eChapters

Introduction

The biology is the study of life forms, subdivided into a variety of specialist categories that include their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.The conservation of endangered species is often equated with the preservation of biodiversity by people all over the world. Although endangered species are among the most obvious and understandable markers of the continual loss of biodiversity, ecologists are aware that biodiversity involves much more than just endangered species. An increasingly popular and crucial component of initiatives to preserve the ecological diversity of the planet is the protection of such species.

Endangered species

Endangered (EN): A taxon that is not critically endangered but facing a very high risk of extinction in the natural environment in the near future, it is considered to be endangered.

The important criteria are

1. A decline of at least 50% over at least 10 years or three generations that has been observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected. 2. Population thought to consist of no more than 2500 mature individuals.

Introduction

Because of their incredible diversity of life and amazing distinctiveness, coral reefs are frequently referred to as the "Tropical Rainforests of the Sea". Reefs are vast biological treasure troves that provide millions of people throughout the world with a variety of economic and environmental services. Corals are useful and beautiful things that are members of the phylum Anthozoa. The massive reefs that are only visible at low tides are built by hermatypic corals and their symbiotic zooxanthellae. Corals are only found in the ocean and, taxonomically speaking, are part of the scleratinia order.

The solitary forms, known as ahermatypes, are both solitary and colonial and lack symbionts. Corals that form reefs are actively growing in the ocean's photic zone. Around the world, a belt of coral reefs can be seen in the tropical waters. Coral reefs are of immense importance, but due to both natural and man-made influences, they are rapidly degrading and disappearing at an alarming rate. By 2030, 90% of the reefs would be in danger if current rates of erosion are permitted to continue. It is crucial to comprehend the coral reefs' current state of health and the growing dangers to them. The study's goals are to examine management and conservation strategies and shed knowledge on the expanding issue of coral exploitation (Jhajhria, 2021).

Introduction

In 1952, the classical theory of survey sampling neared completion. In 1952, Horvitz and Thompson created a general theory with an aim to create objective estimations. As Horvitz and Thompson completed the Classical theory, the random sampling strategy was mostly agreed upon. The majority of the great books on sampling were written by numerous authors. (Yates, 1949; Deming, 1950; Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow 1953; Cochran et al., 1953).

Why Sample?

• Particularly in fisheries, it is impractical to count every single specimen.

• Sampling gives a depiction of an organism's abundance and dispersion.

• A sufficient number of samples must be used to ensure that the results are accurate representations of the condition. Notwithstanding the fact that the sample is considered to be the credible and representative of the population and that the data shows accuracy, the sample may not accurately reflect the system's real population. As a result, sampling introduces a mistake.

• Sampling error is the statistical error showing the difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true values of a population parameter when all the units in the population are counted in the same way that the sample is counted.

Introduction

Plastics has the versatile properties like light weight, durability, less expensiveness, and it is readily available for the consumers usage. Due to these diverse properties, the usage of the plastics is increasing day to day and their production has been increased drastically in the past 50 years (Cressey, 2016). At present, global plastics production has reached to 159 million tonnes. This diversified consumption has led to the production of enormous amount of plastic waste (Hahladakis et al., 2018) and their properties allows for long range transport in the ocean (Baalkhuyur et al., 2018). According to the Earth Action reports, nearly 68,64,299 tonnes of plastic waste will end up in nature due to imbalance between the plastics consumption and production. India is among 12 countries responsible for 52 % of the world mismanaged plastic waste (Plastic Overshoot Day: Report 2023).

Marine litter occurrence and impacts are common in worldwide marine systems (Bhattacharya and Khare, 2019) and they are degraded into micro sized particles called microplastics through a various physical, chemical and biological processes such as U-V light, wind and ocean currents (Solomon and Palanisami, 2016). Microplastics are < 5mm in size and are further divided into large and small microplastics of size 1–5 mm and 20 µm–1 mm, respectively (Loder and Gerdtz, 2015). Microplastics are classified into 2 categories: i) primary microplastics, intentionally produced as small sizes, used in cosmetics, microfibers from clothing, fishing nets, and their shape, size, colour, and chemical composition may vary depending upon the products. ii) Secondary microplastics are the tiny particles including fibres, fragments formed by the degradation or breakdown of larger plastics particles due to the UV rays from sunlight oxidation process. These particles are generated from the plastic films, accidentally or intentionally discarded fishing ropes and nets, plastic bottles and plastic bags etc. (Andrady, 2011).

Introduction

''Sewage, also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, is produced by communities of people. It is characterized by its volume or flow rate, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and bacteriological status. Sewage primarily consists of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (water used to flush toilets, combined with human waste)."

The four primary types of wastewater are domestic, industrial, agricultural, and urban. Domestic wastewater comprises black water containing human and animal feces, along with gray water from household tasks such as bathing, washing, cooking, and gardening. Industrial wastewater consists of industrial byproducts like pulp, paper, petrochemical runoff, chemicals, salts, and acids. Agricultural wastewater originates from agricultural practices, contaminated groundwater, and farming methods, particularly those involving fertilizers and pesticides. Urban wastewater is a blend of domestic and industrial wastewaters, compounded by sewage infiltration and rainwater.

Introduction

India has a coastline of 8,118 km, with an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million sq km and a continental shelf area of 3,72,424 km², spread across 9 maritime States and seven Union Territories, including the islands of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. India represents 2.5 percent of the world’s landmass and supports a population of over one billion people. India is also one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world, with 7.8% of the recorded species of the world, including 45,500 recorded species of plants and 91,000 recorded species of animals. The marine ecosystem is extremely diverse, attributed to the geomorphologic and climatic variations along the coast. The coastal and marine habitat includes near shore, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, mud flats, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes, wetlands, seaweed and sea grass beds, deltaic plains, estuaries, lagoons and coral reefs.

Importance of Study

The detailed studies on the coastal and marine biodiversity of the Indian mainland are lacking, and so these habitats and the biodiversity are represented poorly. It is obvious that the biodiversity is distributed widely among different associated habitats and conserving a single area would never support all the important species and ecological processes worth protecting. Furthermore, biodiversity can only be conserved by preventing habitat loss and by restoration. The importance of any single species in the functioning of an ecosystem may not be high, but protection of a mosaic of habitats will certainly preserve diversity among the species of conservation importance. Also, to achieve the Biodiversity Aichi Targets with reference to the marine environment are to preserve ecologically sensitive areas and maintain the health of the marine environment by protection, sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.

Introduction

Plastic is the main component of environmental pollution, as it is continuously disposed of into the environment in substantial quantities. Since the creation of the first plastic polymer in the mid-twentieth century, plastic production has increased dramatically, from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 280 million tons of plastic produced in 2011, with an annual growth rate of 8.7 % (Europe, 2017). By the 2050s, humans are expected to generate 26 billion tons of plastic waste, four times the current levels of plastic waste globally. Due to this serious concern, the United Nations has prioritised plastic waste and its management as one of the fundamental environmental concerns in its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Plastics appear in the environment in visible and invisible forms. The visible form refers to common scenes, such as bags “flying” on tree branches, PET bottles floating in rivers, lakes, and seas or face masks we use daily. The visible form of plastic in the environment is an aesthetic mockery and a reminder of the socially indiscriminate reception of all offers from the petrochemical industry. The invisible form of plastics is called nanoplastics.

Introduction

The production of seaweeds in 2018 is about 36 million tonnes were produced from the dominated by the species Japanese kelp, Laminaria japonica followed by Eucheuma spp mostly originated by mariculture (SOFIA, 2022). In India seaweed are widely present in the Gulf of Mannar in the Tamilnadu and Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat coastal region. Parallelly the work on the seaweeds is also unrestricted in India, being top in the area of research especially in their bioactive compounds(Fig.,1). Since the age of ancient Egyptians to our current generation, peoples towards the beauty conscious unrestricted. Currently the exposure of e-commerce platform to the all-aged groups makes them the urge to buy more beauty enhancing products. From the film stars, whom it’s their main line of work to the people it doesn’t costs any financial income the role of cosmetics is unavoidable. Though it’s not providing any physical health, the emotional sanity enduring self-confidence is one of the principal reasons. And so the beauty industry is considered as the a dynamic segment that is ripe for disruption and the well-known actors are their key for its premiumization. Nowadays peoples are concern about their health along with beauty which leads to many companies investing in green and ecofriendly cosmetic product development. Seaweed is one among them. Seaweeds are marine macro algal species includes Chlorophyceae (green algae), Rhodophyceae (red algae) and Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) grown along the seashore which get differentiated based on the presence of carotenoids like chlorophyll, phycobiliproteins, fucoxanthins, beta carotene and so on. The presence of versatile bioactive compounds like diterpenes, proteins, antioxidants, flavonoids, phenols and especially polysaccharides (sulfated and non-sulfated) associated with seaweed makes them a good alternative to the synthetic cosmeceutical industry by producing novel beauty products (Couteau & Coiffard, 2016).

Introduction

Revolutionary makeovers have happened in the fisheries, from traditional f ishing practices to the FAD and so on. However the introduction of trawlers had made a huge impact on the marine ecosystem. As trawling is made for catching the bottom dwelling shrimps, but one of the untargeted catch in trawling is Squid. As the squids gained an important role in the export market, the demand for the squids is being increasing inevitably. In response specialised fishing practices called Squid Jigging directly targeting squid resource in parallel minimised the harm on other Marine resources. The frozen and dried squids are extensively exported from the India since 1973and now it ranked fourth in terms of quantity and economic value (CMFRI). In the year 2020-22 The total f ish production of India was about 162.48 lakh tonnes in which the marine and inland sectors contributed about 41.27 and 121.21 lakh tonnes respectively (Handbook of fisheries statistics, 2022), In That the bulk of the squid landing comes from the west coast (0.28 lakh tonnes) from landed, which mostly dominated by Karnataka and from the east coast (0.12 lakh tonnes) the catch is dominated by Tamilnadu followed by Odisha. Even though a considerable amount of squid catch is obtained as the by-catch from the trawl nets, but the primary catch comes from squid jigging.

Introduction

Seaweeds, also known as marine macroalgae, grow in intertidal zones to deep sea environments. Based on their pigmentation, seaweeds are classified into three groups. They are red (Rhodophyta), green (Chlorophyta), and brown (Phaeophyta). Seaweeds are the primary producers in marine ecosystems; they also contribute to carbon fixation, nutrient cycling, reducing wave energy, preventing coastal erosion, and oxygen production. The complex, three dimensional growing nature of seaweeds helps habitat marine flora and fauna. Seaweeds are consumed as food in many countries, particularly in Asia due to their high nutritional content. Along with their nutritional value, they contain bioactive compounds with potential pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications. Agar and alginate from seaweeds are used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Seaweeds are integral part of marine ecosystems. Chemical pollutants including pesticides can disrupt these ecosystems by harming their populations, which directly or indirectly affect the marine environment. seaweeds are not only essential components of marine ecosystems. They are also consumed directly or indirectly in various food products (e.g., sushi, soups, and salads). The pesticides in the marine environment absorbed by seaweeds and bioaccumulate in the food chain. Seaweed cultivation is an emerging sector worldwide. The applications of seaweeds are food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and biofuels production. Seaweeds contaminate with pesticides leads to economic loss and reducing market demand. Manu of the seaweed consuming countries have safety limit for pesticide residues in food products, including seaweeds. The presence of pesticides in seaweeds also helps the development of risk assessment and management strategies including source identification, exposure pathways, and mitigating measures. The monitoring of pesticides in seaweeds provides the contamination levels over time, which helps to identifying the emerging issues, assess the effectiveness of regulatory measures, and guide adaptive management strategies.

Introduction

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) into the fisheries sector repre sents a significant advance toward modernizing an industry critical to global food security and economic stability. This chapter highlights the comprehensive exploration of the role of IoT technology in fisheries, its applications, implications and the challenges faced by fish farmers in adopting it.

Background and Context of IoT in Fisheries Sector

The fisheries industry, with its complex web of marine ecosystems and global supply chains, has long been characterized by fundamental interactions between humans and the environment. As the global population grows and consumer demand for seafood increases, the need for sustainable, efficient and technologically advanced fishing practices is becoming increasingly important (Prapti et al., 2022). This is where IoT introduces an innovative range of devices and solutions to meet the emerging demands of the sector.

Overview of IoT Applications in Fisheries

IoT technology opens up a box of possibilities in the fisheries sector. Real time monitoring of marine conditions, vessel tracking and fleet management, aquaculture optimization, supply chain management and predictive analytics are among the primary applications explored in this chapter. By analyzing these applications, we show how IoT increases the efficiency and sustainability of the fishing industry.

Contemporary tilapia cultivation is aligned with the principles of circular bioeconomy, aiming to minimize resource inputs while maximizing waste and effluent reuse. This strategy involves closing the loops of various economic and ecological resources as well as decentralizing the production systems for localized production and consumption. Growing concerns about disease outbreaks along with market demands for environmentally responsible and sustainable aquaculture practices are propelling a transformative shift. This shift is characterized by structural advancements in water and effluent reuse through closed-loop recirculation systems that repurpose waste as valuable nutrients. Today one of the pivotal trends in tilapia farming is the adoption of circular bio-economy principles which is exemplified by diverse recirculation systems including Biofloc Technology (BFT), Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PASs), Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS), bio RAS, , In Pond Recirculation Systems (IPRS) and Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA). The trajectory of tilapia culture often aligns with the trajectory of urban agriculture as well as waste fermentation. Low-demand water recirculation systems are poised to spearhead a disruption in industries across five key sectors (material, information, energy, transport, and food/ health) that rely heavily on extraction. This transformation is driving the transition towards a more sustainable and localized model.

Introduction

In a world often characterized by competition and individualism, co-operatives emerge as unique entities that prioritize unity, shared goals, and collective well-being. Co-operatives, also known as co-ops, are voluntary associations of individuals who come together to address common needs and aspirations through collectively owned and democratically governed enterprises. Rooted in principles of collaboration, inclusivity, and mutual support, co-operatives play a vital role in various sectors, including agriculture, finance, consumer goods, and social services. Their essence lies in creating a platform where people can pool resources, skills, and efforts to improve their economic, social, and cultural conditions. At the heart of the co-operative philosophy is the belief that by working together, individuals can achieve more than they could on their own. Co-operatives are not driven by profit-maximization but by the desire to meet the needs of their members while fostering a sense of community and empowerment. Whether it's farmers joining forces to access better markets, consumers forming buying clubs to obtain affordable products, or workers creating businesses to share ownership and decision-making, co operatives embody the principle of "people helping people."

Introduction

The population pressure, economic expansion, and dietary changes have all led to the rise in demand for foods with animal origin. On the other hand, the fishing industry has a lot of opportunity to close the supply and demand imbalance. The average global per capita consumption has climbed to 20.3 kg, with Asia accounting for about 91.6% of the world's supply of aquaculture fish. Most of this fish is consumed domestically (FAO, 2022). India produced 14.16 million tonnes of fish in 2019-20. Across the region, per capita consumption varies significantly ranging from 63 kg/year in the case of Japan (Delgado et al. 2003) to only 5-6 kg/year in India where only one-third of the population are f ish-eaters (Dey et al. 2005). As you know fish consumption rate is increasing day by day because it contains high protein, Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids {Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)} which is expected to have huge health benefits. Although the supply and demand for different species vary, the Indian major carp (IMC) predominates in satisfying the nation's demand for fish. With a diverse population of around 1.3 billion to feed, knowledge of demand and supply is necessary especially in fisheries sector. Since, fish is a perishable commodity its supplying is a tough task to accomplish. Before studying the demand and supply firstly we have to focus on what is ‘Need’ and ‘Want’.

Introduction

Seafood demand has grown over the years due to its numerous nutritional advantages, acting as a primary contributor to global nutritional security, and the industry supports the livelihood of several million people. Persistent growth in demand for animal protein keeps the fisheries and aquaculture an important role. The average annual seafood demand growth across countries varies between 6 % and 7.5% (Kidane et al., 2021). Hence, Increased fish production, increased the per-capita fish consumption of the respective country (Garlock et al., 2022). Global average fish consumption has increased from 9.9 kg in 1961 to 20.5 kg in 2019 (FAO, 2022). The coastal countries of Iceland and Maldives are leading in per capita fish consumption with 92 kg and 85 kg respectively. While, landlocked countries such as Afghanistan, Ethiopia, and Tajikistan are the least in per capita fish consumption with less than 1 kg of fish per annum. The leading fish producers China (39 kg) and India (6.8 kg) positioned 7th and 15th place respectively in 2019 (World Economic Forum, 2022). India plays a significant role in export as like production with a global share of 5.2 % after Norway (10.4 %) and China (8.6 %). Shrimp is the primary commodity of export in India’s seafood basket with a share of 25 % of the World’s shrimp export next to Ecuador (44 %) during 2021-22. Frozen f ish is the second largest exportable item of India’s seafood export which contributed 22 % in quantity and 8.6 % in earnings next to frozen shrimp with 41 % in quantity and 67 % in export earnings. Followed by frozen cuttlefish & squid and dried items had an export share of 9 % and 5 % respectively during 2022-23 (MPEDA, 2023). Shrimp farming in India is also extending from 1.17 lakh hectares during 2010-11 to 1.67 lakh hectares during 2020-21 in India with production of 1.3 lakh tons to 8.4 lakh tons of shrimps respectively to meet the trade advantage.

Introduction

Aquatic habitats are essential to preserving the delicate balance of life in the complex web of ecosystems that make up our world. We must investigate novel and sustainable strategies to maintain the health and vigour of aquatic species because we are the custodians of these delicate ecosystems. In the course of this endeavour, an intriguing chapter titled "Green Medicine for Aquatic Wellness: Phytotherapy as a Promising Approach to Fish Health Management" is presented. A world filled with different aquatic life exists within the glittering depths of our lakes, rivers, and seas. Each species is a vital component of the aquatic ecology, from the colourful tropical fish that adorn coral reefs to the hardy creatures that live in freshwater streams. The peace of their environments might be disturbed by a number of diseases that these animals are prone to, just like any other living thing.

Introduction

Aquaculture stands as the swiftest expanding sector within the food industry, with an escalating per capita consumption of fish-derived animal protein. India, as the world's third-largest fish producer, contributes significantly to this trend, boasting a fish production of 16.24 million tons, which corresponds to 8% of the global fish production. Nevertheless, several challenges persist and must be addressed, including the absence of species-specific or functional feeds, the dearth of genetically modified strains or breeds, the availability of high-quality fish species, and the rising incidence of fish diseases. Recent strides in "omics" technologies have furnished a potent toolkit and conceptual framework that enables the comprehensive dissection of the phenotypic and functional networks of genes and proteins within cells or organisms (Mohanty et al., 2019). This innovative research domain has spawned technological advancements that harness the power of "omics" to scrutinize diverse biological systems (Ning and Lo, 2010). The integration of "omics" in aquaculture research has effectively surmounted numerous challenges related to production and reproduction, thereby ensuring its relevance and economic viability. This technology empowers researchers to analyze an array of molecules on a massive scale, marking an early and groundbreaking technological leap forward in this field.

Introduction

Aquaculture, involving the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and aquatic plants, has become indispensable for global food security and employment. However, the intensification of aquaculture practices, characterized by high stocking densities, has led to increased stress among farmed organisms, which in turn makes them more susceptible to diseases. Disease outbreaks in aquaculture can have devastating effects, necessitating both prophylactic and therapeutic measures to maintain the health and productivity of these organisms.

Prophylactic measures, such as vaccines and immunostimulants, play a vital role in preventing disease outbreaks. For instance, vaccines targeting common bacterial pathogens like Aeromonas hydrophila are widely used in fish farming. Immunostimulants like beta-glucans are also administered to enhance the immune response of aquatic organisms. On the therapeutic front, antibiotics remain the most commonly used agents to treat infections once they occur. However, the extensive use of antibiotics has led to several significant issues. Firstly, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major concern, with the excessive use of antibiotics in aquaculture contributing to the development of resistant bacterial strains. These resistant pathogens can spread to other aquatic organisms and humans, posing a serious public health risk. Secondly, the presence of antibiotic residues in seafood can lead to export rejections, as many countries enforce strict regulations on such residues. This can result in considerable economic losses for aquaculture producers. Lastly, residual antibiotics in seafood can cause allergic reactions in consumers and contribute to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant infections.

Introduction

The organism’s defence against infection is provided by the intricate network of organs, cells, and proteins that make up the immune system. In general, there are two types of immunological responses seen in vertebrates: the innate and adaptive immune systems. Innate immunity is the first line of defence against any foreign molecule or pathogenic invasion. Innate immunity can be classified into physical barriers, cellular and humoral factors. The physical barriers such as scales, skin, gill, gastrointestinal tract and mucus are used to prevent entry of pathogens into the body. Fish mucus contains different enzymes, complement proteins, antimicrobial peptides and IgM that are efficient in trapping and killing of pathogens (Magnadóttir B. 2006). Cellular components of an innate immune system include a variety of immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, opsonins, lymphokines, natural cytotoxic cells, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, eicosanoids and cytokines. They play different roles in innate immunity with their own specific pathways to prevent pathogens in the host body. Humoral factors include growth inhibitor proteins like transferrin, interferons, enzyme inhibitors, lysin, C-reactive proteins, lectins and lysozymes (Secombes and Belmonte, 2016; Roberts, 2012).

Introduction

In the past few decades, the shrimp aquaculture industry has become an increasing disease challenge, impacting huge economic losses and sustainable development. Viruses, bacteria, and microsporidian parasites are major pathogens that threaten shrimp healthcare and currently, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) pathogens, and fungi have emerging diseases in the shrimp industry worldwide.

Naturally, invertebrate crustaceans, including shrimp, depend on nonspecific immune responses mainly involved by haemolymph and hemocytic cells. A cellular immune process involving phagocytosis, encapsulation, nodulation, and prophenol oxidase leads to melanin synthesis and humoral responses such as secretion of clotting protein, enzyme inhibitors, antioxidant enzymes and antimicrobial peptides for killing or resistance against invading pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are evolutionary conserved small peptide molecules ubiquitously found in all living organisms. AMPs are an integral part of the innate immune system in various organisms. These peptides have a broad spectrum of inhibitory effects against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Shrimp AMPs are short, molecular weight of less than 13 kDa, possess diverse structures, sizes, and biochemical features, and have an amphipathic structure with cationic or anionic properties that selectively target the negatively charged membranes of microbes.

Introduction

The global food system is anticipated to supply safe and nutritious food to a population that is expected to increase from 7.5 billion now to approximately 10 billion by 2050. Not only will there be more mouths to feed, but as incomes rise in rising and developing nations, demand for meat, fish, and dairy will rise as well (Brooks et al., 2019). Demand for agricultural commodities is rising rapidly as the world's population grows. Agriculture’s deep connections to the world economy, human societies, and biodiversity make it one of the most important frontiers for conservation around the globe (world wildlife).

Today's connected world has given entrepreneurs millions of new places to start small businesses, and the Internet has a lot of information to help them. Also, the internet has made it easier for business owners to connect with their peers, learn from their mistakes, and use their good decisions as a guide for their paths.

Introduction

Business planning is required to meet the expectations of the future of any business and to meet the expected or unexpected obstacles that the future may hold. In the absence of a proper business plan, any business tends to fail. Not many are aware of the importance of preparing a good business plan. A good plan not only helps in planning as per the expected outcomes, but it also aids in seeking the right funds and bringing favourable investment into the business. However, the question remains: how to prepare an effective business plan. To aid in business planning, many use a Business Model Canvas. A Business Model Canvas or BMC (Figure 1), is a tool that represents different organisational components briefly in a very creative way. These components create the value of any organisation. The BMC is a strategy tool that also analyses the business situation of an existing business. There are nine components of a BMC, which are also referred to as the building blocks of an organisation. These are customer segments, Proposition, Channels, Customer Relationships, Key Resources, Key Activities, Key Partners, Cost Structure, and Revenue Structure. If BMC is prepared well, there are good chances that the Business plan will be developed well, which reduces the chances of failure in business. At the same time, it helps the business sail through the competitive environment smoothly and stay sustainable in the long run (Johnson, 2020).

Introduction

The smooth functioning of an organisation depends on its financial resources. For a newly established venture, it is important to accurately predict its financial requirements for the purpose of raising funds and assessing the profitability of the proposal. While the major investment in an organisation could be for short term and long-term purposes, there are multiple sources from which these funds could be raised. The conventional sources mainly include commercial banks and other financial institutions; non-conventional sources include lease financing, angel investors, venture capitalist firms, factoring, and bill discounting.

Finance is the basic requirement for the smooth functioning of any organisation. Finance is required to meet the short-term and long-term requirements of a f irm. While the short-term fund is required to meet day-to-day expenses, long term funds are required for the acquisition of long-term or fixed assets that would yield benefits in the future, financing the permanent part of working capital, and for the growth and expansion of a business.

The quantum of both finances depends upon the nature and size of the business’s organisation, and the sources from which one acquires these funds also have a multi-dimensional range.

Introduction

Agribusiness refers to the industry that deals with farming and the selling of agricultural products, including the cultivation of crops, their processing, and their distribution to retailers. Producing and distributing crops, agrichemicals, fodder, breeding, farm equipment, seed supply, raw and processed commodities of food and fibre, warehousing, transporting, packing, marketing, retailing, soil testing, and testing for nutrient deficiencies are all part of the agribusiness industry.

It's important for an excellent brand name to provide a solid basis on which a company can grow. Companies need to identify who they are trying to sell to. Will people have no trouble pronouncing it? The tongue shouldn't have to work too hard to say it. Can you pronounce the name easily? Your brand name needs to be audible to consumers. Have you tested the name's spelling ability?

Choosing what aspect of agriculture or agribusiness you want to enter is the f irst step. So, you can't make a call like this until you have a firm grasp on your company's long-term goals, operational strategy, and financial situation. You can still enter the market if you aren't an expert in the equipment, products, grains, soil, seeds, or plants involved; nevertheless, you should go in with your eyes wide open, a well-thought-out business plan, and a competent team.

Introduction

Secondary agriculture is described as an enterprise-level productive activity that uses as raw material the primary product and byproducts of agriculture, as well as other biological resources available locally in its rural agrarian neighbourhood. The Government of India's Committee on Doubling Farmers' Income (DFI, Vol. IX, 2018) raised the issue of food waste and loss and proposed secondary agriculture. The committee classified secondary agriculture into three types: A, B, and C. Type 'A' avenues focus on adding value to primary agriculture production systems, either as input or output; Type B avenues focus on alternative firms that do not compete for resources; and Type C avenues focus on primary agriculture crop residues and wastes (Singh et al., 2022).

Sustainable development goals want to link primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors by using idle factors of production like land and labour. Promoting secondary agriculture can help reach these goals by increasing production in primary agriculture, capturing "value" in primary agricultural activities, and making businesses more money (Financial Express, 2019).

In this chapter, four opportunities for income augmentation in secondary agriculture, viz. plant nursery enterprise, herbal gulal farming, mushroom farming and beekeeping, have been explained.

Introduction

In the past, when television sets entered almost every household and there was a set of TV channels that broadcasted news, daily soaps, songs, etc., a channel named "Discovery" entered the market and soon became very popular among all age groups due to the scientific documentaries that it broadcasted and soon enough took over the market. It's obvious to the eyes that they created something unique, innovative, and possessing utility. The success behind the TV channel was that it tapped the uncontested market and hence had no other channel of its kind to compete with. They created a new niche, and based on this, they generated huge profits, success, and popularity. This strategy is very famous today in the name of the “Blue Ocean Strategy” introduced by Kim and Mauborgne (2005). The same strategy has immense potential in alleviating the agripreneurial ventures wherein the greater homogeneity of the products brings in an issue of increased competition. Hence, being creative and innovative on the part of entrepreneurs can open greater avenues for new products in the market, wherein the new product may benefit from the uncontesting environment in the market.

Introduction

The cultivation of flowering and attractive plants is referred to as floriculture, sometimes known as flower farming. Even though flowers have long been planted in India for a variety of purposes, including aesthetic, social, and religious purposes, the commercial floriculture sector is a relatively recent development.

The industry of floriculture has a great deal of untapped potential and has quickly become an essential part of modern life. The floriculture industry has developed into a business that is run for profit, has achieved significant market value, and is poised to realise favourable prospects. In India, the cultivation of blooming plants, including garden plants, cut flowers, foliage plants, potted flowering plants, and other types of blooming plants, is referred to as f loriculture. In today's world, flowering or ornamental plants are frequently used as part of several celebrations' decorations or as presents due to their versatility. They are also used as vital raw materials in the sectors of perfume, pharmaceuticals, and oil extraction. So, to start a floriculture firm in India, it is necessary to comprehend how agribusiness is used in its marketing and production.

Introduction

Agri-entrepreneurship stands as a vital driver of socio-economic upliftment within society, offering a range of benefits that span from poverty reduction to rural development. In economies, where agriculture remains a cornerstone (Welter, 2011), fostering entrepreneurship in this sector can lead to substantial improvements in livelihoods, income generation, and overall economic growth (Watson, 2013). With support from relevant statistics and references, this article discusses the importance of agri-entrepreneurship.

Economic Growth and Job Creation: Agri-entrepreneurship contributes significantly to economic growth. According to the World Bank, agriculture employs over 25% of the world's labour force and accounts for a substantial portion of GDP in many developing countries. Encouraging agri-entrepreneurs to innovate and invest can lead to the creation of diverse agricultural enterprises, generating employment opportunities both on and off the farm. This, in turn, reduces unemployment rates and drives local economic development (Stam, 2016; Welter & Gartner, 2016).

Poverty Alleviation: Rural poverty remains a significant challenge in many developing nations, where a substantial portion of the population relies on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agri-entrepreneurship empowers individuals to break free from subsistence farming and embrace value-added activities. By fostering innovation, diversification, and access to markets, agri entrepreneurship enables farmers to increase their income and improve their quality of life (Shane, 2007). According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), smallholder farmers, when equipped with entrepreneurial skills, are better positioned to escape poverty cycles.

Introduction Farmer Producer Company (FPC) is a dynamic form of farmer collective that enables strong backward and forward linkage to the member farmer, leading to enhanced socio-economic status amongst the farming community. As of March 31, 2019, there were 7,374 FPCs with a total of 860.18 crore in Paid-Up Capital (PUC). With a budget of 6,865 crore, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare announced in 2021 central scheme to support 10,000 farmer producer organisations. The Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC), the National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), and f lagship programmes like the Agriculture Investment Fund (AIF) have all contributed to expanding farmers' access to capital (www.livemint.com).

FPCs are effective tools that give smallholder farmers more influence over the trading markets. This improves agricultural output and raises the revenues of small-scale farmers. To fully realise the potential of FPCs, cluster-based business organisations must acknowledge the inherent difficulties that they face and understand how to avoid common management mistakes.

Branding scenario of successful FPCs

There have been very few Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) in India that have been running their businesses professionally and have become sustainable organisations over the years with well-established market linkages. Sahyadri Farmer Producer Company (Nashik, Maharashtra), Indian Organic Producer Company (Kerala), Bhangar Vegetable Producer Company (West Bengal), Madhya Pradesh Women’s Poultry Producer Company Pvt. Ltd. (Madhya Pradesh), Nachalur Farmers Producer Company Limited (Tamil Nadu), Maha Gujarat Agri Cotton Producer Company Ltd. (Gujarat), etc. are some of them, to name a few. A lot of sincere efforts have been put into strengthening their marketing linkages, viz. grading, processing, packaging, branding, distribution, etc. All the FPCs have been able to garner a significant market share because of their immaculate branding exercise. Their success has proved the fact that mere branding won’t guarantee large-scale consumer acceptance and it is brand positioning which is the required engine to drag the product towards consumers.

Introduction

According to the “Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies (MACS) Act” of 1995 or as a “Farmers Producer Corporation” (FPC) under the “Companies Act” of 2013, a Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO) is often a society or company made up of farmers who are actual producers of a specific crop or commodities. Depending on the demands of the producers and the demand potential to adopt a value chain approach to boost farmers' and producers' economic and social benefits, these organisations are established at the cluster, block, district, or state level. The Indian government, state governments, development organisations, and central institutions have recently placed a greater emphasis on farmer-producer firms. Many of the nations’ Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been aiding in the development of cooperatives and farmer-producer organisations.

Steps in formulation of FPOs

1. Preliminary Assessment and Need Identification

• Identify the group of farmers interested in forming an FPO.

• Conduct a preliminary assessment of the needs, resources, and aspirations of the farmers in the target area.

• Determine the type of products or crops that the FPO will focus on.

Introduction

Farmers Producer Organisations are associations of farmers and other rural producers formed based on membership to advance the members' common interests, engage in mutually beneficial technical and economic activities, and foster and sustain relationships with other organisations active in the same economic and institutional sphere. Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO) are a way for farmers, especially those on the margins of the industry, to band together and establish a strong front against the myriad problems plaguing the agricultural sector, including a lack of capital, knowledge, and access to markets. To better organise farmers, increase their ability to pool their resources, and increase their competitive edge in the marketplace, the Indian government's Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) has determined that Farmer Producer Organisations incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 are the best vehicle for doing so.

Background

More than 85% of India's 12.5 million agricultural households are classified as small and marginal farmers because they own less than two hectares of land. Every farmer, on average, owns 1.33 hectares of land. For farmers, investing in cutting-edge farming techniques and high-yielding inputs like seeds and fertiliser is simply not feasible in the current economic climate. They also don't make much money off their marketable surplus when they sell it off piece by piece. One strategy for farmers to reduce the cost of inputs and increase their bargaining position in the marketplace is to form Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs).

Introduction

With the growing population, increase in demand, and per capita income, tremendous pressure is put on the supply side, pushing them to rely on unsustainable practices to meet this existing and future demand. Compromising on sustainability has not only been responsible for climate change but also other negative environmental externalities. The modern agricultural corporate structure known as agribusiness, which can introduce sustainable and innovative technology into the agricultural sector, would pave the way for achieving all the sustainability dimensions, viz., social, economic, and environmental. With this expanding agribusiness sector, farmers can create a win-win alliance that maintains environmental harmony and financial success. There seems to be a huge scope to achieve sustainability goals well in advance by exploring the pathways with the help of the agri-business sector.

As the global population continues to grow, there will be an ever-increasing demand placed on the agricultural industry to provide more food as well as other raw materials. It is anticipated that farmers will need to produce 70% more food than is currently cultivated to feed up to 10 billion people by the year 2055 (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012). However, the situation is aggravated due to shrinking cultivated areas, depletion of natural resources, higher production costs, fewer farmers, and climatic changes. We are in the middle of a perfect storm of social, economic, and environmental pressures on the food supply around the world. Along with the increasing production and productivity, it has to be taken care of that the natural resources and environment are not exploited indiscriminately. Agriculture is both a threat to climate change and a possible way to stop it. Therefore, sustainability in agriculture is the only way forward. This commitment rests not only with the governments but with all the players in the agricultural supply chain. A holistic approach that concurrently tackles issues of environmental integrity, social equality, and economic prosperity is what we mean when we talk about sustainability. Over the course of the previous few decades, its significance to businesses operating in virtually all fields has grown substantially.

Introduction

The vast natural and cultural resources of India contribute to the country's abundant growth. Taking advantage of this, the tourist industry in India has experienced one of the most rapid growth rates seen anywhere in the world. The travel and tourism industry accounts for a significant portion of overall economic growth around the world, and over the past nine years, India's rate of economic expansion has consistently been higher than that of the whole economy. In 2019, the sector expanded at a pace of 3.5 percent, which was much higher than the world GDP growth rate of 2.5 percent. The tourist industry has a considerable bearing on India's overall economic performance. India is ranked as one of the top ten tourist destinations in the world. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) disclosed information indicating that the Indian tourism sector contributed INR 194 billion to India's GDP in 2019. Additionally, the tourism industry in India supported 87.5 million jobs, which accounted for 12.75 percent of total employment. However, for the past two years, due to COVID-19, the tourism sector worldwide, as well as in India, has faced huge losses and is in distress. So, it’s the right time to focus on developing tourism under different wings.

Introduction

India is the largest banana producer in the world. They grow bananas on an area of 9 million hectares and get 36 MT per hectare. India exported 2,000,000 MT of banana worth $1 billion to other nations. The banana production system supports the labour market, alternative food system, export eco-system, and nutritional security, among other things. The development of climate-resilient banana varieties, tissue culture protocols, macro-propagation, ornamental bananas, micronutrient mixtures, site-specific nutrient management, biocontrol agents for pest and disease control, robust virus diagnostic kits, and so on are all highly recommended and encouraged to make the banana industry sustainable and profitable in the long run. Technologies and products for use after harvest are also vital. Branding, supporting entrepreneurship via incubation platforms, marketing intelligence, and handholding for technical support are necessary to sustain banana production and drive value addition. Bananas and plantains, more than any other fruit or vegetable, constitute a staple food for millions of people worldwide and contribute to a healthy diet. In addition to carbohydrates, it's a wonderful source of potassium, vitamins, and minerals. The fat-free fruit has a calorie count of 90 per 100 grams. Dessert bananas are normally eaten raw, while plantains or cooking bananas are commonly prepared in a variety of savoury ways, such as boiling, steaming, frying, or roasting. The banana industry has expanded in recent years, making a greater contribution to the economy in terms of both employment and food supply.

Introduction Insects are the largest group of individuals in the phylum Arthropoda. They are the most dominant species on earth, as they originated 480 million years ago. Insects account for damage to agriculture produced through pest incidence; they also render benefits through pollination services, reduction in pest population as natural enemies, and various other services. Utilisation of beneficial insects like silkworms, honeybees, and lac insects for their products was well known to Indian people way back. In the current chapter, opportunities for the utilisation of some of these beneficial insects for emerging businesses are discussed.

Insect farming

By 2050, there will be a 60% increase in the global need for proteins, driven by the unrelenting growth of the human population. What is very disturbing is that present protein manufacturing uses very unsustainable methods, in addition to this exponential increase. The ecosystem is under a lot of stress from traditional farming practices, which also contribute to the loss of already depleted wild fish species and water supplies. By 2050, there will be 10 billion people on the planet, and to feed them sustainably, new farming options such as insect farming will be necessary. Due to their rapid rates of reproduction and high protein content, insects are extremely simple to produce (Igini, 2022).

Introduction

Sericulture is regarded as a significant rural and cottage industry in India. It can generate more income in addition to agricultural crops. Although being viewed as a secondary occupation, sericulture may now be practiced on a large scale due to technological advancements. Since it provides a steady source of revenue, cocoon production and cultivation could be seen as a vital economic tool for the improvement of rural communities. It spreads its welfare-raising distributive impact both in the rural and urban sectors of society throughout its vertical process of production (from the rearing of silkworms to the fabrication of silk goods). Although farmers in rural regions engage in sericulture operations, most of the silk is produced in urban towns and cities through weaving. As a result, silk and sericulture are interconnected with both the agrarian and cottage industries, having a broad-based distributive effect on the creation of jobs and revenue. The employment generation pattern of the sericulture sector has been divided into two main categories by the Indian Sericulture Industry: 1) Direct employment, which includes mulberry cultivation, leaf harvesting, and silkworm rearing. 2) Indirect employment examples include reeling, twisting, weaving, printing, dyeing, finishing, and processing silk waste.

Introduction

Most of India's population, which lives in rural areas and is largely uneducated and unskilled, is unable to compete in the employment market generated by the expansion of the service industry. They are therefore reliant on the agricultural sector for their means of subsistence. Even in the modern era, the agriculture industry is still a significant source of employment, as it employs more than fifty percent of the labour force. The cyclical and seasonal character of unemployment is made worse by the fact that agriculture is inherently seasonal and that there are insufficient irrigation facilities.

A significant portion of the labour force used in agriculture is of a secretive character. Even though they provide the appearance of having a job, their marginal production is zero. Even if some of the younger people living in rural farm communities want to move away from primary agricultural production activities and towards secondary agricultural and agribusiness pursuits, it is possible that the current level of agricultural production will not be impacted in any way (Shivacharan et al., 2017). This led to a focus on seeing agriculture as a commercialization aspect for improving the economic aspects of the people who aspire to entrepreneurship in the agriculture sector.

“Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services” (GFRAS) defines “Agripreneur ship as an entrepreneurship activity practiced by individual who aims to cre ate wealth by applying innovative skills within the agriculture industries”. As mentioned, agribusiness entrepreneurship is a relevant solution that may be implemented throughout the agricultural value chain.

Introduction

In 2030, 289 MT of food grain production will be needed in India, whereas 349 MT would be needed in 2050. India's agriculture is now facing several problems, including the well-being of farmers, deteriorating soil health, stagnant productivity, a declining water table, soil salinity, a decline in factor productivity, and the need to limit further expansion of irrigated land. The livelihoods of millions of small farmers are in peril because of ecologically destructive and unsustainable agricultural practices. Growing countries must increase their agricultural production systems to boost their economies, food supplies, and food and nutritional security (Gill et al., 2005). Previous research initiatives in Indian agriculture that focused on a single company were inadequate to ensure sustained increases in production. Among the f inest choices for low-income farmers is the integrated agriculture system (IFS). With IFS, several farm operations may be streamlined to increase productivity and income. Agricultural waste and trash are also recycled on the property. It is essential that farmers have a reliable source of income if they want to raise their living standards beyond the poverty level. To deal with the challenges of the current economic, political, and technological environments, it is vital to progress production or consistently raise output.

Introduction

Microbial inoculants are “microorganisms that are added to soils or plant surfaces to promote plant growth and health”. These microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that have beneficial effects on plants. They have been used in agriculture for many years to improve plant growth and health. They can be used in various ways, including in seed treatments, soil inoculation, and foliar sprays. They work by colonising the root zone or plant surface and providing a range of benefits to the plant. These benefits include nutrient acquisition, disease suppression, and stress tolerance (Callaghan., 2022). Ultimately, their application in agriculture is to increase crop yields, improve soil health, reduce the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and generate sustainable income for farmers. The microbial inoculant market size is expected to generate revenue of USD 24.6 billion by 2027 and is estimated to be valued at USD 12.9 billion in 2022, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.7% from 2022 to 2027. (Markets and Markets: Global Forecast Report 2022–2027). The biofertilizers market in India is estimated to increase from $110.07 million in 2022 to $243.61 million by 2029, at a CAGR of 12.02% during the forecast period (Biofertilizers market Size: Global analysis, 2029). This chapter discusses the use of microbial inoculants in agriculture and their potential as an income-generating tool for farmers.

Ultrasound is important tool for diagnosis and research that can be compared with other tools like radio-immunoassays. This has become an important tool applicable to farm and pet animals. Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images of soft tissues and internal organs. Electric current is applied to crystals in the transducer, producing vibrations characteristic of the crystals and resulting in sound waves. The sound beams that pass through the tissues are quite thin and a thin “slice” of tissue is sampled. The two dimensional image produced by ultrasound resemble to histological section. The sound waves are propagated or reflected by various tissues in different ways depending on their thickness and composition. The transducer receives those reflections and converts into electric signals and produces an echo on the ultrasound screen. Grey - scale is the term used for monochrome monitors on which a number of grey shades are distinguishable between black and white and constitute the image of reflected portion of tissue. Non-ecogenic (non echoic) tissues like fluids do not reflect sound waves and appear black on the screen. The echogenic tissues, having dense consistency, appear white as they reflect most portion of sound beam. Sometimes the artifacts create problem in the real image of the organ. These artifacts are created by certain tissues that cause bending or back and forth bouncing or blocking of sound beams. For imaging the reproductive tract of the domestic animals, B-mode (brightness modality), real time scanners are used. The amplitude of returning beams is reflected in the brightness of the dots on the screen. B-mode modulates brightness of the dots or pixels on the screen of echo displayer. The echo signals are presented as brightness of pixel corresponding to the amplitude of signal. The picture should be adjusted for clear display. In B-mode display the time-base brightness should be reduced just below the threshold of visibility so that even the smallest echoes could be visible.

Ultrasonography is the process of obtaining images of an area, organ or tissue with the help of ultrasound beam that can be displayed on a screen. Such images can be recorded on videocassettes or printed on a thermal paper. Ultrasonography in veterinary practice is a revolutionary step for diagnosis of various ailments and to assess normal physiological functions of the body organs of domestic animals. Ultrasonography is considered a wonderful tool particularly for the study of reproductive functions viz. follicular dynamics, pregnancy diagnosis and abnormalities of contents of tubular tract. In 1980, Palmer and Driancourt reported for the first time, real time ultrasonography for diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare. This report generated considerable interest among veterinarians and scientists about ultrasonography and this new discovery contributed significantly towards understanding of functioning of the uterus and ovaries of mare (Chevalier and Palmer, 1982; Ginther, 1983; Ginther and Pierson, 1984a & 1984b), cows (Pierson and Ginther, 1988, Reeves et al., 1984) and other species (Buckrell, 1988; Driancourt, 1991). The ultrasonography is fast replacing the age-old procedure of rectal palpation of genital tract for pregnancy diagnosis (Pieterse et al., 1990). This technique has been used and advocated for the use in the academics and field practice.

Most of ultrasound machines are designed for imaging with a particular resolution linear and convex transducers. These machines can be used for general purpose for abdominal, obstetrics, gynecological, small parts, urology and cardiac applications. Most of the machines have standard measurement software viz. distance, area, volume, circumference, and obstetrical gestational age measurement for BPD, HC, AC, FL, GS, CRL, AD and FW.

Assessment of probes: One should examine the probe whether it is linear array or curved (convex) array. The probe should also be checked for its frequency. These days multi-frequency probes are supplied with the ultrasound-machine. These multiple frequencies could be 2.0 to 5.0 MHz with centrally fixed frequency of 3.5 MHz. The frequencies could be 4.0 to 7.0 (5.0 MHz setting), 5.0 to 9.0 MHz (7.5 MHz setting). The area and depth covered by various frequencies should be known.

Before setting the ultrasound machine, one should make sure of all the auxiliary devices for the machines. These are Thermal video printer, Ultrasound gel, Biopsy needle, image saving devices (USB device or internal saving mechanism), wire, Uninterrupted Power Supply etc.

Identifying and knowing the main system: One should note down the name and model of ultrasound machine as these are quoted in all the documents published with the ultrascan images generated on that particular machine. It is written on one side of front panel. On the front panel, there are various knobs for proper setting. One should locate the auxiliary power switch of the machine to begin with. Generally, there is power indicator on the machine that shows light on when power button is pushed to on position. The auxiliary power switch may also have indications of its ON and OFF positions, may be marked with 0 and 1 or other symbols. As shown in the figure below, there are various operating buttons on the operating panel. These might vary from Machine to Machine.

In order to evaluate the correct status of the organs their correct disposition within the body becomes very essential. Although one cannot see the organs beyond the skin, but appropriate knowledge of the topography of the organs can act as a glass covered watch wherein one can see from outside the arms and the dial of the watch.

Horse

Heart: The heart is placed in the middle mediastinum of the thoracic cavity with its long axis directed caudo-ventrally. Three fifth of the heart lies on the left of median plane while two fifth is on the right of the median plane. The base is placed dorsally, with its highest point at the junction of the dorsal and middle thirds of dorso-ventral diameter of the thorax. As a whole it lies opposite to second intercostal space/third rib to sixth rib/sixth intercostal space. The apex of the heart lies in the center of the last segment of the sternum about half inch from the sternal part of the diaphragm. Heart is directly related to the lateral thoracic wall at the cardiac notches formed in the lungs. The left surface of the heart extends from third to sixth rib in the lower third of chest while the right surface extends from third to fourth intercostal space.

The affections of abdominal cavity incidence wise are on the top followed by thoracic cavity. Both these affections lead to high morbidity and heavy mortality losses. Most thoracic affections produce almost similar clinical signs but abdominal affections can show different clinical signs. Radiography and ultrasonography play an important role in differentiation and confirmation of various affections.

Radiography is an important diagnostic tool for both thoracic and abdominal diseases in small animals but for large animals it is more useful for thoracic affections as compared to abdominal affections. In large animals, the use of radiography is limited up to the ventral aspect of the abdomen only i.e. for diagnosis of diseases of reticulum, diaphragm and sternebrae. In thoracic cavity, there are numerous diseases that need to be differentiated. Pneumonia, lung cyst, lung abscesses, pleuritis and pleural effusions are some important diseases apart from presence of foreign bodies. In such a situation, radiography can play an important role as an aid in the diagnosis of various affections.

Similarly ultrasonography has also played a major role in the diagnosis of abdominal diseases in small animals such as dogs and newborn calves especially in the field of G I tract and urinary system. The ultrasonography is advantageous over radiography in the sense that internal anatomy of the soft organs can be better known and studied by ultrasonography as compared to radiography. It is also considered to be extremely safe for both the patient and the operator.

General Instructions

The monitor of ultrasound machine should be placed at the eye-level. The daylight should not be too bright. The setting of the machine should be done to obtain best picture on the screen. There are various knobs on the machine to set contrast and brightness. There are three other knobs that are used to set near gain, far gain and overall gain. There is also a brightness bar (help-bar) on the screen with different brightness areas. These knobs should be turned clockwise or anti-clockwise, so that all the areas on the help bar (brightness bar) are visible.

Transrectal Procedure

In cattle, trans-rectal ultrasonography is done in a way, similar to rectal examination done for palpation of genital organs. Following steps are suggested for proper procedure

1. Properly restrain the animal.

2. Evacuate the feces from the rectum.

3. Select a transducer of proper frequency (the linear array transducer of 5.0 MHz frequency is useful for general purpose in bovines, however for detailed examination of early conceptus and small follicles, a transducer of 7.5 MHz can also be used. Some transducers have range of these frequencies in single-equipment. Such transducers of switch-able frequency are found more useful.

Failure to accurately diagnose ovarian function is said to be one of the reason for poor reproductive efficiency in this species. The information regarding ovarian function can be gathered either by observing the reproductive behavior of the animal, status of reproductive hormones or palpation of ovaries per rectum for the presence of cyclic or pathological structures. However, due to poor expression of estrus signs behavioral observations poorly reflect the accurate information about ovarian function in buffaloes. Similarly, palpation per rectum does not provide reliable diagnosis since the CL is frequently embedded deep in the ovarian stroma of buffalo ovary and findings vary due to its subjective nature. Furthermore, measurement of hormones requires sophisticated laboratory procedures/ instruments for making a correct diagnosis. Therefore, real time ultrasonic examination is a better alternative to ascertain reproductive status of buffaloes and for devising suitable strategies to optimize fertility of this species (Sharma, 2003). However, it is important to mention that information gained from ultrasound must be used in conjunction with reproductive history of the animal, palpation of genital tract, and other diagnostic procedures rather than in isolation.

The recent availability and use of ultrasonography in veterinary science has revolutionized the study of bovine reproduction. The information- gathering capabilities of this technology are much higher than those of conventional rectal palpation. Ultrasonic imaging has provided new insights into the complex biology of various reproductive processes such as folliculogenesis and early fetal development. With the pressure on agricultural land, due to ever increasing human population, the grazing grounds for animals are fast squeezing and as a result more and more animals are being stall-fed. This practice has adversely affected the availability of essential nutrients to the animals and their reproductive efficiency. The problem is graverin small states, where pressure on land is more to accommodate the expanding developmental and commercial activities of the national capital situated next door. The routine applications of ultrasonography include evaluation of animals for pregnancy, twinning, cyclic structures on ovaries, uterine and ovarian pathologies etc.

Ultrasound is mainly used for reproductive purposes in bovine, now days it is also used for other applications. Ultrasound is an excellent tool for diagnostic imaging in large animals because it is portable, easy to use in the field, produces results at the time of the examination. It is totally non-invasive. Palpation of a gland can only detect certain levels of abnormality. Ultrasound can give an actual perception of mammary health, a picture of the inside anatomy and pathology. Tumors, scarring, stones, trauma, hematoma formation and level of damage due to mastitis can all be evaluated by this technique. Other diagnostic tools are still primary diagnostic tools, ultrasonogram gives yet another dimension to the hard to diagnose case. It will also allow a better estimate of treatment prognosis to aid in deciding whether to cull or treat a dairy animal.

Congenital anomalies at initial stages of the mammary gland development during gestation may result into presence of supernumerary teats or less number of external teats, in place of usual presence of four teats in buffaloes. Hence, cases with two / three / five or six teats are often encountered in the f ield.

Congenital anomaly of newborn buffalo calves is quite common in new born calves. Most common encountered are atresia ani, rectovaginal fistula etc. Sometimes, developmental defects interfere with physiological processes viz. in urination and defecation. Therefore, such cases, if not corrected well in time can cause death of the patient. In the present report, few newborn calves were brought to the veterinary clinic with the following abnormalities:

Agenesis of Urogenital System Without Anus

Five newborn buffalo calves were brought to the veterinary clinic with the complain of not passing urine and feces. There was no visible external genitalia and anal opening. At the site of vulva, there was only an impression of vulvar lips and below it, a cord like structure was hanging.

There was an impression of round structure below the skin; in some cases it was outside giving appearance of scrotum which was located in between the two thighs. On ventral side of abdomen, preputial sheath was not present, therefore, it was very difficult to decide about the sex of the calves and site of external preputial-orifice. There was an indication of both sexes, but organs were not developed, therefore it was difficult to decide about the sex of the calves. In some cases, impression of the anal sphincter was visible but there was no visible external anal opening. There was slight deviation of the tail from its base also. Intake of milk was normal. Abdomen was distended bilaterally. Respiratory rate was higher than the normal with slight discomfort .Heart rate was elevated. Blood picture revealed increased total blood cell count with neutrophilia. Radiography of the abdomen showed distended urinary bladder at the floor of pelvis indicating formation of the urogenital system without development of the external opening. Barium meal study revealed marking of gastrointestinal tract and stagnation of the barium up to the rectum.

Ultrasonography has an importance place in human practice and veterinary f ield especially in canine practice. Since many years two dimensional ultrasound has been used for scanning purposes both in human and animal practice. But the scenario has changed in human practice with development of three dimensional technology and later four dimensional ultrasonography has developed which shows movements of the objects being scanned especially in the case of fetuses. Nowadays it has been common to use these advanced technology in the human practices. Yet these technologies are in the childhood stage in the veterinary field. High cost of 3D/4D ultrasound equipment, operational difficulties in non sedated animals & lack of specific knowledge about the operation of volume scanning hinder the use of this technology in the veterinary field. Better understanding of the different application of these technologies can be made to use in research areas for the better understanding of the abnormalities, post therapeutics as well in the diagnosis of the diseases

Principle of Three Dimensional and Four Dimensional Ultrasonography

Sound waves of frequency higher than human audible frequency usually ranges from 2-13 MHz are used in ultrasonography. Depending upon on depth of tissue from the scanning surfaces frequency is selected. Three dimensional ultrasonography gives three dimensional images of the volume being scanned .it works on the same principle of 2D ultrasonography but ultrasonographic beams are sent different angles to get three dimensional image of object being scanned. Volume information is obtained either directly using 2D array probe or by reconstructing three dimensional volume from a series of continuous or non- continuous 2D images by using software (Fenster and Downey, 2000). An advancement of 3D technology is 4D ultrasound. Four dimensional ultrasound adds the fourth dimension as time and gives a dynamic real-time 3Dultrasonography of the concerned organ with a continuous volume image acquisitioned rendering process. (Khurana and Dahiya, 2004).