eBook Chapters

Introduction

Cashew is native to South Eastern Brazil, from where it was introduced to the Malabar coast of India in the sixteenth century to cover bare hills and for soil conservation. It gained commercial importance in 1920. African countries produce large quantities of cashew nuts, but they are not processed into consumable products because of difficulties in organizing the native labour. India imports raw cashew nuts which are processed and converted into cashew kernels and cashew shell liquid and re-exported to countries like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Russia. The cashew kernel of India is of the highest quality in the world. India is the largest producer and exporter of cashews in the world. India stands first in area and production in the world. Indian cashew export: 63 per cent of global cashew trade. The national average is 835 kg per ha (i.e., around 5.50 kg per tree) and this is far less than the achievable level of 2000 kg per ha (i.e., around 12.50 kg per tree). Maharashtra state is having the highest productivity of about 1337 kg per ha (mainly due to adoption of drip irrigation and mulching techniques), while productivity in West Bengal has come down (1140 kg/ha), mainly because of old plantations. Due to its nutritive value and commerce, it is designated as “zero cholesterol nut or white gold”. The cashew nut is a unique combination of fat (47 %), protein (21 %), carbohydrates (22 %) and vitamins (10 %). India contributes about 65 % of the world’s exports. The USA is the largest importer of cashew kernels.

The Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is not a disease; it is multi-factorial syndrome which causes massive losses of honey bee in the USA and elsewhere. It is recorded that in European honey bee (Apis mellifera). The adult worker bee population of the colony demean through catastrophic effects of CCD. The dwindling of adult worker bees in colonies and the lack of noticeable symptoms leads to the nebulous label of CCD. In this syndrome, dead worker bees cannot be found in the colony and their vicinity of bee hive, and stored food (honey and pollen) are not touched by robbers bees and combs remain as such for several weeks even after the collapse. Some scientists; Aizen and Harder, also reported this disorder is not universal and, in fact, global populations of honey bee (A. mellifera) populations are increasing. In the spring of 2007, beekeepers in the US reported a rare kind of bee colony disease where they die off and numerous colonies left their hives and disappeared without a trace. The plight of honey bee in USA has caused concern and attracted great attention of scientists to delve and provide explanations of this mystery and preventive measures. In US, it is also christened “Honey bee AIDS” by some popular media. Indeed, honey bee colonies can die in many ways and CCD is just one of them. Finally, since both honey bee host and pathogens are genetically diverse, the symptoms and causes of colony losses may well be different in varrious regions.

Agriculture and Food Security

Food security refers to a situation when people gain physical and access to enough food to meet the dietary requirements for a healthy life for all times. A household can have food security when all the members lead a hunger free life. It is estimated that nearly 800 million people in the world go to bed hungry every night. Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions.

Introduction

Cherries occupy an important position among temperate fruits all over the world. Cultivated cherries are divided into two main groups, i.e., sweet cherries (Prunus avium) and sour cherries (P. cerasus). Cherries are rich in protein, sugar, potassium, calcium, iron and zinc. Sweet cherries are believed to have originated in an area between the Black and Caspian Seas in Southern Europe. The earliest records indicate that it was first domesticated in Greece around 300 BC. It spread to Italy from Greece where it was established as a fruit crop by 37 BC. Early setter’s brought seeds to North America and parts of South America. In India, it was introduced by British setter’s in Kashmir, Kullu and Shimla hills during the pre-independence era. World leading breeding of cherry: John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton. A putative ancestor of cultivated sweet cherries: Anthocynins (antioxidants) are the red pigment found in cherries.

Introduction

The chestnut is similar to the acorn of oak. Chestnut trees have been growing in the temperate climate of the world for more than 4,000 years for beauty, fuel and shelter. The sweet chestnut is some nutritious low-fat food rich in vitamin B. Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50 per cent moisture, 40-42 per cent carbohydrates, 2.9 per cent proteins and about 1.5 per cent fat. In addition to providing a good food source for humans, chestnuts also provide food for a number of wild life species. Its wood is durable and used for timber and furniture work. Chestnuts and chinquapins are exceptions to all other nut trees in that they contain little oil and are high in carbohydrates, particularly in starch.

Introduction

An herb known as priyal is a drug of the Ayurveda and the Unani system of medicine. It is known to have tonic, cardiotonic, and astringent properties and is also used in the treatment of skin diseases. It is commonly known as Chironji. It is a commercially useful tropical plant. The Chironji tree is a medium-sized evergreen deciduous tree, growing 50 ft tall. It bears fruits, each containing a single seed, which is a popular edible nut, known as chironji. It is common in India, mostly in eroded land. This tree is distributed in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and also commonly found in Uttar Pradesh.

Introduction

Citrus is the leading tree fruit crop in the world. In India, citrus ranks second in area, sharing 12.8% of the total area under fruit crops with a 9.6% share in production. In the citrus group, mandarins are the most important, occupying 50% of the total area under citrus, followed by sweet oranges and limes. “Limolin”: the glycoside which is responsible for the bitter taste of citrus fruit juice.

Energy is a critical component of the economic infrastructure, as it is the primary input required to support economic growth. Economic development and energy use have a close relationship. The higher a country’s per capita energy usage, the more developed it is and vice versa. Human civilization is dependent on several energy sources.

Climatic Factors and Crop Growth

Crop growth depends on internal and external factors. Internal factors are mostly genetic or hereditary factors which include high yielding ability, resistance to lodging, tolerance to adverse conditions such as drought, flood and salinity, tolerance to insect pests and diseases, and grain quality. The external factors include climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and socio-economic factors.

Modern agriculture requires certain precise information on pattern of rainfall, temperature, occurrence of drought and flood etc. for formulating required strategy for crop production. It also requires knowledge about agro-climatic conditions of the region for deciding a planned cropping pattern. Therefore climatic classification and delineation of agro-climatic zones would be imperative for a country or state.

Climatic factors like increase in temperature, carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, moisture, and other factors directly or indirectly affect agriculture, which have been elaborately dealt in previous chapters. Climate change causes weather variability that may result in low production, hike in price of agricultural commodities including food grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, egg and milk. It is now realised that climate resilient agriculture (CRA) will be imperative to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to the climate change.

Climate-smart Agriculture Practices and Indicators

Considering the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture such as productivity, adaptation and mitigation, different technologies and practices have been evolved.

The CSA practices are grouped under soil and land management, water management, crop management, livestock management, forestry, fishery & aquaculture and energy management. The World Bank Group (2016) has suggested broad indicators of CSA practices (Table 7.1; Chapter 7)

Introduction

The Greek names Theos and Broma mean “Gods” and “Food,” respectively. Cocoa consumption is in temperate countries. Cocoa is a beverage crop introduced for cultivation in India in the early 1965. The cocoa plant is a perennial dicotyledonous which has been under cultivation since pre-historic times. shade-loving and evergreen trees. It is native to the Amazon valley of South America and is now cultivated largely in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Indonesia, Peru, Sierra Leon Cameroon, Equator, West Indies and Malaysia. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and. It is a rich source of fat (37%) and protein (7%). It also produces theobromin. Cocoa is used in manufacturing chocolate, cocoa powder, cocoa butter and other nutritious foods.

Introduction

It is considered as Kalpavriksha as it provides the basic necessities of life. Coco- Spanish word meaning monkey face (probably refers to the three scars on the base of the shell resembling two eyes and a nose on a monkey’s face). World Vietnam, India, Guyana, Jamaica, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Fiji, etc. Vietnam has the highest productivity. In India, coconut is mainly grown in Kerala, which stands first in India in both area and production of coconut, while productivity is highest in Tamil Nadu.

• World Coconut Germplasm (WCG) is located at Sipoghat, Andaman Nicobar Islands
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) is located at Cochin, Kerala
• CDB comes under Ministry of Agriculture established at Kochi in 1981, Kerala

Introduction

Coffee is the second important beverage, ranking second among traded commodities. Its dried beans are roasted, ground, and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Arabica coffee originated in Ethiopia, from a place called Caffa. The word “coffee” is derived from a place called “Caffa.” Here it occurs naturally in the forest between 1,400 to 1,800 feet of elevation. Nearly 80 percent of the world’s coffee is produced by Coffea Arabica. Robusta coffee is thought to have originated in Central Africa (Congo and Zaire). Arabica coffee was introduced in 1670 by Muslim pilgrim Baba Budan. He brought seven seeds from Yemen and cultivated them in Chikmagalur, Karnataka. The original seeds he brought were probably Mokka seeds. Robusta coffee was introduced from the Indochina region at the close of the 19^th century for planting in the states of lower elevations. World: Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, India, Ethiopia, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. It is also growing in India in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

It is known that the phenotype of an individual is a combination of genotype and environment. Animal breeding analysis is mainly done to partition the genetic part from the environmental part so as to assess the actual genetic worth of the animal. In this process correction for the known environmental part is integral to any animal breeding analysis. In this chapter, a list of common factors affecting important economic traits are described. The analytical part for these effects will be explained in later chapters.

Correction or standardization of data is very important in any animal breeding analysis. Unless the candidates under selection are placed on a common platform, various factors affecting the trait will lead to bias in assessing the performance of the individual with respect to a particular trait. For eg. a lamb born during a favorable season, a lactating cow in its third parity, first lactation yield of a cow with longer age at first calving.

Correlations and regression are important components of animal breeding analysis. The genetic correlation is an important genetic parameter that is useful in the planning of breeding programs involving multiple traits. In this chapter, the basic concepts of correlation and regression including method of estimation, assumptions and test of significance are presented. An example using SPSS software is also given at the end for better understanding.

Introduction

It is found growing wild in the sub-tropical and tropical parts of India. The edible part of annona is the areoles. It has about 120 species, five of them having pomological significance, and four of the five species are important in commerce. Custard apples are cultivated mainly in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, and Orissa.

Introduction

The flesh contains 60–65 percent sugar, 2 percent protein, 2.5 per cent fiber, 0.4 per cent fat and 2 per cent mineral matter. Date palm contains 75-80% carbohydrates in the form of invert sugar. It is a good source of easily assimilable iron (7.3 mg/100g) and is hence prescribed to anaemic patients along with honey. It fed on running water and its head on the fire of the sky.

Pomology: Pomology is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of fruit crops. When given a liberal and flexible translation, the word “pomology” means the science of fruit. The term is derived from the Latin word pomum, which means “Fruit” and the Greek term logy, which means “Science.

Fruit

“A true botanical fruit is defined as a mature or ripened ovary with or without accessory organs.” Classifcation refers to the grouping of individuals with similar identities, related in genetic make up, evolution or climatic requirements. The major units of classification are order, family, genus, sub family, species, variety/cultivars and clone or strain. All fruit crops bear flower and seed (spermatophyte) and belongs to class Angiosperm except in (Pinus gerardiana) of gymnosperm.

Most of the fruits are covered under the dicotyledonous families of Angiosperm except banana, pineapple, date and coconut which belong to monocotyledonous families e.g. Musaceae, Bromeliaceae and Arecaceae (Palmae) respectively. The families of economically important fruits include Rosaceae (all pome, stone fruits and strawberry), Rutaceae (citrus fruits, bael and woodapple), Musaceae (banana and plantain), Vitaceae (grapes and Anacardiaceae (Mango, cashew and pistachio nut, hog plum) etc.

Introduction

The digestive system and its auxiliary organs main functions include digestion and the absorption of nutrients required for cell metabolic processes. Digestion is the mechanical and chemical or enzymatic breakdown of large nutritional macromolecules into simpler molecules that cells can absorb. It takes place in the aqueous milieu of the digestive system and is secreted by the salivary glands, stomach and mucosal glands, pancreas, and liver.

Digestive enzymes are secreted almost throughout the digestive tract. Salivary enzymes such as lingual lipase and α-amylase initiate the breakdown of fat and carbohydrates in the mouths of young animals (e.g., calves) and omnivores (e.g., rats, pigs, and humans).The optimum pH for oral digestion is 6.7 (6.2-7.6).

The gastric juice contains pepsinogen, HCI, and intrinsic factors. The pepsinogen enzyme is secreted by the stomach’s chief cell. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin at acidic pH ranges of 2.0 to 3.5 and initiates the digestion of proteins in the stomach of monogastric animals. Also, the stomach’s parietal cells secrete HCI and intrinsic factors. Cyanocobalamin, is a synthetic form of vitamin B₁₂ requires an intrinsic factor in ruminants to be absorbed. The abomasum of young ruminants secretes proteolytic enzymes such as rennin or chymosin. Rennin acts on milk at a pH of 6.5.

Introduction

Pitaya also known as Dragon Fruit is a superfruit indigenous to central and South America that is grown all over the world. It has a faint, sweet taste much like an earthy watermelon. It’s a fast growing crop and the plant as can have produced for more than seven to eight years. The fruit of this plant having red skin covered with large scale and white or pinkflesh contains some black seeds. It can be used in jams, ice creams, jelly production, fruit juice, and wine. This fruit is famous in Thailand, Vietnam, Israel and Sri Lanka. This fruit cultivation is excellent in regions where less rainfall is expected. This fruit plant is treated as an ornamental plant as well as a fruit producing plant. Dragon fruit contains 73.9 kcal, 1 g protein, 0 g fat, 0.5 g fiber, 23 g carbohydrates, 23 g sugar, calcium 30 mg. 10.9 mg sodium and 1.79 mg vitamin C. Dragon fruit is consumed as a fresh fruit or can be used in jams, ice cream, jelly production, fruit juice and wine. This fruit is also used in face packs.

Introduction

The durian is an important fruit in several parts of the tropics and is the famous fruit of the far East, where it is widely cultivated throughout Malaysia. It is indigenous to Malaysia, i.e., South East Asia, and is distributed in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Kampuchia, Myanmar, India, and Sri Lanka. The term durio is the Malaysian word duri-thorn, and zibethinus is the Italian word for “zibetho,” meaning “strong-smelling. Thus, this is a fruit characterised by a greenish, hard, thick rind on the outside and a yellowish, sweet flesh with a strong odour. The fruits are nothing but seeds covered with a cotton-like fibre.

Pollinators provide an essential ecosystem service, namely pollination, and it is an intricate relationship between plants and animals where reduction or loss of either will affect the survival of both. It has been established that pollinating agents are essential for survival and reproduction of several wild plant species (Kearns et al., 1998). About 80% of the world’s flowering plant species are dedicated to animal pollination, mostly by insects (FA0, 2007). Although more than 750,000 insect pollinators have been described (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005), possibly as many as 30 million more await discovery and formal description (Erwin, 2004). In 2005, globally, pollinators’ pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The depletion of insect pollinators is due to pollinators’ habitat destruction, heavy tillage, monoculture, injudicious use of pesticides and climate change and therefore, there is the need to create awareness on conservation and pollination management. Climate change is highly affected to species interaction as well as ecosystem ecology (van-der-Putten et al., 2004; Sutherst et al., 2007). Plant-pollinator interaction in both wild and cultivated plant species is under threat (Biesmeijer et al., 2006).

Introduction

Everyone is familiar with the term start-up or entrepreneurship which refers to a process by which individuals start and manage their businesses and industrial enterprises. Entrepreneurs are people who take risks and invest their capital in businesses and industrial enterprises. Entrepreneurial in terms of personal development in terms of self-determination create take risks Therefore, anyone who exhibits the characteristics of self-development, creativity, personal decision-making, and risk-taking can be called a person with entrepreneurial characteristics. When these characteristics are exhibited by someone who is running a business, they can be called an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship is the ability and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business enterprise, with all its uncertainties, in order to make a profit. The most prominent example of entrepreneurship is starting a new business. In economics, business activities involving land, labor, natural resources, and capital can generate profits.

Introduction

Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system, which includes the glands and their secretions known as hormones. Hormones are essential for animal behaviour, growth and development, metabolism, lactation, reproduction, excretion, and reabsorption of inorganic ions. Therefore, if a certain hormone concentration in blood or another body fluid is detected, it provides the pathophysiology of the representative endocrine gland.

Endocrine glands, the cells or tissues they govern, and the secretory substances (hormones) they produce are investigated using a number of methodologies. They are as follows:

1. Surgical methods (e.g., hypophysectomy, gonadectomy, etc).
2. Chemical ablation or impairment (e.g., alloxan or streptozotocin agents that selectively destroy the insulin-secreting beta-cell, etc).
3. Hormone replacement therapy (e.g., estrogen during menopause to reduce the risk of bone fracture related to osteoporosis, etc).
4. Immunological neutralization of hormone activity (e.g., contraception both male and female, injection of antibodies against NGF resulting in failure of sympathetic nervous system development, etc).
5. Tissue extraction and purification (e.g., progestin is a synthetic hormone that mimics progesterone, etc.).
6. Histological-cytological studies (e.g., employment of a battery of histological stains to characterize each pituitary cell, etc).
7. Bioassays (e.g., oxytocin-induced contraction of rat uterine myometrial tissue strips, etc).

Definitions of Energy

Energy is a key topic in science and technology, as well as in society in general. In terms of energy, a typical definition found in popular literature as well as textbooks is “energy is the ability to do work” or, much more precisely, “energy is the capacity of a system to do work” [Atkins 1990].

Energy is described as the ability to generate change or carry out work, and that work can be separated into numerous easily identifiable tasks: Energy produces light, heat, motion, sound, growth, power and technology etc.

Energy in Agricultural Context (FAO)

Agriculture’s fundamental and foremost function is to produce food and other primary products, so contributing to food and nutritional security. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) attempts to promote ecologically non-degrading, technically suitable, commercially successful, and socially acceptable development in the agriculture, fishery and forestry sectors. Achieving food security necessitates policies that promote social, cultural, political, and economic stability. Integrating agriculture’s economic, social, and environmental roles can help to attain these objectives.

Agriculture may provide a variety of non-food commodities and services. This can include its application as a viable, long-term source of energy. According to the FAO, agricultural activities and related land use directly contribute to non-agricultural functions such as social, environmental, economic and cultural products and services. They can have major advantages or disadvantages. Research reveals that, in addition to food security, agriculture contributes significantly to attaining sustainability at the local, national and global levels in rural development, energy and the environment. The efficient operation of the market encourages the identification and strengthening of these many functions, as well as the development of new techniques and technologies. Plant and crop-based resources are utilised as raw materials in a wide range of industrial goods, including wood for paper and board production, starches for adhesives, and vegetable oils for paints and resins.

Entrepreneurship opportunities in veterinary sciences have expanded significantly with the integration of technology. The convergence of veterinary expertise and innovative technological solutions has opened up new avenues for entrepreneurs to create impactful businesses in the field. This field offers a wide range of opportunities for persons passionate about animal health and welfare. In the recent years, the demand for high-quality veterinary services and products has increased tremendously, creating an enriching environment for aspiring entrepreneurs. There are various avenues available in the veterinary industry for individuals thinking about establishing their own businesses.

Introduction

Climate change induces significant and long-lasting shifts in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to million years. It is believed to be the cause of long-term temperature changes, changes in rainfall patterns and volume, prolonged summer seasons, increasing sea levels, and increased frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and heat waves, etc.

Animals are intimately and inseparately associated with their physiological and chemical environments from conception until death. As a result, climate change has an impact on animals both directly and indirectly. Since, animals have had to alter their behavioural and physiological mechanisms in order to maintain homeostasis.

Climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the livestock industry. It reduces animal productivity by lowering growth, milk yield, meat production, egg production, wool production, reproductive performance, and health. About 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species would likely be at risk of extinction with an increase of 1.5 to 2.5°C, which will result in severe consequences for food and nutritional security in developing countries. This is why; measurements of meteorological variables are needed for effective scientific management of livestock and poultry to cope with the negative impacts of climate change while enhancing growth and productivity.

Estimation of variance is primary for any breeding program as all the genetic parameters are dependent on these estimates. The properties of an estimate, their assumptions, type of data, availability of data, and computational requirement make it important to understand the method of estimation of variance components so as to make a wise choice that would suit the breeder’s requirement. This chapter explains the methods of estimation of variance with merits and demerits of each and the reader could use these as a guide to choose the right method of estimation.

The genetic parameters are the basis for any animal breeding program and the important parameters such as heritability, repeatability and genetic correlation are ratios of (co)variances and their reliability depends on the accurate estimation of variance components. Estimates of variance components are used extensively in animal breeding.

Introduction

The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance (such as chloride, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, magnesium, and phosphate ions). It also regulates the acid-base balance of the blood, arterial blood pressure, and osmotic pressure of the nd water-soluble waste products, which are removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys and excreted as urine. Normally, the kidneys receive about 22% of the cardiac output. According to Arthur Cushny (1866-1926), there are three steps involved in urine formation in the nephrons: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. When the kidneys are injured, their regulatory activities are disrupted, resulting in a change in the quality and quantity of urine. Urine is composed of the following components:

This is the reason why a urine analysis is a common test to evaluate the pathophysiology of the urinary system in general and the kidneys in particular, as well as to aid in the differential diagnosis of certain diseases.

Services for CSA

Under the CSA projects and programmes, the services like supply of inputs and technology transfer through extension services are provided to the farmers. The inputs like seeds of crops are provided by the input dealers at the subsidized rate and seedlings of fruits and vegetables are provided by both private and government agencies to grow under general cultivation and poly-house cultivation technology. Similarly other services like soil testing facilities, issue of soil health cards, construction of micro-irrigation projects and rain harvesting structures are made available to farmers. Under insurance scheme, loanee farmers are supported to pay premium dues for availing crop insurance facilities. Other services like trainings at various levels, demonstrations, exposure visits, exhibitions, kisan melas, field days, monitoring and evaluation of all these activities under these programmes are provided to the farmers with collaboration of extension officers.

Introduction

Ficus carica is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical countries. The related genera with edible fruits are Artocarpus, Cudrania and Morus of the family Moraceae. Some important species are Ficus glomerata, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus elastica, Ficus hispida and Ficus roxburghii. A fig is a large shrub or low-growing deciduous tree with a short and twisted trunk. Fruits are solitary, axillary green or yellow, pear-shaped.

Entrepreneurship involves seeking and exploiting opportunities available for the benefit of the society. The changing agro-economic conditions in our country have offered a prospective context for developing entrepreneurship in agri-business in the country. Agri-entrepreneurship has the prospect of social and economic development, for example, employment generation, poverty reduction, improvements in nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy especially in rural areas. The task of promoting entrepreneurship was earlier given to different departments and government agencies. In 2014, the Prime Minister decided to dedicate an entire ministry to build this sector as he felt that skill development required greater push from the government’s side. The idea is to reach maximum people and startups through funding and skill development initiatives.

Approximately 80 per cent of all flowering plant species are specialized for pollination by animals and mostly by insects. These crops account for 65 per cent of global food production, still leaving as much as 35 per cent depending on pollinating animals (Klein et al., 2007). These food crops include delicious products such as many of our tree fruits (e.g., apples, cherries, mangos, and avocados) and nuts (e.g., almonds, peanuts, macadamia nuts, and cashew nut), squashes, cucumbers, melons, citrus, and berries. In addition, many of oil seed crops benefit from bee pollination, such as mustard, coconut, canola, safflower, and many more.

The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most commonly used insect in agricultural crops as managed pollinator in North America and Europe, Japan, China, India and many other parts of the world as well. Farmers in the United States rent more than 2.5 million honey bee colonies every year for fulfillment of pollination deficit but today, the honey bee is threatened by colony collapse disorder (CCD). The demand for honey bees in California almond orchards rapidly increased due to increasing acreage, while on the other side, bee colonies decreased due to CCD, but that occurred during a time when honey bee colonies were not easy to procure and as a result, the cost of renting bees shot up from US$50 per hive in 2003 to US$140 per hive in 2006 (Sumner and Boriss, 2006). The rental charge increased about 3 times within 4 years.

The key genetic parameters available with the animal breeder to attain improvement are heritability, repeatability and genetic correlation. This chapter will mainly deal with the theoretical considerations of these parameters.

The goal of an animal breeder is to bring about permanent improvement in different economic traits, either individually (univariate) or simultaneously in multiple traits (multitrait). The phenotypic value available from the animal is a combination of genotypic value and environmental deviation. By permanent improvement in a trait, we mean the improvement in genotypic value, which could be carried over to future generations. The environmental deviations are spatially and temporally specific, and thus will not be the same over generations. The genotypic value, itself is made up of additive effect, dominance deviation and interaction deviation. The additive effect is a value of genes (the sum of the average effect of genes) and hence is more important for the breeder as only the genes are passed on to the next generation.

Introduction

Grapes are a delicious, refreshing, and nourishing fruit. It was introduced into India by the in values of Iran and Afghanistan. 50% of the total production of fruits in the world is contributed by grapes. Cultivation of grapes is called “viticulture”. Easily digestible and rich in energy-giving sugars, certain minerals and vitamins. Grape juice is a refreshing drink a stimulant to kidenys and laxactive. In India, 80% of the production is used for table purposes, 10% for raisins and 10% for wine production, while in western countries 80% is used for winery, 10% for raisins, and 10% for table purposes. The area of the same is increasing fast in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Mizorum, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are grape growing.

Introduction

Guava ranks 4^th in area and production after mango, banana, and citrus. It is a very hardy sub-tropical plant, prolific bearer. It is known as the “poor man’s apple” in India and has spread widely throughout the country. Allahabad has the reputation of growing the best guava in the country as well as in the world. A native of tropical America, guava was spread rapidly throughout the world’s tropics by the Spanish and Portuguese. The major guava producing countries are India, China, Thailand, Indonesia and Pakistan. In India, it is grown in Uttar Pradesh (largest area and production), Bihar, M.P, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The fresh fruits are very rich in vitamin C (100-260 mg/100 g pulp). Vit-A, B and minerals like Calcium, P, acidity 2.4 per cent, carbohydrates 9-10 per cent, TSS-13 per cent, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin and niacin, also a rich source of pectin. The fresh ripe fruits are used as table/salad fruit. Fruits are rich in pectin. The best quality jelly can be prepared.

Introduction and Origin

It is typically a temperate zone nut crop and is mostly grown in Turkey, Italy, Spain, Germany, France and England. Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tons’ accounts for approximately 75 % of worldwide production. The common hazel (Corylus avellana) is native to Europe and Western Asia. In Himachal Pradesh, it is found growing wild in the Pangi region of Chamba district, where it is locally known as Thangi. Hazelnut is also known as cobnut and filbert. In the UK, a distinction is made between filbert, which has a husk longer than the nut, and cobnut, in which the husks are shorter than the nut. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionary to make praline and are also used in combination with chocolate truffles.

Climate and Agriculture

Soil, climate and water are three basic requirements of a crop to be grown in a particular region. Climate affects the temperature trends, seasons, length of the growing season, amount of sunlight and the seasonality of sunlight etc. A change in climate may cause recurrent droughts, floods and weather extremities that would affect the agricultural production, human livelihoods, health and biodiversity. The relationship between agriculture and climate is complex as it is dependent on climate and also plays a contributing role in emission of greenhouse gas (GHG). Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) etc. , which play a significant role in climate change.

In agro-ecosystem, many agricultural and horticultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination; their degree of interdependence varies species to species. Some plant species depend primarily on a single pollinator’s species or genus, whereas some plant species accept diverse pollinators. About to 80 per cent of flowering plants’ pollination determined for pollinators (FA0, 2007) and out of that most of the floras depend on insect pollinators for pollination and pollinators depend on flora for their food. Bees are considered as most important pollinator due to their diversity, credential ability and effective pollinators of many plant species. Most of the crops pollination need was met by wild pollinators living within the farming landscape (Kevan and Phillips, 2001). Therefore, pollinators play paramount role in ecosystem through enhance the crop productivity and conserving biodiversity. On the above service of pollinators is priceless and natural endowment, but the society we live in, always categorized and measured in terms of financial value. In 2005, globally, insect pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007).