently used sexually reproducing forestry production populations in the world. Apart from the genetic improvement, seed orchards are also used for the production of seed that is well adapted to specific environments. Seed orchards can be categorized according to the generation of breeding or the type of plant material used.

During processing seeds are cleaned, dried, and graded which are then treated with specific fungicide and insecticide. Seed at this stage is at best quality, which are then packaged into various packaging materials in a specific weight. Packaging or bagging of processed and treated seed is a requisite for easy handling of the bulk seed. Seed packaging can be defined as filling with seed, weighing and sealing the container whereas seed package as storage container where the seeds are kept for marketing or shipping or till the next sowing time.

The Packaging of Seed Involves

1. Filling bags/ containers of uniform size with seeds of known weight.

2. Providing leaflets inside the package with information about any specific cultural practices needed.

3. Attaching labels or certification tags having information regarding all the quality parameters.

4. Temper-proof sealing of the bag.

5. Storage or transportation of the bags.

Seed Packing

Seed packaging is the process of filling, weighing and sewing of bags with seed. The choice of packaging materials and amount of seeds to be packed depends on kind of seeds to be packed, duration of storage, storage environment, the seed moisture content, the cost of seed, the cost of packaging material, the geographical area where the seeds will be stored.

I. FILL UPS

1. The area of science that studies the relationship between pathogens and seeds is _____.
2. The diseases that are caused by fungal pathogens in residues and on the soil surface are defined as _____.
3. The establishment of a pathogens in any part of the seed is referred as _____.

1. SEED PATHOLOGY

The area of science that studies the relationship between pathogens and seeds is seed pathology.

2. TYPES OF PATHOGEN

Diseases of plants are caused primarily by three types of pathogens: bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Despite that fungi comprise the largest group of pathogens, the bulk of seed-specific diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses. This is due to the fact that bacteria and viruses are more adopt at entering and then travelling through the veins of the plant, a phenomenon known as ‘systemic infection,’ and from the vascular system may make their way into the developing embryos of seeds.

Fungi, in contrast, tend to be restricted to the outer layers of the plant, where they initiate infection by means of air-borne spores and then proceed to spread by attacking nearby cells of the outer layers. Fungi are much less likely to enter the vascular system of the plant, and thus infect seed mostly when they either ‘crawl’ all the way to seed on the outside of the plant, or else send out spores that land on the seed. In either case, the fungal spores are on the outside of the seed, in the layers of the seed coat, spores on the seed coat are more prone to either dry up and die, or else to get sloughed off with the seed coat during seed germination, thereby failing to cause disease on the next generation of plants.

The objective of seed pelleting is to provide an opportunity to package effective quantities of materials such that they can influence the micro-environment of each seed.
 
Process of Pelleting

Seeds are introduced into a coating drum or pan that resembles a cement mixer. An amalgam of pelleting materials (clays, limestone, calcium carbonate, talc, vermiculite) and cementing adhesives (gum Arabic, gelatine, methyl cellulose polyvinyl alchol) are used to form the pellet and other compounds such as inoculants, fungicides, etc. May be added to enhance seed performance.

Much of the success on modern agriculture dependson the availability of high quality seeds with good genetic potential and proven performance in germination, emergence, and vigorous Vegetative growth.

Seed: Seed is a fertilized mature ovule containing an embryonic axis (embryo), stored food material (endosperm) and a protective covering (seed coat or testa).

Seed structures: Living embryo, the most important part of seed, consists of two structures (i) embryonic axis and ( ii ) cotyledon(s). Theembryonic axis is composed of three parts namely

(i)radical (embryonic root), the hypocotyls (point of attachment of cotyledons) and (iii) plumule (theshootapex with the first true leaves). Thethree parts of embryonic axis are easy to identify in dicots, but in monocots (especially in the family Gramineae) their identification is difficult. In monocots, there is only one cotyledon, which is reduced and modifiedto form the scutellum. The basalsheath of cotyledon is elongated to take the shape of coleoptile,while in somecases (e.g., maize), the hypocotyls is modified to form mesocotyl. The base of hypocotyls sheathing the radical is termed as coleorhiza.

Seed development: Thereare manyvariations in the pattern of seeddevelopment when the entire plant kingdom is considered. However, the general processof This includes seed development is almost similar.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is basically a critical assessment of effective seed requirement.
2. _____ is the ratio of seed yield per seed generation.
3. The quantity of quality seed that have replaced the actual seed requirement of the location is _____.
4. SRR for hybrid seeds is _____
5. Seed multiplication ratio for groundnut _____

1. INTRODUCTION

Indian population is estimated to increase to about 1400 million by 2025. Consequently, India’s requirements for food grains and other food products to feed the increasing population will continue to rise. The food grain requirements are estimated at 350 to 370 million tonnes by 2025. The demand pattern for agricultural commodities for the domestic market will also shift as a result of increasing incomes and faster urbanization. Compared to 26% increase in 1991, the urban population is projected to increase by 42% in 2020. For competing in the global market, the product pattern will shift to high value commodities like fruits, vegetables, floriculture, dairy products, meat and marine products. In such a future scenario, it is necessary to increase agricultural production through improved cropping system, judicious use of agro-inputs and wide use of modern agricultural technology. It is also important to augment and streamline the existing marketing system including handling, transportation, storage, processing and distribution.

4.1. Seed policy

4.1.1. Seed policies formulated for governing seed quality control system

Significant transformation took place in the traditional variety improvement and seed production programmes in the sixties and modernized with initiation of hybrid development programme in maize, sorghum and pearl millet, as well as with the introduction, breeding and release of semi dwarf high yielding varieties of wheat and rice. To support the release of varieties and their quality seed production Indian Parliament enacted Indian Seeds Act in 1966. Subsequently, National Seeds Corporation was launched by Government of India for scientific growth of seed industry in the country. All these developments led to the green revolution and country attained self-sufficiency in food crops.

I. FILL UPS

1. The Seeds Act was passed in the year _____
2. Seed Control Order was passed in the year _____
3. The New Policy on Seed Development was passed in the year _____
4. Seed Act came into force in _____
5. In _____ year, Seed Rules were formed.
6. In _____ year, Seed Certification Agencies and Central Seed Certification Board were formed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Seed is the most important determinant of agricultural production potential, on which the efficacy of other agriculture inputs is dependent. Seeds of appropriate characteristics are required to meet the demand of diverse agro-climatic conditions and intensive cropping systems. Sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity is dependent, to a large extent, on development of new and improved varieties of crops and an efficient system for timely supply of quality seeds to farmers..

Abstract

Seed priming is the innovative way of ensuring optimum germination and plant stand under moisture deficit situations. It enables the seed to tide over initial stress from biotic and abiotic factors. Higher yield with better quality seed are reported. The seeds of agronomic and horticultural crops are significantly affected by ageing and deterioration. Reversal or rejuvenation of aged seeds is therefore of primary interest. Experiments related to reversal of seed deterioration effects due to ageing relying heavily on accelerated ageing (AA) of seeds and their priming using various priming agents especially osmotic substances. Repair during germination is a hypothetical event supported by some investigators and questioned by others. Repair includes the spontaneous reorganization of plasma membrane phospholipids, which occurs during seed hydration. Alternatively or additionally, metabolic repair might occur. Experimental evidence for repair in imbibed seeds has been elusive. Priming reduced electrolyte leakage as well as lipid peroxidation in seeds implying the activation of membrane repair processes. Priming was also associated with increased levels of antioxidants like ascorbic acid and tocopherols particularly the latter and the activities of enzymes SOD, CAT POX involved in the mitigation of oxidative damage. In comparison with the priming of unaged seeds, the aged seeds experienced a diminution of response in terms of changes in the levels of antioxidants and scavenging enzymes. Thus, seed priming technique under climate extremities seems the best and economical means to sustain higher crop yields. The technique needs to be popularized among the farmers practicing agriculture and horticulture under rainfed situation so as to sustain production under climatic adversaries and enhance livelihood security and more profitability at the farm.

Seed Priming is the process of controlled hydration of seeds to a level that permits pre-germinative metabolic actively to proceed, but prevents actual emergence of the radical. It is done to increase the speed and uniformity of germination particularly under adverse conditions of temperature, moisture and salinity conditions. In this condition, seeds go through all the essential preparatory processes of germination but prevent cell elongation and radical emergence. During the waiting period at the osmotic barrier the ‘slower’ seeds tend to catch up with the ‘faster ones’ so that the subsequent germination is more uniform, than that of untreated seeds. The duration of priming varies with the crop as well as method of priming such that priming is allowed for I and II stage of seed imbibitions without allowing radical protrusion.

Seed Processing

Seed processing may be understood to comprise all the operations after harvest that aim at maximizing seed viability, vigour and health. It includes cleaning, drying, seed treatment, packaging and storage.

Seed processing is specialized activity and also a tool to improve seed quality further to an acceptable standard. Seed quality parameters like germination, vigour or genetic purity can be improved using processing. Say a seed lot having a minimum standard of 90% germination, but the competition in the market offering seed quality 92 or 95 % then to meet the market demand we can process the seed lots using re-milling or re-conditioning techniques. Also sometimes simple techniques like liquid density separation which uses specific density of the seed to separate good seed from inferior quality can be considered. Various case studies on processing to improve seed quality are given here.

Seed processing, drying, cleaning and upgrading

Seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for marketing namely handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size grading testing, and packaging etc.

Layout for seed processing plant

Layout plan for construction of seed processing plant should be carefully planned to ensure that thorough seed cleaning, upgrading, seed treatment and other seed processing operations are carried out efficiently without mixing and damaging seed lots with minimum equipment, personnel, time and at minimum cost.

The following factors should be considered while planning and designing the processing unit:

I. FILL UPS

1. The _____ is used in modern seed handling and storage systems for preliminary cleaning.
2. _____ removes large inert matter from the seeds.
3. _____ is a machine that do the rubbing action and debeard the seeds and polish the seed.
4. _____ is the basic cleaner in most seed processing plants.

1. Decorticator is used for shelling pods in

   a) Bhendi

   b) Maize

   c) Groundnut

   d) Sunflower

2. Debearders are used in processing of

   a) Barley

   b) Oats

   c) Wheat

   d) Rice

1. SEED PROCESSING

1.1. Purpose

Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level, remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable materials, weed seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds, uniform size grading and seed treatment to upgrade the overall seed quality.

1.2. Physical characteristics that aid in grading and upgrading

The threshed produce are pre-cleaned either manually or mechanically and are graded using different, but optimum sieves of specified sizes. This grading bring homogeneity in the lot which aids in obtaining uniformity among the population in the subsequent sowing.

Different kinds of seeds can be separated when they differ in one or more physical characteristics. Physical characteristics normally used to separate seeds are size shape, length, weight, colour, surface texture, affinity to liquids, electrical conductivity, etc.

It involves all the steps starting from the extraction till sowing that makes the seed a high quality product for distribution among the farmers for a profitable crop. It reduces the spoilage during storage, increase the shelf life of the seeds, guarantees good germination and field stand thereby reduces the risk of losing the crop at early stages.

Seed Extraction

The seed extraction methods vary with the stage at which the matured fruits are harvested for seed extraction. Some of the vegetable crops are harvested at well ripe stage while some others are harvested at mature dry stage. Proper extraction should be selected taking into consideration the easiness of seed extraction from the fleshy pulp, relatively more seed recovery and less damage to the quality of seeds. There are different methods of seed extraction includes manual method, fermentation method, chemical method and mechanical method.

Manual Method

The manual method of seed extraction varies depending on the harvested fruit type. There are two types of seed extraction in vegetable crops viz., dry extraction and wet extraction.

1. Dry extraction Method

Dry extraction method is following in vegetables where mature dry fruits or mature dried pods are harvested for seed extraction. The harvested dried fruits are kept in sun for 2-3 days. The dried fruits are split open and the seeds are extracted by beating with pliable bamboo stick or by beating against a hard surface. Heavy beating should be avoided to reduce mechanical injury to the seed. Excessive mechanical injury may result in lowering of seed viability. The extracted seeds are dried in the sun between 8.00-11.00 am and 2.00-5.00 pm to reduce the moisture content to a safe level. This is followed in crops like chilli, okra, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, french bean, lablab bean, cow pea, cluster bean etc.

Introduction

Good quality seed plays an important and crucial role in deciding the performance of any crop. Availability of quality seed is one of the important factors for increasing the production and productivity of agriculture. Seed is the cheapest and most efficient input as compared to other inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, water etc. Timely availability of quality seed of the right variety/ hybrid in adequate quantity decides the strength and health of agricultural economy.

Seed has been defined in many ways. Botanically, seed is defined as “a mature fertile ovule”. Seed is also defined as “an embryo, a living organism, embedded in the supporting or food storage tissue surrounded by seed coat”. Seed is also defined as “any plant part (cuttings, corms, bulbs, rhizomes etc.) used for growing commercial crops”.

Seed a basic input in Agriculture, a carrier of new technology, a basic tool for secured food supply. Seed is a principal means to secure crop yield in less favorable production areas. Seed is an important medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster.

Seed production in spices varies depending on the specific crop and its biological haracteristics. Below is an overview of the seed production methods for each of the spices you’ve mentioned:
1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
• Propagation method: Ginger is propagated through rhizomes rather than true seeds. Selected healthy rhizomes are cut into pieces, each with at least one viable bud (eye).
• Planting: The rhizome pieces are planted in well-drained soil with high organic content.
• Maintenance: Regular watering and mulching are essential to maintain soil moisture. Weeding and pest management are also crucial.
• Harvesting: The rhizomes are harvested 8-10 months after planting. Some are reserved for the next planting season.
2. Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
• Propagation method: Similar to ginger, turmeric is propagated using rhizomes.
• Planting: Rhizomes are cut into pieces with at least one bud each and planted in a prepared field.
• Maintenance: Requires consistent soil moisture, so mulching and irrigation are essential. Regular weeding and protection against pests and diseases are necessary.
• Harvesting: Rhizomes are harvested 7-9 months after planting. Selected rhizomes are stored for the next planting season.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is seed treatment?

2. Factors affecting the seed quality of a crop during seed production?

3. Seed treatment campaign – Role & importance?

4. Agronomic and genetic principles of quality seed production?

5. Varietal seed production and hybrid seed production?

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or both to the seeds to disinfect(deep seated) and disinfest (over seed coat) them from seed borne or soil borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to subjecting the seed to solar energy exposure or immersion in conditional water.

Increased awareness of the importance of quality and nutrient-rich food among the majority of the population created a need for the development of organic production systems and suitable varieties/hybrids for cultivation. The quality of soil, water and air is affected by the overuse of agrochemicals in agriculture. The use of organic varieties helps in reducing the use of various agrochemicals and high-quality pesticides. Organic varieties can address environmental issues and climate change. The world organic seed market is valued at USD 4.2 Bn in 2022 and it is expected to grow at an annual rate of around 8.7% between 2022 and 2031. The demand for organic seeds in the market has created new opportunities for organic farmers. By following standard organic crop production practices and seed certification guidelines, they can produce quality organic seed or planting material on their own farm.

1. Introduction

Worldwide, organic agriculture is a rapidly growing sector. The demand for organic food markets is increasing recently with the fast-growing movement of community support for organic agriculture. A total of 96.4 m-ha were grown organically with 2% of the worldwide agricultural land. The region with the most organic agricultural land is Oceania (53.2 m-ha) followed by Europe (18.5 m-ha), Latin America (9.5 m-ha) Asia (8.8 m-ha), North America (3.6 m-ha) and Africa (2.7 m-ha). Australia stands first in area with 53.0 m-ha followed by India (4.7 m-ha) and Argentina (4.1 m-ha) (FiBL & IFOAM, 2024). The global organic farming market will grow from $169.04 billion in 2022 to $287.83 billion in 2027 at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.3% (Organic Farming Global Market Report, 2023).

1. LAND REQUIREMENTS

Land should be fertile with selected irrigation and good drainage facilities. It should be free from volunteer plants. The field should not have been grown with the same crop in the previous season. If grown, it should be the production of same class of seed for the same variety.

Seed is a vital input for successful flower production and it is considered as the starting material for most bedding plants and many of the cut flowers produced. The production of bedding plants and cut flowers is both capital and labour intensive. In order to optimize production efficiency and maximize profit, it is important for growers to use high quality seeds. Production of seeds of annual flowers has immense scope as an area of diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is international, operating in many countries of the world. Large quantities of flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries for adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Worldwide, nurseries engaged in production of seeds of seasonal flowers have a booming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is a fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds of cereal seed crops.

I. FILL UPS

1. The isolation distance of fodder cowpea for certified seed production is _____.
2. The isolation distance of lucerne for foundation seed production is _____
3. The isolation distance of lucerne for certified seed production is _____.
4. The isolation distance of berseem for certified seed production is _____.

1. FORAGE LEGUMES

1.1. Isolation

Seed is the basis of agriculture. It is the cheapest and most critical input for sustainable crop production. The response of all other inputs depends upon the quality of the seed to a large extent. The direct contribution of quality seed alone to crop production is about 15 to 20%, and it can be further raised to 45% with improved crop management practices. Quality seed ensures good germination and vigorous growth, resulting in a good crop stand. The Green Revolution witnessed in the country during the mid-sixties resulted from the seed revolution in wheat and rice. After that, there was a consistent increase and record production in food grains, oilseeds, pulses, and all other crops, including fruits and vegetables, due to the development of high-yielding varieties.

The seed itself is a technology that is inherited in a capsulated form. Therefore, the seed sector plays an essential role in disseminating the most recent technology to farmers through the quality seed of high-yielding varieties. The success of any developmental program in agriculture, like NFSM, RKVY, oilseed mission, horticulture mission, etc., depends upon the availability of good quality seed and planting material. Seed security is a prerequisite for food and nutritional security. Therefore, recognizing the facts, many emphases are being given to seed replacement and varietal replacement rates. The growth of the Indian seed industry is faster than the global rate.

I. FILL UPS

1. The fruit of coffee is called _____.
2. Coffee is a_____ pollinated crop
3. The fruit of tea is called _____.
4. Tea is a _____ pollinated crop.
5. The fruit of cardamom is called _____.

1. LAND REQUIREMENTS

2.1 Rice

Rice is the staple food for the largest number of people on the Earth. According to an estimate, the global rice production must reach 800 million tonne from the present 91.04 million tonne in 2005-06 to meet the demand in 2025. It’s area is 37% of the total area under food grains as against 20% under wheat, another important food crop. But globally it stands next to wheat in harvested area.As the irrigated rice contributes more than 75 per cent of the total rice production, enhancing its yield potential would be key to meeting the global rice requirement for an additional 215 million tonne. To achieve the target yield, rice varieties with a yield advantage of about 20 per cent over popular and widely adapted rice varieties under tropical conditions must be developed. Experience in China, India, Vietnam, the Philippines, Bangladesh and several other countries clearly indicates that hybrid rice technology offers readily available option to meet this challenge.

2.1 Rice

Rice is the staple food for the largest number of people on the Earth. According to an estimate, the global rice production must reach 800 million tonne from the present 91.04 million tonne in 2005-06 to meet the demand in 2025. It’s area is 37% of the total area under food grains as against 20% under wheat, another important food crop. But globally it stands next to wheat in harvested area. As the irrigated rice contributes more than 75 per cent of the total rice production, enhancing its yield potential would be key to meeting the global rice requirement for an additional 215 million tonne. To achieve the target yield, rice varieties with a yield advantage of about 20 per cent over popular and widely adapted rice varieties under tropical conditions must be developed. Experience in China, India, Vietnam, Philippines, Bangladesh and several other countries clearly indicates that hybrid rice technology offers readily available option to meet this challenge.