eChapters

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

1.1. Introduction

The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from the lowly rat to the mighty whale, produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use (Fig. 1.1 & 1.2).

Milk, as secreted in the udder of a healthy animal is practically sterile, but during its transit to the processing plant, becomes heavily contaminated with a variety of micro-organisms. These may be responsible for spoilage of milk or for causing diseases in animals and human beings. It thus becomes imperative that adequate heat treatment is given to milk to destroy these micro-organisms, thus increasing the shelf-life of milk as well as making it safe. Varied heat treatments offer the potential of producing different kinds of processed milk to satisfy the needs of the consumer. To cater to the ever-increasing demand of consumers, several varieties of processed milk are available in the market, some of which are discussed below.

5.1. Pasteurised Milk

Pasteurisation was named after the renowned French scientist Louis Pasteur, who discovered that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine by applying heat at temperatures below its boiling point. The process was later applied to milk and remains the most important operation in the processing of milk.

It is the process by which every particle of milk is heated to such temperature-time combinations (usually to 63°C for not less than 30 minutes or to 72°C for not less than 15 seconds) and promptly cooled to 4°C or below so as to destroy any harmful bacteria that may be present without affecting flavour and food value. Pasteurisation does not involve the use of any additives. Apart from making milk safe to drink, pasteurisation increases the length of time it can be kept before it spoils. The nutrient losses due to pasteurisation are so small, that they are considered insignificant.

Water is the most abundant compound on the earth but its sufficient availability is always a big constraint in crop production, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas since agriculture is the last priority for good quality water due to severe competition with public health and industrial demand, hence, the judicious and efficient use of water for irrigation in agriculture needs through knowledge of soil-plant-water relationship. The integrated approach for water management in rain fed areas or irrigated agriculture in soil-plant-atmosphere system helps in the selection of suitable crops and varieties and also helps in improving the crop yield and water use efficiency in relation to water supplying capacity of soil profile depending on its texture and rhizosphere depth. Similarly, atmospheric demand of evapotranspiration by various weather parameters via temperature, relative humidity, radiation, rainfall and wind speed is highly variable during the crop season depending on geographical location and is highly area specific. In irrigated area, the saving of irrigation water through improved management practices will further help in extending the irrigated areas with same amount of water, which will further boost agricultural production and sustainability.

Most of the earth’s total water is contained in oceans (96%), a small portion (2%) as snow and ice and the rest (2%) in the water bodies of the continents. Oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies of the earth are called hydrosphere. Continuous circulation of water between hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere is known as hydrological cycle (Figure 12.1). Schematic diagram illustrating the earth’s water cycle– the hydrological cycle.

Climate change is a multifaceted alteration of climate which is perceptibly subtle and yet continuous, nevertheless it is extremely important due its consequences on whole biome that thrives under constant or relatively unchanged climates. The effects of climate change have reached such an extent that irreversible changes in the functioning of the planet are feared. Some of the main effects of climate change with specific reference to agriculture and food production especially during the last decade are: increased occurrence of storms and floods; increased incidence and severity of droughts and forest fires; steady spreading out of frost-free intervals and potential growing season; increased frequency of diseases and insect pest attacks; and vanishing habitats of plants and animals. Currently, the world is facing a challenge of producing sufficient food from dwindling natural resource base for the constantly increasing population. Strengthening of agricultural activities through improved productivity and effective resource management is one of the key options existing as competition for land and water are increasing from non-farm sectors. In other words, more production is required from fewer natural resources under future climate scenarios. Agriculture, human health and animal health are three important pillars of global livelihood security systems and they contribute to the developing nations’ GDP significantly. While major crops and livestock world over contribute to the food security, the human resource has been a major driver of the growth in these sectors directly and indirectly. Across continents, climate influences these three pillars substantially. Climate –variability and -change are exerting additional pressure on developing countries of tropics and subtropics which are already at the threshold to cope with the increasing demand for food for increasing population pressure. Climatic disturbances in terms of increase/decrease in temperature, high intensity rainfalls, droughts, floods, hail storms and other extreme weather events in these areas will cause significant yield declines in major food grain crops. Several forecasts for the coming decades project changes in precipitation resulting in more frequent droughts and floods, increase in atmospheric CO₂ and temperature, widespread runoff leading to leaching of soil nutrients and reduction in freshwater availability. With the impending global climate change and the need to secure food supplies for the future, it becomes imperative to understand the consequences of climate change on the productivity of important agricultural crop species (Shanker et al 2014).

The District-wise weekly agroadvisory service based on medium range weather forecasting (3 to 10 days) has been made operational by the State Agricultural Universities in collaboration with National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), India Meteorological Department. The Agroadvisory Bulletin (AAB) contains three parts. The first part of AAB consists of weather events occurred during the past week and weather forecast for three days ahead. These forecasts provide expected weather on cloud amount, rainfall, average wind speed, wind direction, maximum and minimum temperatures and cumulative rainfall. The second part contains the factual information on the varieties of crops, their state and stage, ongoing agricultural operations and occurrence of insect pest and diseases of crops. The final and third part of the AAB provides information on agroadvisory to be taken up as farm operations during the ensuing week. The AABs are prepared by the Agrometeorological Field Units (AMFUs) in consultation with the scientists belonging to various disciplines and Agricultural Officers of the locality. Such AABs are being prepared and issued in English as well in local languages. The AMFUs functioning across the Country (more than 130 AMFUs) attempt the weekly agroadvisory service very effective and operational from time to time with simple models developed in the concerned universities for sustenance of crop production against the ill effects of climate change/variability to a considerable extent. Agroadvisory service is based on weather forecasting and agromet products play a major role in AABs for the benefit of farmers. As such the AABs revolve mostly around agronomic practices rather than based on agromet products. Some of the typical tools prepared in Kerala Agricultural University are quoted for guidance and such models may be implemented wherever they are relevant for betterment of Agromet Advisory Services as a part of climate risk management in Agriculture.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench) is one of the most nutritional and fifth most important cereal crop after maize, wheat, rice and barley as well as a major dietary staple food crop of more than 500 million people in various countries (Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). It is considered as the “King of Millets” that extensively grown in Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT). As a coarse grain, it is used not only for human food, but also for fodder and feed for animals, and building material etc. Its grain is used to make bread, biscuits, sugar, starch, syrups, and alcohol, beer and malt products. It is a good source of energy, protein, vitamin, minerals, and trace elements. Sorghum cultivation in India probably started in the first millennium BC (Dogget, 1988). In India, sorghum is commonly known as jowar and accounts 14% of total world’s sorghum cultivated area and 8% production. India stands first in area of cultivation and second major producer until the end of 20^th century. Currently (2012-16). India stands second in cultivated area after Sudan and fourth in production after USA, Nigeria and Mexico. It is the fifth major cereal crop in India after rice, wheat, maize, and pearl millet (bajra), and accounts 6% of total cereal cultivated area and 3% of total cereal production (DES, 2016). Sorghum is cultivated in India majorly during kharif (rainy) season as a rainfed crop and in rabi (post-rainy) season under residual soil moisture/limited-irrigated conditions. Sorghum is gaining importance along the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh as rice fallows during rabi season in place of maize due to water scarcity in recent years. Maize requires 4 to 6 irrigations while 2 to 3 irrigations in case of sorghum during the crop season for potential yields under field conditions. In this chapter,a glimpse of sorghum growing regions in India, interrelationship between climatic changes and yield of sorghum and adaptation strategies to sustain sorghum productivity in India during future climatic periods are discussed in detail.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of Computer Technology for the design of objects which are real or virtual. CAD involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

ABSTRACT

Dysoxylum binectariferum (Roxb.) Hook. is an evergreen tree, indigenous to India and widely distributed in different parts of India. Primarily, this plant is used in the timber market for the preparation of furniture and other wooden goods. Apart from utility in timber market, it has tremendous medicinal properties because of its unique secondary metabolites. Its hydroalcoholic extracts possess a wide range of pharmacological activities including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-leishmanial, etc. The chromone alkaloid rohitukine, the major constituent of the plant, possess anti-fertility, anti-leishmanial, anti-adipogenic, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-cancer and immunomodulatory activities. The most extensively studied and advanced therapeutic property of this chromone alkaloid is its cyclin-dependent kinase inhibition activity, which has a direct link with its anti-cancer effect. Inspired by this natural product, two clinical candidates (flavopiridol and riviciclib) are discovered and studied in human cancer patients for treating various types of cancer. Another preclinical lead IIIM-290, which is directly derived from rohitukine via synthetic modification, has demonstrated promising oral efficacy in animal models of various cancer types. The high-value medicinal applications of this plant have necessitated the need of bringing this tree under captive cultivation. The present chapter discusses the biology pharmacological and secondary metabolites present in Dysoxylum binectariferum. The preclinical and clinical leads derived or inspired from rohitukine are also discussed in this communication.

ABSTRACT

Evolution theory postulates that the collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates in early Eocene and Miocene epoch leads to formation of the Himalayas, and currently recognized across the globe as repository of life. Some species of this regions is categorized under endangered and endemic category. Rhododendrons placed under family Ericaceae is an important genus of flowering plants. It is one of the multiferous keystone member of plants, mostly endemic to Southeast Asia. Wide distribution of rhododendrons concentrated in Himalayas. The Eastern Himalaya, especially Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim states of India is the main centre of species distribution and provide wide range of habitat for ecological studies. Several species exhibits many nutritional, medicinal and aromatic properties as evident from tribal knowledge and published research sciences. Different parts of plant such as flowers and leaves used in folklore herbal medicine and for preparation of local wines. Chemically, rhododendrons are repository of several bioactive molecules in the form of taraxerol, hyperoside, betulinic acid, quercitin, arbutin, rutin, coumaric acid, and several other fine molecules in minor quantities. In the present communication, Indian rhododendrons species diversity of different regions are revised and updated the current list for India. Besides, its value addition and future prospective is also presented for Indian economy. The checklist, chemistry, traditional knowledge, ecological requirement, keystone taxa, potential value added products for future, threat and future perspectives of rhododendrons for conservation is also discussed and presented in different subheads. First time checklist of all Indian rhododendrons are prepared and provided here in this communication.

ABSTRACT

The current paper discusses the diversity, distribution and commercial importance of Indian Magnolias. Globally, these species are found in tropical, subtropical and temperate forests of southeastern Asia and tropical America. In India, there are 25 species of Magnolias and most of them are distributed in Northeast India, with highest number in Assam. Of all the species, two (Magnolia gustavii and M. pleiocarpa) are critically endangered, one (M. pealiana) endangered, two (M. manii and M. nilagirica) vulnerable, nine least concern and ten data deficient at global level. The highly threatened nature of most of the magnolias species calls for their immediate conservation and protection measures. Members of this genus are known to be rich in a wide variety of biologically active compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, neolignans and terpenoids. Many of the species have been found to possess potent procognitive activity, anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, diuretic, anti-ulcer, analgesic, anti-helmintholytic, and anti-cancer activities. The species have huge economic potential and are used for a number of purposes including ornamental, medicinal, culinary, timber and joinery works.

1. Introduction

Herbarium is simply a dried and pressed collection of plants arranged in an accepted sequence of classification (Lawrence 1951, Shetler 1969). It can be a very useful teaching aid or an absorbing hobby (Cronquist 1966). According to Fosberg and Sachet (1965) “A modern herbarium is a great filing system for information about plants, both primarily in the form of actual specimens of plants and secondarily in the form of published information, pictures and recorded notes”. It is also a research, training and service institution that serves as a reference centre, documentation facility and data store house (Radford 1986). It is now well recognized that a herbarium is a vast reservoir of facts about plants. The word ‘Herbarium’ was originally applied, not to a collection of plants but to a book dealing with medicinal herbs. Tournefort in about 1700 used the term as an equivalent to ‘Hortus Siccus’ which was later on adopted by Linnaeus (Stearn 1957). The present concept and development of herbarium is due to efforts of botanists for more than four centuries. The concept of herbarium has been changing continuously, which in turn, has affected the gradual development of herbarium and herbarium practices.

For practical reasons, the classification of the world’s flora is primarily based on herbarium material and the literature associated with it. Despite its limitations, a herbarium has certain advantages over living collections. It is usually only in the herbarium that we can compare all the related species of a genus in the same place, in the same state and at the same time (Davis 1961).

The herbarium material, therefore, formed the foundation of all botanical studies. We should, therefore, realise that herbaria are the custodians of enormous data pertaining to plants. They are usually seen as old-fashioned and expensive “stamp collection” without realising their paramount role in biological sciences. However, the world-wide rise of interest in the field of conservation, biodiversity and bioprospection offer a new chance for herbaria. Furthermore, computers offer a golden opportunity to raise the status of herbarium taxonomy by making routine curatorial procedures more efficient.

Although Jain and Rao (1976) elaborately discussed the methods of field collections, identification and preservation in the herbarium, the salient features of herbarium in up dated form with various procedures followed in Indian context are discussed in this chapter.

The alkaloids represent yet another large group of secondary plant products. Many, but not all, exhibit important pharmacological properties & some of these have been known for hundred of years. For e.g. Cinchona alkaloids, present in bark of Cinchona spp. have quinine as their main constituent, has been known since 1639 as an effective antimalarial agent.

An alkaloid contains nitrogen, frequently as a part of a heterocyclic ring, and most are as the general name implies, basic. Alkaloids are the naturally occurring basic, nitrogenous, organic, heterocyclic ring compounds mostly of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties. At present, the definition is much more pragmatic and includes all nitrogen containing natural products which are not otherwise classified as peptides, amines, non-protein amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, cofactors, phytohormones or primary metabolites (such as purines and pyrimidines bases). Even a number of antibiotics produced by bacteria or fungi are therefore included as alkaloids. Alkaloids evolved early in evolution and were already present (200 million years ago) when the angiosperms began to radiate. Today, more than 12,000 alkaloids are known to occur from more than 4000 species of Angiosperms. Ladenberg defined alkaloid as :

“Naturally occurring basic, complex, nitrogenous organic, heterocyclic ring compound of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties.”

The word meat comes from the old english word mete, which referred to food in general. Most often this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys and lungs etc. In other words we can say meat is those animal tissues which are suitable for use as food by the man. It is composed of numerous types of tissues like muscle tissues, epithelial tissues and nervous tissues but the major component of meat is muscle. Particularly skeletal muscle is the principal source of muscle tissue in meat while smooth muscle contributes little to meat. The muscle and connective tissues are the major compositional components and contributes towards qualitative and quantitative characteristics of meat. Broadly muscle can be classified into striated and smooth muscles. Striated muscles have transverse band pattern as seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle. However, smooth muscles do not show such pattern and mainly found as a component of blood vessels.

Preservation of foods including meat and aquatic foods is a creation of conditions for the food articles in such a way to stop or greatly slow down the activities of micro-organisms, chemical and enzymatic reactions and physical forces to prevent the meat and aquatic foods from spoilage while maintaining its nutritional value and sensory attributes.

Significance of Meat Preservation

1. Meat and aquatic foods are perishable food items and are very prone to spoilage and rancidity development due to high nutrients, moisture and neutral pH.
2. Once meat and aquatic foods is exposed to microbial contamination, chemical and enzymatic reactions then it will be very difficult to attain asepsis.
3. To enhance the keeping quality of meat and aquatic foods so that it will be available for further processing.
4. It protects meat and aquatic foods from shrinkage, sweeting and other physical forces.
5. To protect human health by providing the wholesome meat and aquatic foods to the consumers.
6. By this way we can minimize utilization of energy in processing of meat and aquatic foods.

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for sustainable production.

Presently the farming situation urges need to develop farming techniques, which are sustainable from environmental, production, and socio-economic points of view. Modern agricultural production throughout the world does not appear to be sustainable in the long run.

Sustainable agricultural development “is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner to assure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations”. Such sustainable development in the agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors, conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Consequently these concerns imparted a way to organic farming. It is the need of the day to understand the prospects and problems of organic farming to launch a successful and flawless organic production programme in the farm environment.

There are many explanations and definitions for organic agriculture but all converge to state that it is a system that relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. It is a system that begins to consider potential environmental and social impacts by eliminating the use of synthetic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, immunity booster preservatives, additives and irradiation. These are replaced with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases.

Abstract

Agricultural development in India provides support to a large section of farmers who operate on small holdings and have very limited risk bearing capacity. Farmers are often exposed to natural vagaries, which adversely affect their agricultural production and farm income. Moreover, there is huge financial exclusion in rural sector of the nation. If there is a crop failure, farmers are crushed under the burden of debt. Farmers seek to avoid risk in terms of various managerial and institutional mechanisms. But it is widely believed that ‘Crop Insurance’ is the only institutional mechanism available against production risk in farming. Unfortunately, penetration of crop insurance schemes in India has been low in terms of the area of land insured and the number of farmers covered. There are the problems of low risk awareness and lack of insurance culture among the farmers. In this backdrop, the paper documents the findings of a survey of 140 farmers, which was taken up in some selected villages of North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal. The study shows that likelihood of this awareness increases with increase in landholding size, education level, borrowing history and social participation of the farmers, whereas it decreases with the non-farm income and livestock of the farmers. The author proposes measures to promote and spread awareness of crop insurance among the farmers as a risk mitigation tool in farming, which will increase farm production and stabilize the fluctuation in farm income. The study provides valuable policy measures to the government in better designing of their crop insurance products and will also help the private agro-insurance business, which is recently taking off in the country.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Abstract: Viola or garden pansy, commonly known as sweet violet or king of annuals, are widely cultivated worldwide for landscape planting, garden design and container gardening. Today, numerous OP varieties, F₁ hybrids (Europa, Toto, Wasa), F₂ strains, series (Waterford, heat tolerant S series) and cultivars introduced by seed companies are available on the world market. Pansy breeding efforts have been focused on F₁ hybrid seed production, heat tolerance, flower colour, flower size and form, double flowers, earliness, disease resistance, floriferous nature and interspecific hybridization. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern pansy breeders. Research is needed to exploit heterosis for productivity and gene transformation to create new genetic variability.

1. INTRODUCTION

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.

Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Introduction

Rose, acclaimed as the “Queen of Flowers”, is one of the most popular cut flowers in the global floriculture trade. Popularly referred to as ‘Dutch rose’ in the international market, cut rose occupies a prominent place among the cut flowers owing to its exquisite form, size and attractive colours. Apart from cut flower it is used for making various value added products such as rose oil, rose water, garland, gulkhand, rose attar etc and also in landscaping as pot plant and garden plant. The present day rose (Rosa hybrida) combines all desirable qualities such as, productivity, attractiveness of buds, a variety of colours and forms of the typical species of Rosa.

The major cut rose producing countries of the world are the Netherlands, Colombia, Kenya, Israel, Italy, United States, and Japan. In India, roses are mostly grown under cover (poly house) in Nasik, Pune, Hosur, Kalimpong, Darjeeling, Bangalore, Solan, Palampur, Shimla, Srinagar, Delhi, Ludhiana and Calcutta. The roses grown for export should be popular varieties of that region and maintain high quality standards with respect to bud size and stem length and should have lush green leaves and be free of pests and diseases. These high quality standards can be achieved and maintained only when grown inside poly house or greenhouse, which gives protection against inclement weather conditions and pests and diseases.

Pulses are legumes whose grains are consumed as dal. Thus all legumes are not pulses, but all pulses are legumes. Legumes are characterized by presence of nodules in the root systems and papilionaceous form of flowers. Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millisp.], green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczec.], black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], horse gram[Macroyloma uniflorum [(Lam.) Verd.] and moth bean[Vigna acontilifolia (jacq.) Marechal] are the important kharif pulse crops grown in different parts of India. The common rabi pulses are chickpea(Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.) and frenchbean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ). All these have C₃ photosynthetic cycle. All form root nodules in association with symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium. Increase in concentration of green house gases, particularly carbon di-oxide, has led to global warming and climate change. The extreme weather events such as drought, excess moisture, untimely rain, cyclone, excess heat and hailstorm have become common. Crops respond differently to increase in CO₂ concentration. Both abiotic and biotic stresses due to global warming are likely to reduce productivity of pulses/pulse based cropping systems through adverse effects on crop growth and development. Birthalet al. (2014) reported higher decrease in grain yield of pulses(pigeonpea and chickpea) as compared to cereals (rice and wheat) due to rise in the minimum and the maximum temperature.

Pulses are important ingredients of human diet and principal source of protein of high biological value particularly for vegetarians. These are excellent feed for animals endowed with an unique ability of biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, soil amelioration, capable to sustain under harsh climate and an integral component of sustainable crop production system. It is expected that by the year 2050 world human population will climb to 9.7 billion, India 1.6 billion and that of Odisha will be more than 5.75 crores. It will be a great challenge by agricultural scientists for assured food security of billions of hungry human mouth with nourishing food especially pulses, oilseeds and other dietary ingredients. Current production of pulses are not sufficient to meet the requirement. In Odisha it is expected to have a shortage of 1.7 lakh tones of pulses towards 2030 if the current rate of production will not increase. The fact is almost similar for nation although India contributes 24 per cent of global pulse production but imports about 2.0 million tones every year. The deficit will further mount as the per capita consumption on dal of an Indian is increasing. It necessitates to increase pulse production which is not happening keeping pace with need (Jena et al., 2015).

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

10.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.

Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

13.1 Introduction

Winds are the motion of air around the earth. This movement in air is caused by the uneven heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. The idea of using wind as a form of power is not new. The traditional applications of wind were primarily as sources of kinetic energy for rural, agricultural and a limited number of industrial uses such as pumping water and grinding grain.

Presently wind energy can be used for two major applications, such as wind mills for pumping water for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes and second application is as aero-generator for electricity generation for domestic and industrial uses. In addition to this, presently wind energy battery charger are also available, which can store energy for lights, radio communication, hospital equipment and to power various emergency related equipment.

The wind energy has an enormous resource, but the problems of utilizing the winds are many and varied. Wind energy is very diffuse in nature and local topographical features significantly alter the prevailing winds thus leading to the extremely site specific nature of wind energy.

Scientirsts have estimated that as much as 10 per cent of >the world’s electricity could be provided by wind generators by the middle of 21 century. India has estimated wind power potential of 45,000 MW. India now, ranks fourth in the world in wind power generation.

The world’s largest wind farms are in California, where wind turbines can generate power upto about 1120 MW. The first wind mill used as source of electric power was built in Denmark in 1890. Presently in India about 2382 MW of electricity is being produced through wind energy.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

6.0. Introduction

Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality should be given top priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling and there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy, putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and can affect a large number of the populations at a time and hazards may occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required and the maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This helps to set common standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among the consumers.

7.0. Introduction

The food safety is one of the most important of assurance system required for global expansion of trade between developed and developing countries. Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use is known as food safety concept. It is set of conditions and measures taken during the food chain like production, processing, storage and distribution in order to ensure that, the product consumption does not represent a risk to the human health.

Introduction

Spatial data is different from a non-spatial data in the sense that it always has a spatial reference system which is nothing but a pair of coordinate values and a system of reference for these coordinates. For example, the locations of benchmark soil series of India can be defined as pairs of longitude and latitude in decimal degree values with respect to the prime meridian at Greenwich and zero latitude at the equator. The World Geodetic System (WGS84) is a frequently used system of reference on the Earth. The different types of spatial data are: (i) point, which is a single point location, such as a GPS reading or a geocoded address (ii) line, which is defined as a set of ordered points, connected by straight line segments (iii) polygon, an area, marked by one or more enclosing lines, possibly containing holes and (iv) grid, a collection of points or rectangular cells, organised in a regular lattice. Among the above said spatial data, the first three are vector data models and represent entities as exactly as possible, while the fourth data model is a raster data model, representing continuous surfaces by using a regular tessellation. In this chapter, we discuss how a spatial data can be handled in R. There are several packages available in R in which spatial data analysis can be handled e.g. sp, rgdal, raster etc. All the contributed packages for spatial data analysis in R address two broad areas: moving spatial data into and out of R, and analysing spatial data in R. In the following section, the sp package for spatial data handling is briefly discussed.

ABSTRACT

Bio-engineering is the use of vegetation, either alone or in conjunction with civil engineering structures, to reduce instability and erosion of slopes. Such structures are advocated in hilly area mainly because they provide one of the best ways to armour slopes against erosion. Bio-engineering, in the context of upland slope protection and erosion reduction, combines mechanical, biological, and ecological concepts to arrest and prevent shallow slope failures and erosion. This chapter presents the design consideration and construction practices for stabilization of slopes using bioengineering technologies along with a brief review on the salient features and characteristics of the bioengineering processes.

ABSTRACT

North-Western Himalayas have a large area which are degraded and bouldry. Such areas are not fit for crop production. These areas are generally kept unutilized and hence are invaded by uneconomic and invasive species. These lands can be brought under production though establishment of silvipastoral system which has a potential of fodder, fuel and timber production besides conserving natural resources. The paper discusses the techniques of establishment, management and production potential of silvipasture systems in north-western Himalayas.

Agriculture is derived from two Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field and Cultura means cultivation. Therefore the meaning of the word agriculture is cultivation of land.

Definitions

Agriculture is defined in the Agriculture Act, 1947, as ‘‘including horticulture, fruit production, seed production, dairy farming and livestock breeding/keeping, the use of land as grazing land, meadow land, osier land, market gardens and nursery grounds, and the use of land for woodlands where that use is ancillary to the use of land for other agricultural purposes”.

Agriculture is defined as ‘purposeful work through which elements in nature are harnessed to produce plants and animals to meet the human needs’. It is a biological production process which depends on the growth and development of selected plants and animals within the local environment.

Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the livestock for economic purposes.

As an art it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful manner, but does not necessarily include an understanding of the principles underlying the farm practices. The skill is categorized as;

Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to plough the field in an efficient and quick manner, handling of farm implements, animals, sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides application etc., For example: Taking a straight furrow.

Mental skill: It involves the ability of the farmer to take a decision based on his experience, he decides the correct and accurate timing of operation, such as i) time and method of ploughing ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, iii) adoption of improved farm practices.

History is the continuous record of past events

Heritage is the inherited values carried from one generation to other generation

Agricultural heritage refers to the values and traditional practices adopted in ancient India which are more relevant for present day system.

Agricultural Heritage in India

Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long history dating back to Neolithic age of 7500-6500 B.C. It changed the life style of early man from ‘nomadic hunter of wild berries and roots’ to ‘cultivator of land’. Agriculture is benefited from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature friendly farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations of the farmers of India. The modern society has lost sight of the importance of the traditional knowledge which had been subjected to a process of refinement through generations of experience. The ecological considerations shown by the traditional farmers in their farming activities are now-a-days is reflected in the resurgence of organic agriculture.

Abstract

Solid Waste Management (SWM) has become a significant global concern, specifically for developing countries like India because of increasing population, rapid urbanization and high rate of municipal solid waste generation. Bio-composting and anaerobic digestion are the methods majorly used for solid waste management. Present chapter comprises detailed information on methods, microbiology involved and pros and cons of these methods to provide the detail information of solid waste management processes to the readers. Variable nature of substrates are available for bio-composting process. It includes sludge from effluent treatment plant (ETP), sewage treatment plant (STP) and bio-toilets, municipal solid waste, food waste and garden waste etc. Nutritional content, carbon /nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the substrate, available space and cost of the process are the main factors that affect selection method for waste management. Anaerobic digestion is the preferred method of solid waste management in comparison to other processes of composting due to methane generation as biogas and bioconversion of organic compounds to manure.

Abstract

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) harbors mixed microbial community, these are highly diversified, as revealed by molecular and phylogenetic studies. It is also estimated that microbiota of the GIT is composed of over 35,000 species and play a crucial role in human health and diseases. Thus are now of great interest to both the industrial and scientific communities. The microbes exhibit health benefits are known as probiotics. Anaerobic bacteria dominate in the GIT environment and genera like Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, are strict anaerobes while Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, is facultative anaerobes implicated in the probiotic effects.

For developing anaerobic bacterial based bio-products, it is necessary to cultivate large-scale biomass production that could be done using a modern manufacturing practice. Information on detailed understanding of the perfect growth medium and other bioprocessing parameters for the growth and viability is must. Also high cell viability is a prerequisite during downstream processing and storage of probiotic formulation. In this work we review the latest information about the history, mechanism of action, benefits of probiotic, selection criteria, sources of anaerobic probiotic bacteria, industrial cultivation medium along with biomass production, downstream processing.

1.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 636kcal

It indicates that the storage of 636 kcal is associated with the transfer of 72 gm carbon into organic matter. Biomass can be directly utilized as fuel or can be converted through different routes into useful forms of fuel. In fact, biomass is a source of five useful agents, which start with ‘F’ like food, fodder, fuel, fiber and fertilizer. Further, biomass has many advantages like.

(1) It is widely available

(2) Its technology for production and conversion is well understood.

(3) It is suitable for small or large applications

(4) Its production and utilisation requires only low light intensity and low temperature (5 to 35°C)

(5) It incorporates advantage of storage and transportation

(6) Comparatively, it is associated with low or negligible pollution.

4.1 Introduction

Biomass is referred to as an indirect source of solar energy and considered a source of stored chemical energy. Biomass is renewable organic material derived from plants and animals serving as sources of energy. Biomass produced from agricultural sector is big challenges for all over the world due to its improver disposal. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring adequate global food supplies represent two of the last decade’s mostdifficult challenges.Although global food production has benefitted from chemical fertilizers, environmental problems have emerged as a result of their use. Additionally, overuse of fertilizers can result in hardened soil, decreased soil fertility, polluted air and water, and the release of greenhouse gases. There is an urgent need to find an alternative to chemical fertilizers that, ideally, can be sourced in abundant amounts, promotes global food production, enhances CO₂ capture , and does not affect soil health or damage the environment¹. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is crucial to maintain adequate levels of organic matter in the soil to preserve its physical, chemical, and biological integrity. Biochar, a pyrogenic black carbon, may play an important role in improving soil health, resulting in higher crop yield and absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Biochar is the most auspicious straw management measures and have highest carbon abatement and economic profit².

Biochar is produced by heating biomass at high temperatures (300 – 600 °C) in a closed reactor containing no to partial levels of air. Under these conditions, biomass undergoes thermo-chemical conversion into biochar. Because of its numerous potentials uses in agriculture, energy, and the environment, much attention has been given to biochar in both political and academic areas. Biochar can be used in a variety of applications such as energy production, agriculture, carbon sequestration, waste water treatment, and bio-refinery; additionally, biochar provides an alternative strategy for managing organic waste. These advantages have renewed the interest of agricultural researchers in producing biochar from bio-residues and using the product as a soil amendment.

5.1 Introduction

Today, energy distribution and environmental issues have developed into international threats. Demand for alternative fuels increases every day due to rapid population growth, rising living standards, and economical sustainability. With its massive population, India has become the fourth largest energy consumer country in the world after the United States, China, and Russia. Because most nations use fossil fuels to fulfill their energy demands, they create negative impacts on the environment including raising global temperatures, pollution, acid rain, and other effects. As such, the quest for alternative fuels derived from renewable resources has captured significant attention throughout the world¹. Biomass as a renewable energy sources is an important asset for achieving economic development is due to the availability of biomass at a low cost, a good conversion efficiency, the addition of jobs, and an increase in the biodiversity^2,3. Typically, biomass is composed of cellulose (40-50%), hemicelluloses (25-35%), and lignin (15-30%). Large amount of resources for biomass are available such as woody biomass, crop residues and their by-products, food processing waste, municipal solid waste, aquatic plant etc.

In the present context, pyrolysis process has been received a remarkable identity as a potential method for the conversion of any organic biomass into valuable energy rich products due to its simple in operation and also required a reasonable cost for conversion process. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of any organic material at a specific temperature in absence of air/oxygen; the process ends with three resulting products, namely liquid (bio-oil), solid (biochar), and syngases⁴. Recently, biooil produced through pyrolysis process and further it up grading has been attracted a significant attention due to its major use as biofuel and as a precursor material for making chemicals⁵. The pyrolysis process also classified in three different types as per its operating conditions; slow, fast and flash pyrolysis.

7.1 Introduction

Biomass gasification is age old technology originated in 1800 century for lighting and cooking purposes (Sansaniwal et al., 2017). Biomass typically contents biopolymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in addition to the presence of average composition of C₆H₁₀O₅ which depends upon physical characteristics of biomass¹. Oxygen is required for combustion of every fuel. For complete combustion of biomass stoichiometric air to fuel ratio required varies from 6:1 to 6.5:1 with CO₂ and H₂O as end product.

Biomass gasification is an efficient and environmentally friendly way to produce energy². Gasification process is nothing but it is a conversion of solid fuel into gaseous fuel for wide applications. This whole process completed at elevated temperature range of 800-1300 ^oC with series of chemical reaction that is why it come under thermo chemical conversion³. Thermo chemical processes are most commonly employed for converting biomass into higher heating value fuels⁴. Major thermal conversion route is include direct combustion to provide heat, liquid fuel and other elements to generate process heat for thermal and electricity generation is summaries in Fig. 7.1.

Artificial seeds have been widely used for micro-propagation of many plant species. Establishment of gene banks for ex situ conservation of plant germplasm in the form of field gene banks, seed gene banks, in vitro collections, and cryogenically preserved tissues is a common practice (Withers 1983; Rao, 2004; Borner, 2006). Alginate encapsulation provides a viable approach for in vitro germplasm conservation as it combines the advantages of clonal multiplication with those of seed propagation and storage (Standardi and Piccioni, 1998; Ara et al., 2000).

The main aim of artificial seeds is to obtain true to type plants to maintain the germplasm, but, however, during tissue culture, there is a chance of genetic aberration which is commonly known as somaclonal variations. Larkin and Scowcroft (1981) for the first time used the word ‘somaclonal variation’ to describe these variations as displayed among the plants derived from tissue culture. It is clearly understood that genomes modify themselves when exposed to unfamiliar conditions, and these modifications are best described as programmed loss of cellular control (Phillips et al., 1994).

What is mitigation of GHGs emission? We must be clear about the answer of this fundamental question. In simple term, the mitigation of GHGs emission is the way or means by which the emission of those gases could be reduced. As we know from the previous chapters of this book that the GHGs emission could be occurred from natural as well as anthropogenic activities. Natural activities included volcanic eruptions, ocean current fluctuations, continental drifts which are responsible for emission of huge amount of CO₂ and other GHGs. The reduction of emissions from those natural activities is beyond our capabilities. However, the human induced emissions of GHGs emission could be reduced. We studied in previous chapters that fossil fuel burning, industrial and energy sector pollution, deforestation, land use change and agricultural could contribute to GHGs emission considerably. Mitigation techniques are different for each of those sectors that governed by lot of interrelated factors. In actual sense, the mitigation of GHGs emission should includes all the measures that can curtail the anthropogenic emission from all sectors. But that is out of the scope of this book. In this book, we specifically address the mitigation principles, options and efficiency of different techniques/ practices in agriculture only.

In that aspect, the mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions in agriculture is defined as “the means and ways by which emissions of GHGs could be reduced from agriculture”. The ways and means actually referred to the techniques and practices and their amalgamation in agricultural sector both in production, processing and consumption aspects. So, mitigation is not only a techniques or combination of techniques it is actually an integrated approach for reducing greenhouse gases emission from agricultural systems. Primarily, there are two complementary approaches for mitigation of GHGs emissions from agriculture. Those two approaches are (i) supply-side and (ii) demand- side options or pathways. The supply-side approaches includes scientific land- use-changes, improvement of crop management, better livestock management practices, enhancing carbon storage in biota, soil carbon sequestration, significant substitution of fossil fuel by bio-fuels and use of renewable energy in agriculture. On the other hand, demand side approaches, taken in to account of shifting in the dietary pattern from non-vegetarian to vegetarian, curtail down the food loss and waste, and reducing the supply-chains (Figure 6.1). We can see, most of the approaches in supply-side are technology driven, while, approaches in demand-side are socio-economical and or policy driven. In this chapter we would thoroughly discuss the principles of mitigation, options of mitigation, mitigation cum adaptation approaches to reduce GHGs emission and climate change and few strategies to cope up with the vagaries of climate change.

Despite its existence and continued use over many centuries, and its popularity and extensive use during the last decade, traditional medicine has not been officially recognized in most countries. Consequently, education, training and research in this area have not been accorded due attention and support. The quantity and quality of the safety and efficacy data on traditional medicine are far from sufficient to meet the criteria needed to support its use worldwide. The reasons for the lack of research data are due to not only to health care policies, but also to a lack of adequate or accepted research methodology for evaluating traditional medicine235.

The statement from General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicines (World Health Organization, 2000) highlights the need for consensuous in addressing the problems related to the quality of botanical drugs, which ultimately is a critical determinant of safety and efficacy of medicine. Further, the distribution and widespread sale of adulterated, misbranded, spurious botanical drug products and marked increase in misleading health claims of these products demands proper regulations on botanical medicine to protect public health236. Considering these two issues development of parameters for quality control standardization and regulatory norms for controlling the growing business of botanicals is a big task. Various regulatory authorities, research organizations and botanical drug manufacturers are constantly contributing to developing guiding principles addressing issues related to quality, safety and efficacy237. In this chapter we have highlighted problems associated with quality control of the botanicals and tried to guide a way towards a globally acceptable quality standard.