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Pork production in India is limited, representing only 9% of the country’s animal protein sources. Production is concentrated mainly in the northeastern states of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. The contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution of pigs to Indian exports is very poor.

The chromosomes of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) are known to be prone to reciprocal chromosome translocations and other balanced chromosome rearrangements with concomitant fertility impairment of carriers. The domestic pig has diploid chromosome (2n) number 38. The domestic pig karyotype shows a tendency for balanced structural chromosomal rearrangements, such as reciprocal, Robertsonian, and tandem translocations, as well as inversions. There is extensive polymorphism in the heterochromatin, with G-C-rich heterochromatin located in centromere regions of biarmed chromosomes and less G-C-rich heterochromatin in the centromere regions of one-armed chromosomes.

The diploid chromosome number of the pig is 2n = 38, consisting of 18 autosomal chromosome pairs, which vary in length and morphology (12-bi-armed and 6 one-armed pairs), and two sex chromosomes, XX or XY. Robertsonian translocation is known to occur in the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. In these cases, the chromosomes fuse at the centromeric region, resulting in the production of two derivative chromosomes, a large bi-armed chromosome, and a secondary short chromosome often lost in subsequent cell divisions. Thus, the karyotype of a domestic pig carrying Robertsonian translocation has a distinct 2n = 37 diploid chromosome number, with the noticeable addition of a novel large bi-armed chromosome.

Camels could be exploited for augmenting the country’s milk production capacity as a supplementary milk resource in India for the benefit of increasing human population. Since milk production potential of camels in India have remained unexploited and considering its therapeutic utility it can fetch good prices. Camels are raised for milk, meat, fibre (wool and hair), transport and other work; their dung is used as fuel. Milk is often the most important camel product and is the staple food of nomads.

The camel is an important species of the Indian fragile desert ecosystem, a proven icon of adaptation with its unique bio-physiological characteristics and has formidable ways of living in harsh situations of arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught ability in desert. However, its utilities are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has also played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. Camels formed an important component of the Mauryan Army (C.322-232 BC) and continued through the Mughal period (1200-1700 AD) to the present times.

In some developing countries, milk from horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) is an essential food for poor farmers. Generally, horses are more commonly used for dairy purposes in cool areas and donkeys in dry semi-arid regions. Milking equines is time-consuming and has to be repeated five or six times a day. In addition, an equine will not release milk unless it is stimulated by the presence of its foal. Mare’s milk is commonly consumed in the steppe areas of Central Asia, where a traditional lactic-alcoholic beverage called koumiss is produced through fermentation. Horse milk is also an important source of animal protein for pastoralists in Mongolia. The consumption of donkey milk has become very marginal. In some African communities, donkey milk is consumed for medical purposes.

Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized existing genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species recognized only from fossils. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation. The chromosome number of a horse is 64 (2n).

Donkeys can also be termed as ass (Equus africanus asinus) and is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae with chromosome number 62. The Wild ass of Africa, E. africanus is the wild ancestor of the donkey. For approximately 5000-7000 years, the donkey has been used as a working animal.

An adult male donkey is a jack or jackass, an adult female is a jenny or jennet, and an immature donkey of either sex is a foal. Jacks are often mated with female horses (mares) to produce mules, the less common hybrid of a male horse (stallion) and jenny is called hinny. NBAGR-ICAR has registered three breeds of donkey till date.

1. Kachchhi

• These donkeys are found in Kachchh district of Gujarat.

• Coat colour is mainly grey (dorsal surface grey and ventral surface white) followed by white, brown and black.

• Forehead is convex. Nasal bone is straight.

• Height at wither ranges from 77 to 115 cm.

• Docile in temperament.

• Only donkeys are used for agricultural purposes like inter cultivation for weed removing.

• Also utilized for transportation as donkey cart, as pack animal during pastoralist migration, etc.

The full name of an organism technically has eight terms. For the dog it is: Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae, Canis, and lupus. Notice that each name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists generally refer to an organism only by its genus and species, which is its two-word scientific name, or binomial nomenclature. Therefore, the scientific name of the dog is Canis lupus. The name at each level is also a taxonomy Carnivora is the name of the taxon at the order level; Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, in this case, dog. Note that the dog is additionally a subspecies: the “familiaris” in Canis lupus familiaris. Subspecies are members of the same species that are capable of mating and reproducing viable offspring, but they are separate subspecies due to geographic or behavioural isolation or other factors. Dogs, which are under the species Canis lupus familiaris, are known to have a total of 78 chromosomes (2n). The diploid genes can be classified into 38 pairs with two sex chromosomes.

The yak is a bovine species that provides livelihoods for people in high altitude conditions of extreme harshness and deprivation. Yaks live predominantly on the “roof of the world”, as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is often called, and provide milk, meat, hair and down fibre, hides, draught power and dung (principally used as fuel). The yak has physical and physiological characteristics that allow it to thrive at high altitudes (low oxygen) and in extreme cold (at temperatures as low as -40 °C) and to survive feed shortages in the winter (FAO).

The milk yield of the yak cow is often no more than the amount suckled by the calf and is not comparable to the milk yield of dairy cattle. However, although milk offtake for human consumption may be at the expense of the calf, yak milk is important for households. In economic terms, milk is often the most important yak product. Yak milk is generally produced by small-scale farmers in traditional systems where management is highly influenced by climate and seasons. Lactation is seasonal and yak cows produce between 150 and 500 litres; yields vary by breed and location. Lactation can generally continue into a second year without another calving. During the winter, yak cows do not go dry and continue to produce a small amount of milk, with milk yields as low as 2 to 4 litres/month. During the second year of lactation, milk yields are between half and two-thirds of those in the first year. Currently, there are no specialized dairy yak breeds (FAO).

Some have described Mithun as domesticated Gaur others as a hybrid descent from the crossing of gaur bulls and common cows. Considered to have originated along the Assam and Myanmar border. • Mithun, also known as ‘Cattle of Mountain” is an important bovine species of north-eastern hill region of India and also of China, Myanmar, Bhutan and Bangladesh. This magnificent massive bovine is presently reared under free-range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level.

• Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population.

• Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species.

• Mithun milk, though produced less in quantity, is of high quality and can be used for preparation of various milk products.

• Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

Using the FAO criteria, Bargur and Siri cattle breeds and Attapadi goat breeds were categorized under vulnerable status of risk; Krishna Valley, Mewati, Pullikulam and Punganur cattle breeds, Chilika and Toda buffalo breeds and Karnah and Poonchi sheep breeds under endangered status of under risk and Vechur cattle under critical status of risk. All these breeds need immediate steps for rescue by using suitable conservation methodology. Breed-wise census should be continued in future so that trends in breed populations may also be estimated for fine tuning of risk assessment of breeds.

Rate of inbreeding in Indian livestock breeds: The rate of inbreeding estimated for different breeds of cattle was well below 0.5% (needed for a breed ‘not at risk’) except for Mewati (1.193%), Pullikulam (0.72%) and Vechur (17.893%). The rate of inbreeding in buffalo breeds was also well below 0.5% except in Chilika buffalo, where it was 0.731%. The rate of inbreeding of these breeds may be reduced by increasing the number of breeding males and in Vechur also the breeding females. The rate of inbreeding in all the breeds of sheep (Indian or exotic), goat and pig were estimated to be less than 0.5%. In these species, a good balance of breeding males and females is always expected.

20th Livestock Census of India

India has highest cattle population (192.49 million), buffalo population (109.85), in the world producing 24% is the highest milk yield (221.1 million tons in the year 2021-2022, and per capita availability was 444 gm/day) in the world (Source NDDB). India produces 43% of world buffalo meat production. Unfortunately, 80% cattle and 70% buffaloes are non-descriptive and yield very low amount of milk.

After independence Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed serval projects and plans for research and characterization of livestock species all over the country. Our country holds enormous genetic biodiversity in our domestic animals, result in increasing number of registered breeds in every decade. Breed registration Committee on its online meeting held on 5th December, 2023 approved registration of eight new breeds of livestock. This includes Aravali Chicken (Gujarat) Andamani Duck (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Anjori Goat (Chhattisgarh), Andamani Goat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Bhimthadi Horse (Maharashtra), Andamani Pig (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Macherla Sheep (Andhra Pradesh), Frieswal Cattle (Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). Endangered, critical and vulnerable breeds of livestock also have been identified by ICAR which need more scientific research and multiplication breed.

Q1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.

1. India ranks …first…. position in cattle population in the world.

2. India ranks … first …. position in buffalo population in the world.

3. India ranks … first ……. position in total milk production in the world.

4. …Buffalo…….. species produce the highest amount of milk in India.

5. Frieswal cattle is a cross of …Holstein Friesian….and ……Sahiwal…

6. Mehsana buffalo is a cross of …Murrah….and ……Surti……

7. India ranks … first …. position in goat population in the world.

I. Introduction

India has been deeply concerned about the food security on the one hand and health and welfare of its people on the other. Agriculture has been traditionally the backbone of Indian economic progress and development. The role of agriculture including animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries accounts for some 33 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and about 65 per cent of the work force depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for its livelihood and support. Along with the food grain, the production of vegetables and fruits has also been increased to meet the nutritional security of the people.

India is the second most populated nation with a geographical land area of about 329 million hectares (Table 1). The gross cropped area is 185.5 million hectares with a net sown area of about 142.5 million hectares. Currently area under assured irrigation is estimated to be 50.10 million hectares which is 35.15 percent of the cultivated area which has progressively risen to this level due to the expansion of major and medium irrigation projects including harnessing of ground water reserves excluding tanks (Shantaram, 1998). A substantial part of the net cultivated area which works out to be about 92.3 million hectares is rainfed depending on the vagaries of rains. The forest area (68.07 million hectares) only 22.3 per cent which is much less than the desired level because the national forest policy demands it at least 66 per cent in hills and 33 per cent in plains. However, it is not feasible to divert land for forest plantation due to obvious population pressure on agricultural land. However, the advantages of forest can be harnessed by growing trees on marginal lands alongwith crops through agroforestory practices for restoring ecological balance.

Type and Potential of Organic Residues

A number of diverse sources of organic materials are available for recycling in agriculture. These are mostly of plant origin and recycled either directly or after having being used as feed or food by animals and humans. In view of high organic content and mineral nutrients in the biomass, these are considered as valuable inputs to improve the soil fertility and crops production. Organic resources are low cost inputs but are valuable based on its potential for nutrients and organic matter content.

Attractive Features of Organic Resources

• Organic matter is the basic resource of several essential plant nutrients.

• It buffers the effects of pH dependent changes on nutrient availability.

• They are generated close to their use.

• They are renewable as they are generated regularly.

• With increasing demand for increasing food production, the potential of organic resources is expected to rise.

• Farmers are familiar with organic resources from time immemorial.

I. Crop Wastes

Crop residues are the main sources for recycling of the organic and plant nutrients removed from the soil during the growth of crops. These residues have competitive uses such as fuel and cattle feed. There was an estimated demand of 583.6 million tonnes of dry fodder against the supply of aljout 398.8 million tonnes (Singh, 1997). Besides the use of crop residues as animal feed, industrial uses of crop residues also pose competitive demands. The potential of crop residues of some principal crops was worked out by Bhardwaj (1995). It was assumed that not more than one third of the total crop residues (273.63 million tonnes) was available for recycling as plant nutrients (Table 21). Out of a total 5.61 million tonnes (N+P2 O5 +K2 O) available in the form crop residues, only 2.47 million tonnes can be mobilized either through composting or in situ incorporation or mulching. Based on these estimations, Sekhon (1997) projected that approximately 4.82 and 5.79 million tonnes of N+P2 O5 +K2 O will be available from recycling of crop residues by the year 2011 and 2025 with utilizable value of 2.21 and 2.26 million tonnes respectively (Table 22).

1. Oil Cakes

Several varieties of oil seeds are produced in India. Oil seeds contain 40 to 50 percent oil and residues left after extraction are known as oil cakes. Oil seed cakes are generally referred as concentrated organic manure because of their high content of plant nutrient, nitrogen in particular as compared to conventional farmyard manure or compost. Oil cakes also invariably contain 2 to 15 percent oil depending on the method of extraction. Oil seeds are further demarcated into edible and non-edible oil seed cakes depending on their palatability to animals. Both type of oil seed cakes can be used as organic manures, but edible oil seed cakes are generally used as animal feed as warranted by socio-economic reasons (Bhardwaj, 1995). Non-edible cakes are generally used as organic manure to supply major plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Potential of Non-edible Cakes

The authentic estimates of quantity of non-edible cakes produced in the country are not available because the oil yielding trees are grown and scattered our vast tract of the country. Only a part of oil bearing seeds of these trees are being collected and processed. According to an estimate, annual production of non-edible oil seed cakes was of the order of 3.8 million tonnes annually which on average can provide 87, 25 and 57 thousand tonnes of N, P2 O5 and K2 O respectively (Singh and Gurumurti 1984).

India produces around 33 mt. of fruits and 50 mt. of vegetables annually (Chadha and Bhargava, 1997). It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of total produce is available as organic waste for recycling in agriculture (Nand et al., 1996). In addition to processing of fruits and vegetables results in production of around 5 mt. of solid wastes (Table 66). Most of these wastes contain organic and plant nutrients (Table 66). There are still large amounts of wastes that are not being completely utilized. In most cases, these wastes are pro-duced from isolated sources and not by large centralized.companies. In practically all cases, horticultural and vegetable products are processed in relatively small canning plants and distributed for use generally in the same geographical area where the produce is grown, this is true world over since fruit and veg-etable wastes cannot be usually transported long distances in view of their bulk, high moisture and low to moderate feeding value relative to conventional feed.

Solid wastes, which are left after the fermentation process is complete, may be potential sources for use as fertilizers and feed stuffs.

I. Antibiotic Fermentation Wastes

Antibiotics are produced by microoganisms and have capacity, in dilute solution, to inhibit the growth or even destroy the other microorganisms. They are produced on a large scale using fermentation process except chloroamphenicol which has been produced synthetically since 1948. Solid wastes remaining after the liquid containing the antibiotic has been extracted from the fermentation broth need to utilised. This is usually done by filtration. The solids are a heterogeneous mixture of hyphae of the producing organism, unused media, defoaming oils and metabolic products of the micro-organisms, the most important of which is residual antibiotic. The levels of residual antibiotic can vary a great deal.

There are about 3000 tanneries processing 6000 tonnes of hides and skin annually in India. Large amounts of solid and liquids are generated in tanneries containing N and heavy metals. The treatment of tannery waste waters generates sludge which contain a large variety of organic and mineral components. The amount of sludge from a single tannery may be obtained up to 10,000 tonnes/ Yr. Fresh Sludges undergo preliminary fermentation on liquid separating plots which are stored in piles where further decomposition takes place. As a result of decomposition process, partially biodegraded material resembling compost is obtained. It looks like deep black earthy material. The chemical composition indicates the possibility of using it in agriculture. The hides of infected animals many contain anthrax germs and be contaminated with heavy metals particularly chromium in the sludge which depends on the technology for hide tanning and the methods used in a sewage treatment plants. The sludge from tanneries using chromium in the treatment process are not suitable to be used as fertilizer as they contain high amount of chromium. Co-composting of these wastes with crop residues could provide good quality compost and the heavy metal content would get diluted and reduced per unit weight.

I. Rock Phosphate

Rock phosphate is natural source of phosphorus. It occurs as natural deposits of rock in Morocco, U.S.A., Egypt, Poland, Russia, Tunisia, Algeria, Brazil, Nauru and some Islands in the Pacific and the Indian ocean. It contains 20 to 35 percent phosphoric acid (P2 O5 ) but this phosphorus is in insoluble form. In India, some of rock phosphates occur in Udaipur and Jaisalmer districts (Rajasthan), Purulia (West Bengal), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) and Mussorie (Uttrakhand). Most of these phosphates are classified as low grade phosphate since its phosphoric acid content is less than 20-25%. The total reserve of low grade rock phosphate is estimated to be around 165 million tonnes of which nearly 70 million are reported to occur in Rajasthan. The other economically viable deposits are in Mussorie (Uttarakhand), Jhabua district (Madhya Pradesh), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) Kasipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Purulia district (West Bengal). Rock phosphate is the basic raw material for manufacture of superphosphate and other kind of phosphatic fertilizers. It is reported above that India has mostly low grade rock phosphate. Hence India has to spent huge amounts of foreign exchange to import high grade rock phosphate containing around 32-35%, P2 O5 for manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers.

The terms such as organic, natural, biological, biodynamic, altemative and sustainable farming have entered the agriculture vocabulary. Inspite of these differences in terminology, basically identical ideologies, ideas and technologies are reflected. The common objectives of all the system are to develop farming methods to restore, maintain or build-up soil productivity, to protect the environment instead of causing pollution, produce safe and healthy food, and preserve or help the small farmer.

In Japan, the farmers study the nature, learn from it and apply the knowledge on their farms. For instances growing plots should also be mulched with straw or plant residues, this imitates the conditions in natural forest where ground is never bare. Instead of using pesticides, strong herbs or plants can be grown around vegetable plots to ward off the insects. To keep the soil health natural, organic fertilizers are used. Soil microorganisms and earthworms take care of the processes involved in decomposition and mineralization of the organic substances, fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilise insoluble forms of phosphate and produce natural growth promoting substances and antibiotics,

The concept of sustainable agriculture is gaining acceptance and momentum because of rapid degradation of natural resources, increase in the cost of production in conventional agriculture system and deterioration in the quality of rural life caused by environmental pollution. Moreover it is risky and uneconomical to practise conventional agriculture in over 70 percent of the cultivated area in India which is presently under rainfed farming. Much of the know how to practice organic farming models has rested on the individual farmers till now. They however do not have the benefit of appropriate technology and scientific information and also institutional support to ensure success of the new farming system.

Proper soil management without impairing soil health is the prerequisite for achieving higher productivity from agriculture land. The arable soils of tropics and subtopics are poor in organic matter due to high temperature and intense microbial activity. The importance of organic matter in improving soil fertility through maintenance of optimum levels of soil organic matter as well as plants nutrients is well recognized. There is need to encourage more ecofriendly and productive farming system.

A growing number of farmers, ecologists and scientists are coming to conclusion that conventional farming can not be sustained because in the end it does more harm than good and it is high time to think of sounder ways of farming which are healthy for the soil, environment, plants, animals and human beings.

The practices of economically sound, viable and culturally appropriate agriculture is termed as sustainable agriculture. The excessive and imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on soil and plant in not only harmful to soil microflora and fauna but also reduces the productivity potential of the land. The conventional intensive agriculture has depleted the soil organic matter content and plant nutrients besides the susceptibility of crops to pest and disease. Nitrates the ultimate product of N- fertilizers pollute the ground of water and food, has higher levels of non-protein nitrogen (NPN). Increasing levels of NPN in human bodies have been reported. Soil is a dynamic living system and if it is not manured to feed soil biota, soil health gets deteriorated which is essential for cycling of plants nutrients.

The biosphere or part of the earth and its atmosphere where life is found is made of different size of ecosystem regulated by solar energy. Ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component comprises closely interacting groups of flora and fauna having varying energy needs which comprise heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic and photoautotrophic microorganisms.

Biodiversity refers to the richness of life as manifested by their morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of microorganism and their interdependence in habitat. It is because of biodiversity that each ecosystem functions as the basic life support system of the planet earth. Biodiversity sustains the food and nutrition security of human beings and mediates the ecological process by resisting environmental perturbations in a given soil and climatic conditions.

Presently greater emphasis is being placed on the biodiversity of above ground biotic components belonging to plant and animal kingdom. The living organisms in soil and their diversity in relation to their contribution to sustainable agriculture often do not receive adequate attention. Without taking into considerations the magnitude and understanding of the global diversity will be fragmentary. However, management of below ground biodiversity is being focused presently by several national and international bodies.

Nitrogen is the most important plant nutrient for increasing crop productivity. A few prokaryotic microorganisms are able to fix N2 directly mediated by enzyme nitrogenase. Annual biological nitrogen fixation (Table 96) is estimated to be around 175 million metric tonnes per year of which about 139 million tonnes (79%) are accounted for by terrestrial fixation (Burns and Hardy 1975).

The nitrogen fixers involved are metabolically diverse but the process is similar and depends upon (1) nitrogenase (Nase) enzyme complex (ii) a high energy requirement (ATP) (iii) anaerobic conditions for nitrogenase activity (iv) source of strong reductant.

The symbiotic process is known to be one of the important contributors to the nitrogen cycle both from agricultural and ecological points of view. The soil bacteria of the genus Rhizobium colonizes and forms nodules on the root of leguminous plants such as clover, lucerne (alfalfa), pea, chickpea, pigeonpea, beans, groundnut, Vigna species etc.

The nitrogen uptake in legumes by some unknown process was demonstrated through agronomic experiments by J.B. Boussigault in 1838 which was opposed by Liebig and others. However, Hellriegel and Wilfarth’s experiments (1886-88) clearly showed that the growth of non-leguminous plants, barley, oats etc. was directly proportional to the amount of nitrate supplied while in case of leguminous no such relationship existed and growth of the leguminous plants picked up in some cases after the seedling stage. Beijerinck (1888) isolated the bacterium from the root nodules in pure culture which lead to study their morphological characteristics and physiology.

Frankia is potent nitrogenous biofertilizer for forest trees since it establishes symbiotic association with non-leguminous plants. Nitrogen fixing non leguminous trees thrive in temperate condition. The species belong to Casuarinaceae are an exception and grow successfully in tropical areas. Alnus for temperate regions and the genus Casuarina for tropical and sub-tropical regions stand out examples of the benefits they provide to ecosystem by the way of nitrogen fixation. They have an excellent potential to adapt themselves to grow under diverse geographical and environmental conditions providing enough fuel, fodder, pulp and timber. The microsymbiont within these root nodules of non-leguminous plants has been identified and designated as Frankia (Becking, 1970).

Historical Developments

First of all Boussingault, a French farmer during 1838 drew attention that non-legumes were capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The roots of Alnus were described as warty brownish biomass as large as man’s fist (Woronin, 1866). Frank and coworkers (1887a, b, 1891) studied the nodulated nitrogen f ixing trees regardless of whether they were leguminous or non-leguminous (actinorhizal). Frank believed that the bacteroids were protein deposits but subsequently he named the causative organism as Frankia subtilis. Moller (1885, 1890) reported the causative organism in the nodules as plasmodia and Frank also revised his opinion and pointed out that the causative organism was a fungus. Such conflicting results were due to imperfect techniques to differentiate between vesicles and sporangia. Later the organism was renamed as Frankia bruchorstii to honour Frank and his coworker, Brunchorst (Moller, 1890).

Azolla, a fresh water fem is a rich source of nitrogen especially for low land rice farming. It is found in rice paddies in many tropical countries like China, India, Korea, Philippines and Vietnam. The agronomic importance of Azolla lies in its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through the symbiotic association with a blue-green alga, Anabaena azolae. The symbiotic association can fix nitrogen proportional to its biomass produced. When Azolla is grown in paddy f ields and subsequently incorporated as green manure, the nitrogen contained within Azolla biomass is mineralized during the process of decomposition.

Azolla is a genus of small aquatic fern comprising 7 living and 25 fossil species, which is globally distributed. It occurs on still water ponds, lakes, swamps, lagoons and paddy fields in both tropical and temperate regions. Because of its rapid growth, high nitrogen percent and its ability to grow in stagnated waters, it has been used as organic manure in Vietnam and China for centuries. Its use in India and other countries is relatively recent. Azollla pinnata is native to India and widely distributed.

There are several bacteria which fix atmospheric nitrogen and do not have a symbiotic partner such as a plant. There are conclusive evidences regarding nitrogen gains due to free living bacteria (Dart and Day, 1975) The diazotrophic bacteria have been classified based on the mode of nutrition and oxygen requirement (Alexander, 1977, Knowles, 1977). Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria fix nitrogen in soil and their population in rhizosphere of plants are significantly higher than in non-rhizosphere soils

Although the economic and ecological significance of many of these bacteria have yet to be established, the most promising diazotrophs are Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Beijerinckia and Clostridium. Azotobacter and Beijerinckia are some of the most preponderant, non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria. Studies on these organisms in Indian soils have been done earlier by Rangaswamy and Sadasivam (1964) Sen and Barooah (1964) and Jagtap and Bhide (1971). Among the free living bacteria, Azotobacter is the most intensively investigated. Several species viz., A. chroococcum, A. vinelandii, A. macrocytogenes, A. agilis and A. insignis were reported but A. chroococcum is the most common specie encountered in arable soils.

The accumulation of nitrogen under non-leguminous and cereal cropping systems seem to be generally universal at least in the tropics. Free-living heterotrophic nitrogen fixing bacteria are very widely distributed taxonomically, geographically and ecologically. But only a few genera and species are known to possess the potential for high amount of nitrogen fixation. Azospirillum has shown high nitrogen fixation attributes. The association of Spirillum lipoperum (Azospirillum brasilense) and Digitaria decumbens was reported by Dobereiner and Day (1974).

I. Spirillum

The description of members of genus Spirillum was available as early as 1670s by Leeuwenhoek (Dobell 1960 and Muller 1773). But the genus Spirillurn was created in 1832 by distinguishing it from phototrophic spirilla which were placed in a separate genus Thiospirillum (Ehrenberg, 1838). The subsequent developments of the taxonomy of the chemo- heterotrophic spirilla which generated knowledge of their characteristics, were extensively reviewed by Giesberger (1936) and Williams (1959 a, b).

Rice is grown in about 40 million hectares of land in India and nitrogen requirement for the crop is 60 lakh tonnes based on the present levels of consumption. Rice production has to be sustained and increased to provide staple diet to our increasing population. Blue green algae is a potentional biofertilizer in rice because of their capacity to meet both carbon and nitrogen requirement naturally from the air. They are microscopic algae which are collectively called phytoplankton produce basic organic matter forming the first link in food chain and alongwith replenish the oxygen content of atmosphere. Algae contain proteins, Vitamins, iodine, bromine and substances of antibiotic and stimulatory nature. The soil algae are divided into chlorophyta (green algae) cynophyta (blue green) bacillariophyta (diatoms) and xanthophyta (yellow-greens).

De (1939) suggested that fertility of rice fields is maintained due to the growth of blue-green algae. Different types of blue-green algae have been reported to colonize the rice fields. The cells such as heterocysts in Anabaena, Nostoc, Tolypothrix etc. which have capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen under aerobic condition and unicellular and non- hetercoystous forms also fix atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions.

Phosphorus is one of the essential plant nutrients, which is required in optimum amounts for proper growth of plants and soil biota. Being a constituent of ATP it is involved in various processes such as cell division, energy generation and transfer of genetic characteristics and regulation of metabolic pathways (Theodorou and Plaxton, 1993). Phosphorus constitutes about 0.2% plant dry weight (Schachtman et al., 1998). The average soil contains 0.05% phosphorus but only one tenth of this is available to plants due to its poor solubility and chemical fixation in soil (Narayansamy et al., 1981, Barber, 1984). About 98 percent of Indian soils have inadequate supply of available phosphorus (Ghosh and Hasan 1979, Hasan, 1994). A survey of Indian soils showed that out of 363 districts, only 2,2% were high, 51.5% medium and 46.3% were low in phosphorus content (Ghosh 1982).

The problem of P fertilization may become serious in coming years because of the fact that manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers requires the use of non renewable resources such as high grade rock phosphate and sulphur which are becoming costlier. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that P is readily fixed in the soil and the average utilization efficiency of added fertilizer P by plants ranges from 15-25% only (Gaur 1982, 1990). The recent report showed that 42 per cent of soil samples fell in low category, 38 per cent in medium and 20 per cent in high category (Motsara, 2002). It has been observed that the vast alluvial tracts of the country are either low or medium in available P. Hence they need P application at recommended rates.

The term ‘mycorrhizae’ was coined more than a century ago (Frank 1885) describing that the roots of most plants are colonized by fungi and transformed into fungus roots organ. Mycorrhizae result from a mutualistic symbiosis between plant roots and certain fungi. Roots of most flowering plants live in mutual symbiosis with mycorrhizae which bio-tropically colonise the root cortex and extra-metricial mycelia help the plant to obtain plant nutrients from soil (Barea, 1991).

These fungi are ubiquitous in soil and are found in the roots of many Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes and Thallophytes (Mosse et al., 1981). The mycorrhizal fungi perform the function of root hairs. The fungus takes carbohydrates from the plant and in turn supplies the plants with nutrients, hormones and protects it from root pathogens. The dependency of fungal species on host plant ranges from obligate to facultative (Brundrett, 2002; Read and Perez-Moreno, 2003). The mycorrhizal plants have greater tolerance to toxic heavy metal, nigh soil temperature, soil salinity, unfavourable soil pH and to transplantation shocks.

They play an important role in increasing plant growth and nutrients uptake (Bagyaraj, 1992, VasanthaKrishna and Bagyaraj 1993). These fungi can be used to promote biotechnologically developed plant in soil (Varma and Schuepp 1994).

Introduction

Conventional agriculture is highly dependent on fossil fuel based mineral fertilizers to compensate for removal of plant nutrients by crops. Chemical fertilizers are not only in short supply but also are very costly. The preparation and use of organic manures are not being practiced in a scientific manner to harness the plant nutrients removed by plants, animals and humans.

The application of chemical fertilizers to soil alone and in an imbalanced way has resulted in deterioration of soil health and its quality. The use of chemical fertilizers has to be reduced to check the soil and water pollution and simultaneously the role of soil microorganisms has to be augmented by different ways such as greater use of biofertilizers. Moreover, the demand for organic food particularly both in developed and developing countries is on rise which opens up immense possibility to use organic manure and biofertilizers for production of foods grains, fruits, vegetables, spices, tea and coffee. Therefore, the production and the use of biofertilizers assumes greater significance and could be an excellent biological alternative to chemical fertilizers.

Introduction

The successful combination of technology and finance, commonly referred to as Financial Technology (henceforth, FinTech), can be understood as “technology enabled financial innovation” that may result in new business applications, models, products and/or processes, that create manifold material impact on f inancial markets and provision of financial services (Schueffel, 2016).

FinTech presents a promising prospective of bettering the situation of financial inclusion in developing countries like India by leveraging on technology in an innovative manner. Inclusive growth can be achieved through FinTech by means of broad-based prosperity, reduction in transaction costs and better access to financial services to the underserved (Sahay et al., 2020). In this context, Fintech companies are institutions applying technological innovations to increase efficiency and create enhanced access to the finance industry. There has been tremendous growth of such companies in recent years and it has also captured the interest of investors alike.

Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) became one of the 21st century’s most technologically disruptive innovations very quickly. The effort to be at the leading edge of AI discovery and development is becoming more intense as the field develops. The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology has sparked significant interest and debate across various sectors, including higher education. From personalized learning experiences to data-driven insights, AI offers a multitude of opportunities for optimizing educational processes and enriching student outcomes. In this reframed exploration, we delve into the transformative potential of AI within higher education and its multifaceted utilization across various domains. AI accelerates scientific research and knowledge discovery by analyzing vast datasets, identifying patterns, and generating insights that fuel innovation. Natural language processing (NLP) algorithms facilitate literature reviews, automate data analysis, and assist in hypothesis generation, empowering researchers to make breakthroughs across disciplines. AI-driven tools empower educators with innovative methods for teaching and assessing student progress. Automated grading systems, virtual tutors, and intelligent tutoring systems streamline administrative tasks, provide real-time feedback, and enable instructors to focus more on personalized instruction. AI streamlines administrative processes within higher education institutions, from admissions to alumni engagement. Chatbots handle inquiries, virtual assistants aid in course scheduling, and predictive analytics optimize resource allocation, enhancing operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

Introduction

In the annals of history, the term “Renaissance” evokes images of a time marked by profound cultural, artistic, and scientific rebirth. The Renaissance of the 14th to the 17th century was characterized by an extraordinary surge in creativity and intellectual achievement, which laid the groundwork for the modern world. Today, we find ourselves at the cusp of a new Renaissance—a Digital Renaissance—propelled by the rapid and relentless advancements in technology. This new era, like its historical counterpart, is marked by a transformative shift that is redefining every aspect of human life, from how we work and communicate to how we learn and govern.

This chapter delves into the essence of this transformative era, exploring the fundamental technological innovations reshaping our world and their far-reaching impacts on society. We will examine the pivotal technologies driving the Digital Renaissance, including artificial intelligence, blockchain, the Internet of Things (IoT), and other emerging technologies such as virtual and augmented reality and 5G networks. By understanding these technologies and their applications, we can appreciate how they collectively contribute to a digital transformation that is as revolutionary as the artistic and scientific achievements of the past.

The digital age has revolutionized the way we live, work, and interact with the world around us. Digital transformation has become a crucial imperative for businesses of all sizes and industries, enabling them to not only adapt to the changing landscape but also thrive in it. (De Lucas,2021). The rapid advancement of technologies such as 5G, cloud computing, big data, artificial intelligence, IoT, and blockchain has opened up a plethora of opportunities for enterprises to enhance their operations, improve customer experiences, and gain a competitive edge. (Anjali et al, 2023). Businesses can increase their reach, automate jobs, obtain insights from data, personalize services, and streamline procedures by utilizing these technologies. They must reconsider their business models and implement more flexible and agile strategies in response to these exponential changes. (Bansal et al, 2020, Fenech et al, 2019).

Introduction

Given the interdependence of all ecosystem units and humans, education for supportable sustainable development (ESD) is a crucial educational tool. The Brundtland Report of 1987 also highlights a crucial element when it states that “everyone must have access to the basic necessities of life and the opportunity to realize their dreams of a better life for sustainable development.” In order to alter the prevailing beliefs and attitudes which people have about themselves, society, and the environment, ESD — which is mapped out on the three pillars of the economy, society, and environment—plays a crucial role. The core tenets of ESD are those that support sustainability, including social tolerance, gender equity, intergenerational equity, poverty reduction, and environmental preservation and renovation.

The Rio Declaration, which outlines 27 sustainability principles, makes this claim. As they support the development which is related to education and reorient current education to promote sustainability, these principles can assist governments, society, and educational institutions in routinely classifying information, principles, skills, and values. Globally, education which is related to sustainable development, or ESD, is widely regarded for its substantial contribution to improving livelihoods and advancing society’s transition to sustainability. Although opinions on the viability of sustainable development vary, it is generally agreed that moving toward a sustainable future requires increasing public awareness, education, and training. Notwithstanding the difficulties in defining sustainability, it is evident that many social behaviours— such as those involving pollution, inefficient energy use, water conservation, and other issues—are not sustainable.

Introduction

A vision of the industrial landscape of the future that emphasises safeguarding society and the environment has lately surfaced as the “Industry 5.0” idea. People collaborating with robotics and intelligent machines are referred to as “Industry 5.0.” By utilising cutting-edge technologies like big data, Internet of Things (IoT) and robots can help people operate more efficiently and quickly. The Industry 4.0 pillars of efficiency and automation are given a more human touch through this. It aims to combine the inventiveness and problem solving abilities of human employees with the powers of mechanisation and artificial intelligence, ultimately producing a more productive and adaptable production environment. This paradigm shift emphasises the value of human decision-making and intervention in the industrial context while addressing the drawbacks of complete automation. By fusing the strengths of both robots and humans, Industry 5.0, which is still in its early stages, has the potential to revolutionise several industries. In 1987, the United Nations Commission defined sustainability as addressing the requirements of the present without compromising the capacity of people in the future to address their issues. Sustainability is essential in Industry 5.0, the next stage of industrial development characterised by growing digitization and automation. Within this paradigm, sustainable practices reduce resource consumption, trash, and emission levels, leading to more effective utilisation of resources like materials and energy. Industry 5.0’s commitment to sustainability reduces waste, carbon dioxide emissions, and environmental impacts. Utilising green technologies and eco-friendly practices helps reduce environmental impact

Financial inclusion, which is the process of accessing and properly utilizing formal financial services, is an important factor in powering economic development and poverty reduction. Study undertakes a broad cross- country analysis of financial inclusion and its impact on social and economic factors. Applying data from respectable bodies like World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Eurostat and United Nations Development Programme, the study applies regression analysis and fixed effects models to determine how income, employment, income inequality, urbanization and human development affect financial inclusion. The outcomes show the complicated interplay between these actors and financial inclusion over various national situations.Financial inclusion is becoming a key component of equitable economic development and poverty alleviation worldwide. The importance of financial inclusion is undisputed, but its causes must be identified. This research article uses a comprehensive cross- country analysis to explain how various civilizations utilize financial services. The study will examine the relationship between financial inclusion and its key socio-economic factors— income levels, employment dynamics, income inequality, urbanization trends, and human development—to inform inclusive economic development policymakers, researchers, and practitioners. The data demonstrates that financial inclusion promotes economic development by helping people save, invest, and manage risk. Additionally, academics have focused on socio-economic issues including income distribution, urban-rural divide, and education level in shaping financial inclusion patterns within and within nations. These characteristics’ effects on financial literacy are yet unknown, thus more empirical study is needed to develop evidence-based policy.

Introduction

Indian economy is basically an agrarian economy. In spite of all challenges and difficulties faced over the years, the sector still serves as the lifeblood of the nation, by standing as the major source of livelihood for over half of the population by guaranteeing food security for its teeming millions. A significant contribution to the GDP of the nation is still ensured by the agriculture sector. The development of a nation highly centres on its primary agriculture sector and Indian economy have a much diverse dependence on the agriculture sector in terms of its growth and development. The nation straightaway necessitates a tremendous shift entirely to sustainable agricultural practices in its development trajectory.

Despite its undeniable significance and praised role, Indian agriculture currently faces multifaceted challenges, which significantly restrict the production and productivity level of the sector as a whole and the farmers in particular. Its high time that the Indian agriculture sector, which stands as the backbone of the nation needs to go through a looming transformation. The industry 4.0 revolution is a vibrant platform for the sector to make a complete transformation. The traditional face of the sector will transform towards a modern makeover by taking up technological advancement and digitalisation. The wider transformative opportunities will ensure a return of the Indian agriculture sector to the forefront in the nations growth and development.

Introduction

No revolution occurs without disruption. Its effects break down traditions, behavior, relationships, ways of thinking, and methods of education. (Barreiro, 2021) throughout history, from the hunter-gatherer era to the present day humanity has experienced multiple industrial revolutions impacting both social and economic domains. The latest industrial revolution, which has ushered in digital transformation and enhanced productivity at reduced costs, introduces a new lifestyle distinct from our traditional daily routines. It also aims to foster a more sustainable overall environment. (Javaid et al., 2022).

The rise of Industry 4.0 is fueled by both rapid technological advancements and various social and economic factors. Central technologies propelling Industry 4.0 include wearable, augmented reality, simulation, autonomous vehicles and robots, additive manufacturing, distributed ledger systems like block chain, big data analytic, mobile computing, and cloud computing. These technologies influence and facilitate the development of new and innovative business models. (Industry 4.0 Implications for Higher Education Institutions 2019)

The advent of Industry 4.0, characterized by the integration of advanced technologies has revolutionized various sectors, including higher education. As these technologies reshape industries, they also redefine educational paradigms, creating a more interconnected, efficient, and personalized learning environment. This transformation, known as Education 4.0, responds to the demands of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by preparing students with the skills and knowledge necessary to thrive in an increasingly digital and automated world.

Introduction

Financial inclusion has become a global agenda because it is now well recoganised that a nation can prosper only if it ensures inclusive growth. Financial access and use of formal financial system, the means of financial inclusion, have positive association with inclusive growth (Levine and Demirguc-Kunt, 2008). The financial systems which are more inclusive have provided broader access to appropriate financial services to ensure that the benefit can be availed by poor and disadvantaged sections of the society (Akter, 2016). Since, financial inclusion is the process of ensuring availability of f inancial services and well-timed and sufficient credit as required by vulnerable groups such as low income segment and weaker segment of the society at an affordable cost (Rangarajan Committee on financial inclusion, 2005). Thus, the study of financial inclusion on the basis of socio economic factors is the key to investigate individual characteristics associated with financial inclusion (Allen, Kunt, Klapper, Peria, 2012). Understanding financial usage on the basis of socio economic factors enables framing appropriate financial inclusion strategies to achieve financial inclusion in real sense. Many international agencies like International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, World Bank release data on financial inclusion around the world. Global findex report is published by World Bank after the interval of every three years to present the picture of financial inclusion on various socio economic parameters. Around the world, 74% adults, 72% female, 70% income poorest population, 63% out of labour force population and 66% rural population report to have account at formal financial system (World Bank Global findex report, 2021).

Introduction

Work-dwelling or workplace well-being describes all aspects of the working lifespan of workers from the point of view of quality, safety and physical environment. It pronounces the workers’ feelings about their work, their working environment, the climate at work and work organization. According to WHO (2010), a healthy workplace environment not only merely finds the absence of illness but also a state of comprehensive physical, mental and social comfort. Work and health hence have a reciprocal relationship that concerns occupational health wellbeing and confers decent work environments i.e. (i) payment of reasonable income; (ii) safety-security in employment and working environment; (iii) guarantee of equal opportunities and treatment for all; (iv) enclosure of social protection for the workers and their families; (v) offering prospects for personal development and inspiring social integration and (vi) allowance of workers to express their apprehensions and to organize (ILO, 1999). In the entrepreneurial sphere, globalization along with fast industrial progress is supposed to be accountable for occupational health hazards and related workplace ill-being, work insecurity, the lack of protection for workers’ health and well-being in the form of work-related accidents, illness and stress, lack of workers’ compensation and paid sick leave, lack of maternity protection, excessive hours of work, etc.(https://www.ilo.org/). This was evidenced in the recent report of ILO (2023) where it was found that 2.3 million people around the world surrender to work-related accidents or diseases every year which links to over 6000 deaths every solitary day (www.ilo.org). Subsequently, there are about 340 million occupational accidents where 160 million are fatalities of work-related illnesses annually in the World.

Introduction

Agriculture has always been linked with prosperity, man power and the ability to feed and raise human population. In earlier times, humans as man power were deployed on the fields to do all the necessary operations to cultivate the crops, but during the industrial revolution, with development of different farm machines the uses of human labor on the fields were drastically decreased. Further, with advancement of technologies and more availability of computers, Artificial Technology (AI) has been gaining momentum in recent years.

AI has the potential to transform the agricultural sector through cost reduction and increased crop yields, and minimizing environmental impacts. AI can help farmers better manage their land, improve crop quality, and increase their productivity In addition, AI can be used to monitor and analyze the health of crops, livestocks, and soils to identify issues and assist in their resolution. The primary idea of using artificial intelligence in agriculture is due its adaptability, superiority, and cost-viability. The customary techniques that were utilized by the farmers were not adequate enough to satisfy their necessities. (Khan et al. 2022) With the right implementation and technology, AI can be an invaluable tool to help farmers increase their efficiency and profitability. In today’s rapidly evolving world, where the demand for food continues to escalate amidst concerns over environmental sustainability and resource scarcity, Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a transformative force in agriculture, from optimizing crop production and resource management to enhancing decision-making processes. Globally, AI is changing how we approach farming techniques.

Concept: Operations conducted before and after harvest are essential components of the system for producing high-quality seeds. If enough care is not taken in the initial stage, there most likely won’t be any resources left to get high-quality seed. Like this, carefully produced, high-quality seed may lose a significant percentage of its worth if post-harvest management protocols are not adhered to. Its quality is highly correlated with soundness, fullness, and homogeneity of physical characteristics (size, shape, density, colour, and appendages), in addition to mechanical planting’s simplicity and improved crop establishment. Improving the seed that has been gathered and getting it ready for secure storage till needed are accomplished through the effective and efficient process of seed processing. To increase the quality of the seed lot, the goal of seed processing must be to optimize the physical properties of the seed and the constituents of the harvested seed mass. The three main steps in seed processing are conditioning, grading, and applying protectants or enriching with nutrients. These steps are completed in compliance with established protocols and standards (McDonald and Copeland 1997; Agrawal 1996; Jorgensen and Stevens, 2004). The distinct qualities of the crops and the surroundings are taken into consideration while adjusting the machines and operations.

Concept: The preservation of viable seeds from the moment of collecting until they are needed for sowing is known as storage. Every year, a significant quantity of seeds loses their usefulness due to incorrect storage. Seeds need to be preserved and stored dry. As was previously mentioned, seed moisture content and storage temperature have the biggest effects on how long seeds last. The three main environmental elements that impact seed deterioration and loss of viability are moisture, temperature, and oxygen percentage. For over 90% of species, reducing seed moisture content (MC) to certain thresholds consistently lengthens the seed’s lifespan (Roberts 1973). These species are categorized as “orthodox” in terms of the conditions in which they should store seeds; under suitable dry, cool conditions, they typically maintain viability and germinability even after extended periods of storage. Ellis and Roberts’ improved viability equations have addressed the quantitative impacts of both drying and cooling for orthodox seeds. The life of the seed is often doubled for every 1% drop in seed moisture (when seed MC fluctuates between 5 and 14%) and every 5 oC drop in storage temperature (between 0 oC and 50 oC) (Harrington 1972). Low seed MC and low temperature are hence fundamentals of traditional seed storage. Careful regulation of these two factors is necessary to achieve optimal storage life. But most seed produced annually just has to be kept from harvest until the following planting season. Depending on the type of seed, it may or may not need to be stored at temperatures and relative humidity above room temperature. Regardless of any modifications made for unique uses, the local climate storage facility needs to have a few essential components (Barre, 1954; Wheeler and Hill, 1957).

Objectives of Seed Grading

Minimization of heterogeneity to the lowest level and enhancement of the homogeneity to the highest level in the seed lots received by the processing unit.

Principle

Separation of seed lots based on differences in the physical properties of the seeds.

Post harvest activities include threshing/ seed extraction, drying, pre-cleaning and conditioning, cleaning, fine-cleaning or grading, seed treatment, weighing and bagging/ packaging, sealing and labelling, storing, and transportation for marketing. Except for transportation and marketing, all these activities collectively known as seed processing. However, for most of the crop, threshing or seed extraction, basic cleaning even drying is done in the farm itself and in the processing unit, the threshed seed is received.

The objective of the seed processing is to prepare the harvested seed in such a way that seed of highest purity and quality would be available for marketing, also for planting. The cleaning and the grading are the foremost activity of the seed processing. The seed, which is received in the processing unit, contains many undesirable particles, which as such cannot be used for marketing, hence cleaning and grading become necessary.

Objective of Seed Storage

The primary goal of seed programs, which include storage, is to maintain the high standards of the seed from harvest until the crop is sown in the following or future seasons. Additionally, seeds are kept in storage for longer periods of time for a variety of reasons, including protection against crop failures during emergencies or natural disasters, maintaining active genetic stocks for breeding, germplasm preservation for long-term use, stock preservation for the domestic and international seed trade in response to market demands, and parental line seed preservation for the transnational seed industry during one or more growing seasons. The seeds of most major agricultural species can be classified as either orthodox or desiccation tolerant. A drop in storage temperature and relative humidity, commonly referred to as seed moisture content, shortens their shelf life. Seeds deteriorate even in dry storage because of alterations caused by pests and pathogens as well as physiological deterioration. This is accurate, even though the amount of time seeds takes to germinate and stay viable varies according to the makeup of the different plant species. A good seed program handles the seed with care, regulates the store’s temperature and relative humidity (or seed moisture in the case of hermetically sealed containers), and adheres to good sanitation practices to preserve the high planting value of the seed in terms of purity, germination, vigour, and seed health.

Concept: It’s a natural process that modifies the cytology, physiology, biochemistry, and physical characteristics of seeds. These modifications lower viability and ultimately result in the seed’s death. A decline in the proportion of germination indicates degradation, and weak seedlings are produced by seeds that do germinate. The factors that impact the ability of seed to be stored include the seed’s quality at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre- and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the amount of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents. Seed will inevitably get damaged when being stored (Balesevic-Tubic et al., 2005). The quality of the seed at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the length of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents are factors that affect the seed’s ability to be stored. Different physical changes can happen to seed during storage because of factors like temperature, moisture content, and length of storage. The viability and vigor of the seeds may be impacted by these modifications.

Concept: Reduction of seed moisture content to the acceptable levels for enhancement of storability and longevity is known as seed drying.

The moisture content of seed is negatively related to its storability. As the moisture content of seed increases, its storability decreases. Adequate drying of seed prolongs viability for reasonably long periods without cold storage. The process of drying begins with physiological maturity till storage/packaging of seeds to avoid deterioration. The seed is hygroscopic in nature therefore it adjusts its moisture content in equilibrium to the existing environment.

Seed Drying

Seed drying is the process in which an environment with low humidity is created to remove moisture from the seed up to the desired level without any damage to its viability and physical appearance. This seed is stored at low moisture content under the low relative humidity to enhance its longevity. The initiation of seed moisture content and the desired level are what dictate the amount of the drying process, and these elements are determined by the following

• Type of seed: This will consider the longevity behaviour, seed content, and seed structure (i.e., how well the species stores energy).

Concept of Delinting

Cotton seed clumps because of linters getting trapped on them after ginning. Gin-run seeds have very low flowability and do not singulate, making cleaning, upgrading, and precise metering in planting operations challenging or impossible. To singulate the seed and increase flowability, a variety of techniques have been and are employed. Most of the techniques entail removing the tags and linters entirely or partially, although other coating techniques have also been attempted with mixed results, both financially and technically (Mezynski, 1966; Webber and Boykin, 1907).

Methods of Delinting

1. Mechanical Delinting

Mechanical delinting is the usual technique used to improve the flowability of cotton seed. As previously indicated, mechanical delinting basically involves resharpening with finer, closer-spaced saws to remove part of the commercially valuable linters.

During processing seeds are cleaned, dried, and graded which are then treated with specific fungicide and insecticide. Seed at this stage is at best quality, which are then packaged into various packaging materials in a specific weight. Packaging or bagging of processed and treated seed is a requisite for easy handling of the bulk seed. Seed packaging can be defined as filling with seed, weighing and sealing the container whereas seed package as storage container where the seeds are kept for marketing or shipping or till the next sowing time.

The Packaging of Seed Involves

1. Filling bags/ containers of uniform size with seeds of known weight.

2. Providing leaflets inside the package with information about any specific cultural practices needed.

3. Attaching labels or certification tags having information regarding all the quality parameters.

4. Temper-proof sealing of the bag.

5. Storage or transportation of the bags.