eChapters

Introduction

We are faced with the dual challenges of Climate change and food insecurity irrespective of the countries and regions across the globe. Asia Pacific region is one of the most climate change vulnerable regions in the world (Prabhakar & Matsumoto, 2010) on account of its relatively higher & dense population depending on climate related sectors and living in climate change vulnerable locations. In particular, the agriculture production system is facing serious repercussions due to increasing weather vagaries since past few decades. Agriculture being highly dependent on climatic condition is like gambling at the hands of erratic rainfall or droughts leading to crop loss on a regular basis in terms of reduced yield, increased pest resurgence and lack of safety net in case of weather based disasters all of which prominently affects the small holder farm families. Indian subcontinent has been facing extreme climatic events since the past decades in form of floods, erratic rainfall, high temperature, shrinking water sources, etc. which have caused deprivation in agriculture in economic and non-economic terms. In a series of researches and studies conducted over the years; the need for enhanced adaptation research and policymaking capacity in developing Asia has been reflected. Hence, adaptation research has to take an important place at global, national and local level.

India is endowed with diverse agro- climatic conditions which facilitate to cultivate various horticultural crops all through the year in one part of the country or others, but the quality of fruits under open field conditions particularly in high value crops (vegetables & flowers) by and large fall short of domestic and international markets standards. Some time there no guarantee of consistent production of from open cultivation, as the crop is exposed to number of environmental factors that changes frequently. Hence it is imperative to increase the productivity and quality of produce to meet the demand of quality conscious consumers. A break through in production technology that integrates market driven quality parameters with the production system simultaneously ensuring a vertical growth is warranted. In this context, most important technology is the Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) i.e. Protected Cultivated Technology (PCTs) such as greenhouse, net house, glasshouse and low tunnel. “Protected cultivation” means modification of plant environment to achieve optimum plant growth avoiding the harmful effect of climatic factors.

1. Introduction

The agriculture sector in Asia and the Pacific plays a vital role in the rural economy, making significant contributions to both GDP and employment. This sector serves as a cornerstone for food production, economic growth and poverty reduction in the region. Understanding the importance of farming in the region’s rural economy, as well as the need for viable farming systems particularly for smallholder farms, is essential for sustainable development.

Importance of Farming in the Rural Economy

Farming has a substantial impact on the rural economy of Asia and the Pacific. It serves as a primary source of income and livelihood for rural populations, contributing significantly to the region’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The agricultural sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, and forestry, providing diverse opportunities for economic development.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), farming accounts for 29 percent of the region’s GDP (FAO, 2021). This demonstrates the significant economic value that agriculture brings to the region, making it a crucial sector for sustainable development. The revenue generated from agricultural activities supports not only farmers but also other stakeholders in the value chain, including agro-industries, distributors, and exporters.

Introduction

Increasing use and rise in the cost of chemical fertilizers, pollution due to their application and decline in soil fertility and micro flora are worrying facts to the farming community. Increased awareness about organic produce among the consumers is another reason to find out an alternative to chemical fertilizers. Vermicompost production on farm and its use in crop production is one way of mitigating these problems. Among the different methods, Windrow method of vermicomposting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues as long rows (Windrows) on the surface of soil under the shade of trees without any permanent structures and later releasing required quantity of earthworms in wet beds. This vermibed technology is simple and cost effective and sustainable to adopt.

The prototypes have been exhibited in the premises of Dairy unit, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad since long and many farmers seeing these were of the opinion that technology was simple and easy to adopt using the farm generated biomaterial waste with no additional cost. During 2020-21, when farmers of remote villages Dharwad district were interacted, it was noticed that still the technology was not followed by the farmers.Therefore, a team of Green Foundation based in Dharwad made an attempt to reach the farmers of remote villages of Dharwad district to make aware of this technology. After interactions with different categories of farmers, a modest attempt has been made to identify small and large farmers of remote villages viz. Basavarsikoppa and Holtikoti of Dharwad district during 2021-22 to sensitize and demonstrate windrow method of vermicompost production. The results, experiences of the farmers and finally the impact of the technology are discussed here in this presentation.

Introduction Large cardamom is an important cash crop cultivated in Sikkim. It is also cultivated in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and some parts of North-eastern state like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur. It is a low volume, high value non-perishable crop grown organicallyat different altitudes under the trees. The State produces about 4,970 tonnes annually from an area of 23,312 hectares (Spice board, 2021). Among the four districts of Sikkim, North and East Sikkim district contributes largest in terms of area and production of large cardamom (GoS, 2016). Off-late, climate change has become a major concern for the large cardamom growers as many researchers reported its contribution to the decline of its production. Sikkim, as Himalayan states, is endowed with varied agro-climate ranging from tropical in the South to alpine in the North. Shrestha et al. (2010) reported that warming in the Himalayas was between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade in the last three decades. Seetharam (2012) revealed that in Gangtok, there is a decreasing trend in maximum temperature while an increasing trend in minimum temperature. The study also depicted the decreasing trend of annual rainfall amount in the study area. In a recent study, Kumar et al. (2020) reported that the warming was more prominent in the last decades in Gangtok and Tadong station, better reflected in the minimum temperature with varied precipitation across the observed period from 1961 2017.

1. Introduction

Biochar, produced from pyrolytic decomposition of lignocellulosic biomass, is a solid hard product and a unique green material for soil amendments. Its use has been identified in Amazon fertility as ancient indigenous practice. Through ‘pyrolysis’ (heating without oxygen) process (‘pyro’ which means caused by heat whereas ‘lysis’ means dis-integration), there are three types of yields we get: a solid product (biochar), a gaseous product (syngas/ synthesis gas), and a liquid (bio-oil). The solid item, biochar, is applied for soil amendments. It can be used in agricultural, industrial, and environmental as a functional material. Solid char, a common pyrolytic outcome is charcoal, typically used to designate the solid char product that is ignited for fuel, whereas “biochar” designates the unique solid char purposively used as a soil amendment agent. On the other hand, the gaseous and liquid counterparts of pyrolysis have commercial applications like green energy, feedstock raw materials, and precursors (Fig.1).

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

Introduction

Despite recent significant increases in global food production Sustainable development goal- “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture” seems unachievable. Globally, 1 in 9 people are undernourished, the vast majority of whom live in developing countries. Under nutrition causes wasting or severe wasting of 52 million children worldwide. It contributes to nearly half (45%) of deaths in children under five – 3.1 million children per.Today, the majority of the world’s hungry people—nearly 870 million—live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Climate change impacts on food security and livelihoods are already alarming and affecting millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2016).

In view of today’s 795 million hungry and the additional 2 billion people expected by 2050, there is an urgent need for a change of global food and agriculture systems in order to sustainably increase food production (UN, 2016). This will exert intense pressure on agro-ecosystems that are already overburdened, particularly in developing countries as most of those increases in production have to occur in this part of the world. The environmental impacts of satisfying this increased food demand will be further aggravated by climate change. With increased frequency and severity of droughts, extreme heat conditions and over dependence on rainfed agriculture, there is a growing agricultural productivity crisis, dwindling household food availability and the economic prosperity of countries whose national economies are dependent on agriculture. Considering that climate change impacts are felt differently within regions, context-specific adaptation measures are required to reduce risks and build adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers (Altieri, M.Aet al.2017).

Introduction

India has one of the world’s largest agricultural production areas of land. The net sown area is 140.1 million hectares, the net irrigated area is 49% of this, which is 68.4 million ha as per 2014–15 land-use statistics (Agriculture Research Data Book 2019). While the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture is decreasing, agriculture, along with its allied sectors such as livestock, forestry and fisheries, remains India’s primary source of income. As per the Lok Sabha Standing Committee on Agriculture (2019–20), agriculture and allied industries employed 54.6 percent of India’s total workforce. Approximately 70% of rural households still rely primarily on agriculture for a living. Agriculture and allied sectors’ share of the country’s Gross Value Added (the value of goods and services produced in an area, industry, or sector of an economy) has fallen from 18.2 percent in 2014-15 to 16.5 percent in 2019-20. As per current trends, 60% of India’s population (more than 10% of the world’s population) will face severe food shortages by 2050.

Introduction The idea of LiFE was introduced by the Prime Minister during the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow from 31st October to 13 November 2022. The idea promotes an environmentally conscious lifestyle that focuses on ‘mindful and deliberate utilisation’ instead of ‘mindless and wasteful consumption’.(PIB India)

The LiFE Movement aims to utilise the power of collective action and nudge individuals across the world to undertake simple climate-friendly actions in their daily lives. The LiFE movement, additionally, also seeks to leverage the strength of social networks to influence social norms surrounding climate. The Mission plans to create and nurture a global network of individuals, namely ‘Pro-Planet People’ (P3), who will have a shared commitment to adopt and promote environmentally friendly lifestyles. Through the P3 community, the Mission seeks to create an ecosystem that will reinforce and enable environmentally friendly behaviours to be self-sustainable.

Introduction

The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which takes account of on historical, psychological, social , physical and economic and political perspectives of climate change in its report, released in November 2014 said that the Working Group I contribution to the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) considers new evidence of climate change based on many independent scientific analyses from observations of the climate system, paleoclimate archives, theoretical studies of climate processes and simulations using climate models. Climate change is not controversial as naysayers and some media would convey. After decades of careful observation, collection of data, and tracking of changes in the climate system, there exists a solid, scientific consensus that human-caused climate change is a reality (Michael, 2012). In their report, the NCSE 2015 says that there is substantial scientific agreement about the occurrence, causes, and consequences of climate change. Yet due to the inherent complexity of the topic and the social controversies surrounding it, confusion and doubt often persist. Here, we need to develop the workforce, education, and training for climate-smart Agriculture. The following are some interventions.

The term project originates from the Latin word projectum derived from the Latin verb proicere, “before an action” which originates from pro-, signifying precedence, something that occurs prior to something else in timing, and icere, “to do”. The term “project” therefore initially signified “before an action. “. A project is a distinct kind of production system that produces a sole unit of product. Like, building a ship or a house, moving a department or a plant, developing a new product or performing a study are examples of such one-of-a-kind products.

In modern business and science, a project is a joint effort, encompassing research or design, that is carefully organized to accomplish a specific goal. The project can also be described as a collection of interconnected tasks to be performed within a defined timeframe and under specific budgetary and other constraints. Projects can be additional defined as temporary instead of enduring social systems or work systems that are formed by teams within or between organizations to achieve specific tasks under time constraints. And all must be expertly managed to deliver the on-time, on budget results, learning, and integration that organizations need. A project in business and science is a provisional endeavor engaged in to produce a distinct item, service, or result. Basically, it is planned to attain a specific goal. The aim of a project is to achieve its goal and subsequently conclude.

Project management involves the use of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to design activities to fulfill project requirements. In other words, project management encompasses the skills, tools and management processes needed to successfully implement a project.

Project Management comprises

• Skill. Expert knowledge, skills and experience are necessary to reduce the risk level of a project and thereby enhance the likelihood of its success.

• A set of tools. Project managers use a variety of tools to improve their chances of success. Examples include document templates, records, planning software, modeling software, inspection checklists and inspection forms.

• Sequence of processes. Various Management methods and procedures are necessary to oversee and regulate the time, cost, quality and scope of projects. For example, time management, quality management, cost management, change management, problem management and risk management.

Project Management is adequate when or when should you use project man agement techniques

Construction of any building, airplane, poultry farm, dairy farm, agricultural business, even a new product are known as projects that require money and time, thus, all projects need to be finished in the least amount of time possible. All projects involve multiple activities, and all these actions need to be logically coordinated and successfully completed within the expected time frame. PERT and CPM are useful techniques for this purpose. PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique and CPM represent Critical Path Method. These techniques separate projects into various tasks and events and organize them logically in a diagram called a grid. Time estimates are obtained to conduct these different tasks and the total project time is decided based on these estimated times. With the help of these methods, the project can be completed in the given time and it also provides important information about the various activities related to the project and the project manager knows the importance of the various activities to which he pays more attention to reduce the time spent on the project.

Investment Appraisal Techniques

A financial evaluation/ appraisal of Project considers the possible compensations of completing the Project against the anticipated expenses. The assessment of the project will rely on several factors, including the Size of the project, time span of project etc. The motivation behind the financial evaluation is to decide if the project is advantageous, contrasting its expenses and its expected normal advantages. These methods are primarily designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a new project. This investment evaluation technique includes Payback Period, Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Net Present Value (NPV), Accounting Rate of return (ARR), Profitability index etc. Each of these techniques evaluates the project from various angles and provides very useful insights. Investment appraisal techniques are divided in two parts namely, discounted cash flow methods and non-discounted cash flow methods.

Non-Discounted Cash Flow Techniques

Future cash flows are not brought to their Present value through Non-Discounted Cash flow methods. Non-Discounted Cash flow methods are also categorized into the following two techniques.

Project Implementation

Project Implementation is the process of putting a project plan into action. It takes place after the planning phase; planning phase includes key objectives, timeline and budget of the project. Execution includes organizing resources and assessing performance to guarantee the project stays within its anticipated scope and budget. It also involves handling any unforeseen issues in a way that keeps a project running smoothly.

Steps for Project Implementation

1. Assess the Project Plan: Before implementing the project, it is essential to create a plan that satisfies the expectations of the management, customers, and other stakeholders. The project manager must assess the project plan and guarantee that all team members comprehend the project and its requirements. The project manager must define the roles and the time required to complete each role. This step sets the standard for cooperation at work.

2. Execute the Plan: At this stage, the real work on the project begins. The project manager regularly discusses progress with his team. It measures progress along a timeline and tracks resource usage.

3. Make required Changes: Sometimes, during the implementation of the project, the manager has to make changes at the request of the customers or in other situations. Make these changes as needed, based on the design plan for solutions. Continue to interact with the team and ask questions to determine areas where they need more support.

4. Examine Project Data: It is crucial to gather and evaluate data throughout the execution phase of the project to assess the advancement of the project in comparison to its initial plan. Now, the day manager can use many project management software and information technology to collect and analyze real time data.

5. Assess the Feedback: After the conclusion of the project, it is crucial to gather feedback regarding the project outcomes from the clients, the project team and other stakeholders. This assists in determining the number of activities in the project that were executed as intended and aspects that require enhancement moving forward.

Entrepreneurship serves as a crucial element of economic development. In times of economic crisis, the significance of business development rises. Entrepreneurship has been linked to enhanced economic growth, greater wealth, and an elevated quality of life. In developing countries like India, the planning and implementation of entrepreneurship program development is essential for the standard of living of most of the backward areas due to their over-dependence on agriculture for employment (Uplaonkar and Biradar 2015). Entrepreneurship development therefore seems to be the best option to find job opportunities, generate income, reduce poverty and improve nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy.

Entrepreneurship refers to the ability to take big risks to make a profit, to succeed, to manage and organize a new business. Entrepreneurship is a process in which a person becomes aware of owning a business as an alternative and develops new ideas for business. In addition, they try to learn the whole process of becoming an entrepreneur, and an initiative has been taken to develop entrepreneurship. It shows the practical application of all qualities such as innovation, creativity and risk in a work environment. The development of agriculture requires innovations in agricultural business. Stabilizing innovations and increasing productivity is a long-term and difficult business.

The term entrepreneur is derived from the French word entreprendre, which translates to “to undertake. “In the context of business, this refers to the initiation of a business. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an entrepreneur is defined as an individual who organizes, directs, and takes risks in a business or enterprise. An entrepreneur can be described as “a person who establishes, organizes, and directs any enterprise, particularly a business, typically involving significant initiative and risk. “ Peter F. Drucker (1985) characterizes an entrepreneur as a person who continuously seeks change, responds to it, and leverages it as an opportunity. Innovation serves as a unique tool for entrepreneurs, enabling them to perceive change as an opportunity for launching another business or service. An entrepreneur is often regarded as an innovator – a creator of new ideas and business processes. Essential leadership skills and effective team-building abilities are frequently considered crucial traits for successful entrepreneurs. Economist Robert Reich (2002) regards leadership, management skills, and team building as vital attributes of an entrepreneur. The realm of entrepreneurship is influenced by a variety of combinations of socio-economic, psychological, cultural, and additional factors, including caste/religion, family background, educational level, level of insight, professional experience, migration capabilities, entrepreneurial spirit, nature of the business, investment capacity, and ambition/moderation. Entrepreneurship is often defined as “the ability and desire to develop, organize, and manage business activities and associated risks for profit”.

Introduction

Creativity and innovation are planned alternatives that an entrepreneur can use to promote his business. Business is a creative process. Success in business today requires constant innovation. Creating new solutions to problems, and the ability to create new products or services for a changing market, is part of intellectual capital. They also provide a company or business organization with a competitive advantage. Creativity is the basis of creativity. It is a process and skill that can be developed and managed throughout the organization.

Learning Objectives

• Describe the different types of creativity and Innovation

• Explain the process of creativity and phases of innovation

Creativity Definition

Creativity has different meanings. Many researchers have said that creativity is the generation of new ideas that include a creative process or a new solution to a problem and the original resolution of problems. It can also be said that the installation of the innovative solution is easy.

STARTUP India is an innovative initiative started to help people who want to start their own business. These individuals are reflective and resilient. Therefore, the government provides assistance for them to realize their concepts and expand. The Government of India introduced the ‘Startup India’ initiative on January 16, 2016, in New Delhi.

What is a Start Up?

According to the government notification, the journal number will replace the G.S.R. 364(E) dated 11 April 2018 as amended by Notification No. G.S.R. 34 (E) on 16 January 2019 by DPIIT.

Definitions

In this announcement: An entity shall be measured as a Startup

• Any entity for a period of ten years from the date of incorporation/registration, if registered as a private limited company (as defined in the Companies Act, 2013) or listed as a partnership (registered under Section 59 of the Partnership Act, 1932) or a limited liability partnership (under the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008) in India.

• The revenue of the entity has not exceeded one hundred crore rupees for any of the financial years since registration/registration.

• The business unit works to innovate, develop or improve products, processes or services, if there is a scalable business model with high potential for performance or value creation. But the enterprise created by revolution, by revitalization of the existing business, is not called a “start-up”.

In general, an unwell entity is one that fails to regularly create a surplus and frequently relies on outside funds to exist. The Sick Industrial Enterprises (Special Provision) Act 1985 characterized sickness as “a financial loss over two successive accounting periods and a total loss that is equal to or exceeds the net assets of the enterprise at the conclusion of the second accounting period”.

Revised Definition of Sick Smallscale Industry “A small scale industrial unit is deemed sick if it has incurred losses at the conclusion of the accounting year that are equal to or exceed 50% of the highest level of its net assets in the immediately preceding five f inancial years”.

Symptoms of Sickness

The continuation of many signals for a long time is called a symptom of a disease, and the various symptoms are ultimately reflected in the operation of the facility (capacity utilization rate, financial capital ratio, stock market value practice in various financial areas, production, marketing and labor relations in the industry).

Among the key signs are

• Deterioration of financial relations

• Review delay

• Lack of constant cash flow

• Continued decline in stock prices

• late payment obligations

1. National Sources of Finance

A. Medium and Long-term Sources

i. Venture Capital: Funding from affluent investors who prefer to invest their money in enterprises with long-term growth prospects is referred to as venture capital. The individuals who provide such investments are known as venture capitalists. Venture capitalists usually acquire equity in the emerging company in return for their backing, which is typically provided as preferred stock.

Venture Capital is a funding source for new businesses. ‘Venture capital refers to investments made in ‘new and untested enterprises’ that do not have a solid growth history’. It comes as capital invested as shareholdings, aimed at establishing and creating firms focused on innovative concepts or new technologies that carry a high perceived risk, yet possess the potential for rapid expansion. Venture capital is generally arranged as equity or quasi-equity f inancial instruments. A venture capital firm acts as an intermediary between investors seeking high returns on their investments and entrepreneurs who require funding to launch their businesses.

Types of Venture Capital Funding

The various types of venture capital are classified according to their applications at various stages of a company’s lifecycle. Early stage financing, expansion f inancing, and acquisition / buy out financing are the three main types of venture capital.

Project Report

A project report is a written document associated with every investment. It includes the details upon which the project was evaluated and deemed viable. It encompasses information regarding economic, technical, financial, management, and production elements. It assists the entrepreneur in understanding the interests and aids in securing loans from banks or financial institutions.

The project report provides comprehensive details on the necessary land and buildings, yearly production capacity, production methodology, machinery and equipment along with their costs and technical specifications, raw material needs, electricity and water requirements, labor needs, market costs of the project, production, financial analyses, and the financial viability of the project.

Contents of a Project Report

1. General Information: The project report needs to incorporate details regarding the industry relevant to the project. It ought to present information about the industry’s historical background, present condition, challenges, and future outlook. It must include details about the product to be created and the rationale behind the product selection if the proposed organization is a manufacturing entity. It should indicate the demand for the product in local, national, and international markets. It should distinctly outline the business opportunities and provide explanations for initiating the business.

Structure of a business or legal framework

1. Sole proprietorship: A private company is a form where an individual is the exclusive proprietor of the business. It constitutes a straightforward setup where the owner is one person who manages the everyday operations of the company. In this case, the business is not regarded as an independent entity. Therefore, earnings and debts are merged into their personal accounts, which are assessed and taxed at the individual level.

Advantages of the sole proprietorship structure include

• Complete Control: As a sole proprietor, you have the right to make all business decisions and do not have to negotiate with other partners, managers or shareholders as in other structures.

• Easier Startup: The creation of a private company does not necessitate completing forms or remitting a state fee. This can ease the procedure and render it more affordable.

• Simple tax reporting: Because a business is not legally a separate entity, your income tax return includes the expenses and income of the business. As an added bonus, you can use business losses to offset your earned income, which can result in a higher taxable income.

• Privacy: Sole proprietors do not have to file annual reports with state or federal governments. Therefore, the company is not disclosed in the same way as in other structures.

1. Taungya is a method of raising forest plantation in combination with_____________. (Agricultural crops)

2. Buffer strips left along streams to reduce erosion and provide shade for fish, which are known as _____________. (Streamside Management Zone, SMZ)

3. Agroforestry system journal is published in_____________. (Netherland)

4. Indian journal of agroforestry is a_____________journal. (Quarterly)

5. Taungya was developed by_____________. (Brandis)

6. The interaction in which both the member of the community in an ecosystem are benefitted is known as_____________. (Mutualism)

7. The tendency of neighbouring plants to utilize the same quantum of light, mineral nutrients and space is known as_____________. (Competition)

8. Allelopathy is the best example of_____________. (Amensalism)

9. D & D approach was developed by_____________. (ICRAF)

10. _____________design is followed in greenhouse experiments. (RBD)

1. The “silviculture of Indian trees” in three volume was published in 1921, by _____________. (R.S. Troup)

2. _____________ silvicultural system aims at opening of the canopy for regeneration and even-aged condition of the crop. (Uniform shelter wood system)

3. Irregular involutions and convolutions on the bole just above the base of a tree are called as ____________. (Fluting)

4. Stool shoots refers to the production of coppice shoots from_____________ of stumps. (Near the top)

5. Geographical area covered by forest area in India is_____________ per cent. (21-22%)

6. Indian forests were classified into _______ number of groups by Champion and Seth in 1968. (16)

7. The most favourable soil for the growth of Shorea robusta (Sal) is_____________. (Well drained deep moist sandy loam)

8. The clear felling system was introduced for the first time by_____________. (Heinrich Vancotta)

9. The book “Genera Plantarum” was written by_____________. (Englaer and Prantl)

10. “Pricking” is a term used in raising plants in_____________ area. (Main plantation)

1.      Callipers are used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

2.      Biltmore stick is used to measure_____________. (Diameter)

3.      Wedge prism with 5 BAF and tallied 50 numbers of trees/ acre then basal area per acre is_____________ __________. (250)

4.      A ring count is most accurate in aging tree by using increment borer on _____________ of the trunk. (Lower region)

5.      False ring is a/an_____________ ring for a given year. (Second)

6.      A formula to determine diameter quotient for each form class is called_____________. (Hojer’s formula)

7.      The instrument used to determine the age of a tree is_____________. (Pressler’s increment borer)

8.      _____________ ,_____________ and_____________ are the variables required for general volume table preparation. (Diameter, height and form)

9.      The sampling method used in non-random sampling are_____________ ,_____________ and _____________. (Selective, Systematic and Sequential)

10.  _____________ formula is used for determining increment per cent. (Schneider’s)

1. The Indian Institute of Forest management is located at_____________(Bhopal)
2. First forest policy in independent India was enacted in_____________(1952)
3. A plan of operations for the management of the forest is known as_____________. (Working plan)
4. _____________ are the yields harvested as a matter thinning operation. (Intermediate yields)
5. Indian Wildlife Protection Act was enacted in the year_____________.(1972)
6. The present National Forest Policy envisages having_____________percent of forest and tree cover. (33%)
7. Forest conservation act was enacted in the year_____________. (1980)
8. Indian forest act was enacted in the year_____________. (1927)
9. Density of tree in a forest stand is normally expressed as__________________________. (Basal area of the stand in square feet.)

1. The process of harvesting, conversion and disposal of standing forest produce is called _____________. (Forest utilization)

2. Palmarosa grass oil is known as_____________. (Geranium Oil)

3. Terminalia chebula fruit tans is commonly called as_____________. (Myrobalans)

4. The gum resin_____________ is obtained from Garcinia morella. (Gamboges)

5. Black dammer is_____________. (Canarium strictum)

6. Rock dammer is_____________. (Hopea odorata)

7. White dammer is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

8. True dammer is_____________. (Agathis loranthifolius)

9. The Indian copal tree is_____________. (Vetaria indica)

10. The Indian gum arabica or babul gum is obtained from_____________ species. (Acacia nilotica)

1. Physiologically heart wood is_____________. (Dead)
2. Sapwood is rich in_____________ material. (Starch)
3. Growth rings are also called as_____________. (Annual rings)
4. Earlywood and late wood are referred as and_____________ respectively. (Spring wood and Summer wood)
5. _____________ is the light coloured outer portion of a tree log consisting of the youngest growth rings. (Sapwood)
6. The deep coloured central portion of wood is_____________. (Heartwood)
7. _____________ and_____________ are function of sapwood. (Conduction of sap and Food storage)
8. The function of the heartwood is_____________. (Mechanical strength)
9. Vessels and fibres are absent in_____________ wood. (Non-porous)

1. Life history of Indian termite was first published by_____________. (J.G. Koeing)
2. Plant disease written by_____________. (R.S. Singh)
3. J. W. Helfer seems to have the first to collect insects because these were pest of trees during the year_____________. (1810)
4. The largest insect order is_____________. (Coleoptera)
5. Project directorate of biological control is located at_____________. (Bangalore)
6. Main skeletal structure to which most of the muscle attached is_____________. (Thorax)
7. The outmost waxy layer of insect body is called_____________. (Cuticle)
8. Insect body consists of series of segment designated as_____________. (Sclerite)
9. _____________ is the author of the book entitled “The ecology of forest insect”. (CFC Beesom)

1. Tree improvement consists of_____________ and_____________. (Silviculture and tree breading)
2. Variation within the local progenies is due to_____________. (Environment)
3. Larger units of similar vegetation are referred as_____________. (Biome)
4. _____________ is the only gaseous hormone. (Ethylene)
5. More genetic gain can be achieved in the_____________ seed orchard. (Clonal)
6. _____________ is known as father of genetics. (Mendel)
7. Pure line theory was proposed by_____________. (Johannsen)
8. Self-incompatibility hampers the development of_____________. (Inbreds)
9. Progeny having both parent identities is known as_____________. (Fullsib)

1. Term biotechnology was coined by_____________. (Karl Ereky)
2. Applied use of molecular biology and recombinant DNA technology is _______. (Biotechnology)
3. Bacteria are present everywhere except in_____________. (Distil water)
4. The branch of science dealing with the study of microbes is known as _______. (Microbiology)
5. The unique properties of each amino acid are determined by its particular_____________. (R-groups)
6. Optical isomerism arises from the presence of a/ an_____________ atom. (Asymmetric carbon)
7. In the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid,_____________ enzyme catalyses the successive steps. (Eleven)
8. _____________ plants are used to accumulate pollutants from soil thus clears soil from pollutants. (Phytoremediation)
9. _____________ contains only one type of nucleic acid. (Virus)

1. _____________ is a fertilize ovule consisting of intact embryo stored food and seed coat, which is viable and has got the capacity to germinate. (Seed)
2. The content of other than seeds such as straw, soil particles, small stones and seeds of other species is called_____________. (Inert material)
3. Initial seed obtained from the selected individual plants of a particular variety or parental line, used to produce breeder seed and forms the basis of the total seed production chain is_____________ seed. (Nucleus)
4. The loss of weight of a sample when it is dried due to decrease in_____________. (Moisture)
5. A specified quantity of seed, physically identifiable in respect of which an international analysis certificate may be issued is called_____________. (Seed lot)
6. The blowers are used for_____________. (Purity of seeds)
7. A type of seed that is not certified but the labelling is done to indicate the quality or standard in a truthful manner is called_____________ seed. (Truthfully labelled seed)
8. The reagent used for biochemical test for determining seed viability is_____________. (Tetrazolium chloride or Bromide)
9. The food material contained in_____________that nourishes the embryo during its development. (Endosperm)

1. _____________ is the main source of energy for the earth. (Sun)
2. The major cause of ‘Minamata’ disease in Japan was due to pollution by_____________. (Mercury)
3. _____________ method in water analysis is used for the quantitative estimation of dissolved oxygen. (Modified Winkler’s method)
4. Systematic scientific study of fresh water ecosystem is called as_____________. (Limnology)
5. The Earth Summit held in 1992, was organised at_____________. (Rio de Janeiro)
6. The altitude of troposphere in atmosphere is about_____________ kilometre. (Upto 11 km)
7. Bhopal gas tragedy took place in the year_____________. (1984)
8. The unit of noise pollution is measured in_____________. (Decibel)
9. Most important mitigation strategy for reducing global warming and climate change is _____________. (Carbon sequestration)

1. Forest soils are_____________ in nature. (Acidic)
2. The term soil originated from latin word ‘Solum’ which means_____________. (Floor)
3. Most commonly used sources of N fertilizer in forestry is_____________. (NH₄)₂SO₄
4. _____________ is considered as the father of pedology. (V. V. Dokuchaev)
5. _____________ is considered as father of soil testing. (Troug)
6. Land capability class was given by_____________ and_____________. (Klingebiel and Montgomery)
7. The law of the minimum was given by_____________ in 1862. (Liebig)
8. Law of restriction was proposed by_____________. (Liebig)
9. The soil structural classification followed in India is according to_____________. (USDA)

1. A plant cell constitutes the_____________ per cent of water. (80-90%)
2. Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of_____________ energy into _____________ energy. (Radiant, Chemical)
3. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in_____________ and light reaction occurs in _____________ region of chloroplast. (Matrix, Lamellae)
4. The connecting link between glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle is_____________. (Pyruvic acid)
5. _____________ is responsible for turgidity of plant cells. (Osmosis)
6. A diffusion of liquids through a semi-permeable membrane is known as_____________. (Osmosis)
7. The diffusion of solvent particles into a living cell is known as_____________. (Endo-osmosis)
8. The diffusion of solvent particles out of a living cell is known as_____________. (Exo-osmosis)
9. The outward pressure exerted by the cell solution on the cell wall which is developed due to osmotic diffusion of water is called as_____________. (Turgor pressure)

1. ‘Agrostoogical’ refers to cultivation of_____________. (Grasses)
2. Land on which the potential plant community is composed periodically of native grass, forbs and shrubs valuable for forage and in sufficient quantity to justifying grazing use is called as_____________. (Rangeland)
3. The basic object of range management is to_____________ and_____________ the rangeland for higher production of fodder, rich in nutritive value and palatability. (Improve & maintain)
4. ICAR had carried a grassland survey of India in 1954 by Wnyte, Venkatramanan and Dabadghao had found_____________ types of grass land in different environment. (8)
5. The main reason for the enormous increase in livestock population is_____________. (Social attitude of the people)
6. All the vegetation consumed by grazing animals including fruits and twigs of trees and shrubs is called_____________. (Pasturage & forage)
7. The practice by which the gap can be bridged between the requirement and availability of animal feeds and fodder is known as_____________. (Grass land techniques)
8. The scientists_____________ have recognised five type of grass covers in India. (Dabadghao & Shankar Narayan, 1979)
9. The maximum area of about 2.8 milloin square kilometre is covered under_____________ type of grassland in India. (Phragmites Saccharum type)

1. The technique of acquiring information about some object by recording devices, without being in physical contact with the object under study is_____________. (Remote sensing)
2. The term remote sensing was coined by ____________. (Ms. Evelyn Pruitt)
3. Father of Indian remote sensing is ________________. (Pisharoth Rama Pisharoty)
4. In remote sensing_____________ type of radiation is utilized for photography.(Infra red)
5. First aerial photograph was taken in 1858 by Felix Tournachon, known as ________, from a tethered ballon over the Bievre Valley in France. (Nadar)
6. Remote sensing systems which provide their own source of energy for illumination are known as_____________. (Active sensors)
7. _____________ sensors are very useful in detecting and mapping forest fires. (Thermal sensors)
8. Land cover classification using three levels of the scale of 1 : 100000 was developed by _____________agency. (NRSA)
9. The forest survey of India (FSI) conducts forest cover survey once in every_____________. (2 years)

1. An imaginary line joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth represents_____________. (Contour lines)
2. The vertical distance between consecutive contours lines is called_____________. (Contour interval)
3. When measured with a compass, the line of sight that run midway between due North and due West has a bearing of_____________. (N 45 degree W)
4. A survey of a large area which consider the earth’s curvature is called a _____________ survey. (Geodetic)
5. The distinctive feature of topographic maps is the_____________ of the land. (Shape or Contour)
6. The colour used to depict fence lines and important roads on a topographic map is _____________ and_____________. (Red and black)
7. A surveyor’s chain is divided into links and each link is_____________ long. (0.66 feet)
8. A body of water on a topographic map is presented by_____________ colour. (Blue)
9. On a topographic map a ploughed field would be sown as_____________ colour. (White)

1. A measure of the items in a random sample is known as_____________. (Statistics)
2. Most commonly used measure of central tendency is_____________. (Arithmetic Mean)
3. Mean deviation is the_____________, when calculated about median. (Least)
4. Arithmetic mean of central tendency is applied for calculation of_____________ and _____________. (Regression and Correlation coefficient)
5. Arithmetic mean and variance are always equal in_____________ distribution. (Poisson)
6. Geometric mean of central tendency is appropriate for_____________. (Index number)
7. _____________ is the sum of all values/ number of values. (Arithmetic mean)
8. Middle most item of all values is_____________. (Median)
9. _____________ measure of central tendency requires data arrangement in ascending or descending order for its estimation. (Median)

1. _____________ coined the term wildlife. (William Hornday)
2. National Biodiversity Board is situated at_____________. (New Delhi)
3. The term biodiversity was coined by_____________. (Edward Wilson)
4. The study of combination of animal behaviour and ecology is called as_____________. (Ethology)
5. _____________ is the place where an organism or community lives. (Habitat)
6. _____________ is the living medium of the habitat in a wetland. (Water)
7. _____________can be defined as the functional status of an organism in an ecosystem or the role played by a species in its natural habitat. (Niche)
8. The food which is totally non-nutritive and is consumed by the animals only to fulfil its stomach is called ___________. (Stuffing food)
9. The period in which the food is not sufficiently available and causes trouble to the animal, is called __________. (Pinch period)

1. The term extension is __________ word. (Latin)
2. _____________ is the father of extension. (Leagnes)
3. The term extension was first used in _____________. (U.K.)
4. The goal of the extension is to promote ______________. (Scientific out-look)
5. The success of rural projects depends upon ______________. (Agricultural Extension)
6. The National Extension Service was started in the year ___________. (2nd Oct., 1953)
7. Training of Rural Youth for self employment was started in the year _____________. (1980)
8. Agriculture extension was first started in ________________. (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour)
9. T & V programme was introduced in ____________. (1974)

This chapter covers plant breeding’s present, past, and future prospects with a special emphasis on cultivar development. In order to increase agricultural production and productivity (yield per unit area) of important crops, plant breeders have achieved significant achievements in the genetic enhancement of yield, adaptive features, disease–pest resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and nutritional qualities. Plant breeding is more crucial than ever to address production issues in order to provide a steady supply of food, feed, and fiber due to the growing demands of the human population and rising climate fluctuations. Now a days plant breeders have advanced tools to create superior cultivars because of recent technological developments in the fields of phenomics, genomics, and biotechnology. This chapter has covered important topics of crop domestication, pre-Mendelian and post Mendelian plant breeding, plant breeding in the 20th and 21st centuries, including information on the green revolution, genetically engineered crops, molecular marker applications, image-based phenotyping, machine learning techniques, and the relationship between both public and private plant breeding organizations, and future plant breeding efforts.

Modern and transgenic breeding approaches consist of modern plant breeding triangle, high-throughput phenotyping (HTP), marker-assisted selection (MAS), marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC), genomic selection (GS), genome-wide association study (GWAS), and genome editing. MAS accelerates trait identification through DNA markers, improving efficiency in selecting plants with desired traits. MABC employs molecular markers to facilitate gene introgression from donor parents (DPs) to superior recurrent parents (RPs). GS employs genome-wide markers to predict performance, revolutionizing breeding by considering both major and minor-effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Genome editing techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated protein 9) enable targeted gene modifications for desired traits. Genome editing involves selecting target genes, designing guide RNAs for Cas9, and introducing the CRISPR-Cas9 system into plants. This technology has been utilized to enhance crop productivity, sustainability, and disease resistance. Transgenic crops are designed to carry specific traits, such as pest resistance, virus resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and nutritional enrichment. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is highlighted as a tool for transgene introduction, offering advantages like low copy number integration and stable expression. Genetic engineering remains a promising avenue for creating disease-resistant crops and ensuring global food security.

The chapter “Breeding Strategies for Disease Resistance” provides a comprehensive exploration of addressing disease resistance through various breeding strategies. In an era of escalating global challenges and climate change, where crop failures can lead to food shortages and economic instability, the chapter delves into strategies that integrate traditional breeding methods with cutting-edge genetic advancements to strengthen plants against pathogens. Understanding the genetics of plant–pathogen interactions holds profound importance. This knowledge elucidates the mechanisms underpinning disease development and offers insights into developing targeted strategies for disease management. By deciphering the genetic details governing host susceptibility and pathogen virulence, we gain the ability to engineer crops with enhanced resistance, reducing reliance on chemical interventions and promoting sustainable agriculture. The chapter further discusses the mechanism of disease resistance in plants which involves inherent genetic traits that identify pathogen molecules, triggering a rapid defense response called “gene-for-gene” interaction. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), where a local pathogen attack prompts the entire plant to boost its defense preparedness. Signaling molecules like salicylic acid play a pivotal role. Additionally, plants employ chemical defenses via secondary metabolites and leverage beneficial microorganisms to stimulate immune pathways. This coordinated approach empowers plants to effectively counter pathogens and elevate disease resistance. In this chapter, we discuss breeding strategies for disease resistance that encompass a range of vital approaches. Traditional methods involve selecting and breeding plants with inherent resistance traits and incorporating genes from related species to enhance defenses.

Our natural ecology comprises insects, which are known to have both advantageous and detrimental consequences. Insect pests are the main obstacles in maximizing agricultural crop output, since they directly or indirectly result in significant crop loss. The intricate relationship that phytophagous insects have with their hosts is the result of a protracted and ongoing evolutionary process. Because of this, it is impossible to completely eradicate them, but there is a hopeful fix for this issue, i.e., utilizing insect resistant crop varieties. Insect-resistant kinds are those that, with the same starting infestation level and similar environmental conditions, yield considerably higher yields of high-quality fruit than susceptible varieties. By boosting yield and reducing pesticide use, these varieties had an enormous economic benefit. There are a number of highly effective insect resistance mechanisms that the targeted insect pest cannot simply overcome. This chapter discusses various breeding strategies such as introduction, selection, and hybridization as well as some modern breeding approaches that have been used to develop many insect-resistant crop varieties that have significantly improved the world’s food supply, by reducing carbon inputs through reduced pesticide use. By expressing bacterial endotoxins and producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, genetic engineering also aids in the production of insect-resistant crops. Furthermore, RNA interference (RNAi) and genome editing by CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated 9) offer new avenues for the production of insect-resistant crops.

Salinity stress poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity worldwide, impeding crop growth and yield potential. Developing crop varieties with enhanced salinity tolerance is essential for ensuring food security and sustainable agriculture. Salinity stress, resulting from excessive salt accumulation in soil and irrigation water, adversely impacts crop growth, water uptake, and nutrient assimilation. Traditional breeding methods, coupled with recent advancements in molecular and genomic techniques, have enabled the development of crop varieties capable of thriving in saline environments. Genetic diversity serves as the foundation for breeding efforts, allowing the identification and selection of individuals with inherent salinity tolerance traits. Utilization of wild crop relatives and landraces provides a valuable reservoir of genetic variation for salinity stress adaptation. Incorporation of molecular markers into breeding programs expedites the selection of desirable traits. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with salinity tolerance are identified through techniques such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and linkage mapping, facilitating marker assisted selection. Additionally, recent strides in gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–associated protein 9) offer precise modification of candidate genes responsible for salinity response, accelerating the breeding process. A holistic approach encompassing physiological and biochemical aspects is crucial for accurate phenotypic selection. Traits, such as ion homeostasis, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidative capacity, provide insights into a plant’s salinity tolerance potential