eChapters

This chapter presents a birds’ eye view of the soil to develop the interest among the readers to know more about the fundamental concepts of soil.

Soil is a major determinant of terrestrial ecosystems and helps in the distribution of land flora and fauna. Soils are sources, transformers and stores of plant nutrients. Soils are the recycling places of plant and animal residues and wastes. Soils are also the screen and filter of pollutants in many ways, forms and degrees. Soils are the main link and recharger of hydrological cycle. Soils influence radiant heat exchange, temperature change and land surface reflection characteristics. Soils are important sources and sinks of biogeochemical cycles of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide. Soil is used in buildings, roads, brick kiln, naturopathy etc. Soils are good record of past climatic conditions and human activities, as they have some stable features originated from the interactions of climate, organisms, relief, parent material and time. Soil provides nutrients, water, air, heat and mechanical support to arable plants to produce the food, fodder, fibre, fuel and other plant products for human and animals. Mainly the soil is studied as a natural body and as a medium for plant growth.

Genesis of Soil

World’s geography is very widely diversified in relief showing various features like mountains and hills covered with snow and trees, glaciers, higher altitudes to plain to lowest valleys, forests to barren lands, fertile fields to waste lands, plateaus, deltas, swamps, lowlands, deserts etc. Temperature varies from arctic cold to scorching hot of equator, Rainfall from aridity to per humidity. All these situations and conditions under different sets of combinations generate and develop numerous types of soil from a single type of parent material. Therefore, many types of soils may develop at a smaller area.

Physical, chemical and biological weathering processes disintegrate and decompose various rocks and minerals to make asymmetrical soil parent material. This parent material is converted in to the soil profile by soil forming processes in the presence of soil forming factors. Soil genesis is defined as mode of formation of the soil from the parent material due to the action of soil forming factors and processes. Parent material, Factors of soil formation and Processes of soil formation, are three main part of soil genesis. These are described here:

1. Parent Material,

2. Classification of parent material,

3. Factors of soil formation,

4. Processes of soil formation,

5. Types of soil forming processes.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have many important roles in the crop production. The basic requirements for germination, seedling emergence and root development are adequate moisture and aeration, optimum temperature and absence of mechanical hindrance. After germination the further development of plant is also governed by physical conditions of soil. Soil texture, soil structure, soil density, soil consistence, soil water, soil air, soil temperature and soil colour are main physical properties of soils also affecting mechanical behaviour of soils. These are described here.

1. Soil Texture

The weathering divides larger particles of rocks and minerals in to the smaller ones. This process goes continuously. Thus, particles of different sizes ranging from large fragments of rocks to the very fine clay minerals are found in soil. However, for texture particles less than 2mm diameter is considered. The relative amount of these particles indicates the soil type also. Such as sandy soils contain more amounts of coarse particles i.e., sand and clayey soils are rich in fine particles. The rock and mineral particles having diameter less than 2.0 mm and come between specifies size are called as soil separates. International society of soil science (ISSS) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) systems are Generally, followed to classify the soil separates. This classification is given in table 3.1.

Vulnerability of Soils

Soil vulnerability, Soil degradation, soil vulnerability index

Water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity, Abandoned mines etc.

Soil vulnerability, Soil Degradation, Soil Vulnerability Index

The terms vulnerable and vulnerability are now bites of every one and used for everything. Vulnerable means to the possibility of attack or harm by any mean. Human beings are vulnerable to Covid-19, computers are vulnerable to virus, softwares are vulnerable to hackers and attackers to control system, environment is vulnerable to pollution. Vulnerabilities refer to the lack of ability to resist the effects of the aggressive environment. Soils are vulnerable to numerous threats like water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity etc. However, this book will describe some of the most pertinent vulnerabilities for soils.

In the earlier chapter the major soil vulnerability namely, water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, landslide and abandoned mines were described. In this chapter two more parts, Importance of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) in soils and Watershed management are also included after seeing their importance in agriculture and soils. Restoration means that by various actions or processes to return something to its original owner, site, place, or condition. In this context our aim is to restore our mother soil from various vulnerabilities by different actions and processes to its natural and original condition up to the maximum possible extent. Management is defined as the scientific methods to attain targeted production through planning, organising, training and fixing targets for employees. Therefore, after the restoration, soils should be managed according to scientific method of action by scientifically selected and trained staff to perform the assigned responsibilities, effectively, efficiently and rapidly within stipulated period. On these guidelines restoration and management of vulnerabled soils is described here,

Introduction

In aquaculture practises carried out in open environments (e.g. ponds, cages and pens), natural interaction between the culture and non-culture species, where the culture species are been fed by the non-culture species (predation) can occur, causing significant economic loses (Ross, 1988). As many as thirteen different predators are considered to cause loss or damage on salmon farms in Scotland alone among which cetaceans are notable. Seals, sea lions, aquatic birds, dolphins, whales, otters, crabs, starfish, snail, snakes, rats etc are generally considered as predators (SSGA, 1990; Miron et al., 2005), but cetacean species are not notable predators within salmon farms. It is necessary to develop an environment friendly and economically feasible methods or technologies to limit the useless natural interaction. Manual chasing away or removal of predators, usage of scarecrows, anti-predatory nets, covering nets and increasing the tension of nets are some methods used to prevent predations in different aquaculture scenarios.

Acoustic Deterrent Devices (ADDs) otherwise called as Acoustic Harassment Devices (AHDs) help to prevent predation as they produce strong underwater noises (sound waves) that disturb and scare off the predators (Gordon & Northridge, 2002). AHDs are comparatively higher energy output devices than ADDs that operate at a power level of above 185 dB re 1µPa @1m. However, as the hearing threshold of different predators differ, the term “ADDs” are generally used for those that are efficient to deter the predators irrespective of their operating power levels (Götz & Janik 2010). One of the first usage of different unspecified sounds (eg: killer whale’s recorded voice) to deter predators (seals) were during the 1970s and no sounds were then found efficient in a long-term run (Anderson and Hawkins, 1988). Later through the 1980s, the precursor of modern ADDs (175-210 dB re 1uPa @1m) that emit out sound waves of frequency range (8-17 kHz), which is similar to the predator’s (seals) most sensitive hearing range were developed (Mate et al.,1987).

Introduction

In the face of a burgeoning global population, the imperative for robust advancements in food production, especially within the aquaculture industry, is more pressing than ever. The expansion of this industry necessitates a nuanced consideration of environmental, economic, and social factors underpinned by a commitment to sustainable development. However, the intensification of aquaculture, particularly in coastal regions, poses long-term environmental risks due to increased organic matter in water, demanding innovative solutions.

In recent decades, recirculating systems have emerged as a step toward sustainable aquaculture, offering an effective approach to control wastewater. High operating costs have hindered widespread adoption despite their potential, particularly in developing countries. Enter the need for a game-changing, cost effective, and environmentally friendly technology that resonates with farmers on a large scale. This is where the Biofloc system, or Biofloc technology (BFT), takes center stage. A beacon of cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and environmental friendliness, the BFT reduces water exchange to almost zero and slashes artificial feeding ratios. This revolutionary system enhances water quality and generates microbial protein for aquatic species, addressing critical challenges faced by the aquaculture industry.

Sustainability Issues Regarding Major Marine Raw Materials Used in Aquaculture Diets

In 2018, more than 70% of the fish production is from fed aquaculture where f ish meals (FMs) and fish oils (FOs) are the main marine raw materials used in aquaculture diets or fish feed (Hua et al. 2019). They are derived or reduced products from the catch of small, pelagic, low-priced marine fish (forage fish) like Peruvian anchoveta that are rich in protein, micronutrient and lipid and are commonly termed as the ‘feed grade marine fishery’ (Bell and Waagbø, 2008; Bendiksen et al. 2011). The whole fish or any other f ish processing by-products are either cooked and then pressed to produce a liquid which on centrifuging produce the fish oil or are dried and crushed into powder-like material which is called as the fish meal (FAO, 2020). FM has the enough balance and concentration of essential amino acids and FO are rich in n-3 essential fatty acids especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). FM and FO are the main ingredients in aquaculture diets as they are relatively cheap, readily available, accepted and digested by the fish. The highest amount of these ingredients are often used in feeds for the high value aquatic organisms like carnivorous finfish (eg: Dicentrarchus labrax, Rachycendron canadum) (mostly marine), eels, salmonids, trouts, marine shrimps and freshwater crustaceans (see figure 1) etc. (Houlihan et al. 2001; Halver and Hardy, 2002; Miller et al. 2008) which are mainly imported by prosperous countries adding to good seafood trade value. All the intensive aquaculture production systems like recirculatory aquaculture systems, raceway aquaculture systems, aquaponics, cage culture, shrimp ponds etc are the major end users of the marine raw materials.

With constantly increasing population and need for food security in the present era, an alternate option to safeguard the nutritional well-being of human civilisation is the utmost necessity of the hour. Aquaponics is a system which combines two food-producing systems such as a recirculatory aquaculture system and hydroponics in such a way, that, the waste of one system is utilised in the other system making it a perfect example of the eco friendly model. This system is a soil-less system which can be set up in small vicinity, providing higher outputs. The designs can be changed according to one’s needs, but the main components of the unit should be kept in mind. The main components consist of a fish tank, mechanical filter, biological filter, hydroponics unit along with sump. Although the hydroponics unit are of various kinds but broadly it can be classified into three main types-1. media bed, 2. Nutrient film technique and 3. Deep water culture. If there is a scarcity of land and water or if the quality of soil is poor, usage of aquaponics will be sustainable.

Introduction

Aquaponics is a combination of hydroponics with recirculatory aquaculture system(RAS) as a single production system. Water with fish wastes coming from the fish tank circulates and passes through the filters, the plant grows on beds and water recycles back to the fish tank in an aquaponic system. At f irst solid waste are removed by mechanic filtration followed by biofiltration for removal of dissolved wastes. Ammonia, which is poisonous to fish, is converted to nitrate, a more readily available fertiliser for plants, by bacteria in the biofilter. The plants absorb nitrate and other nutrients when the water passes through plant growing beds, filtering it prior to its arrival in the fish tank.

Introduction

In the 21st century aquaculture has become one of the most important booming industries in the world. With just a mere contribution to the worlds fish production in 1960’s, and able to contribute to about nearly 50% in 2021, production from aquaculture has increased manifolds. Successful aquaculture relies on creating a suitable environment for growth of aquatic animals. Water quality has to be the most important component for successful aquaculture production. Throughout the farming period, it is necessary to maintain good water quality to ensure high survival and fast growth of cultured species. There are numerous water quality parameters that can impact the well-being of fish and crustaceans, most of which are discussed in this chapter.

Factors like salinity and water temperature play a critical role in assessing the suitability of a location for the cultivation of specific species. Additionally, factors such as alkalinity, turbidity, phosphorus, and nitrogen hold significance due to their impact on plant productivity, which, in turn, affects aquaculture production. As the cultivation progresses, factors like dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and others gain importance, as they have the potential to create stress for the cultured animals. This chapter offers an overview of the presence and behavior of each of these variables in both natural water environments and aquaculture ponds.

Crabs are one of the fast-growing animals from phylum arthropod. Freshwater crabs is now becoming as an important shellfish in freshwater aquaculture production due to its delicacy and nutritional richness. Freshwater crabs are considered good for human consumption and economically important crustacean in many developing countries such as India, China, Nigeria, Japan etc. Freshwater crabs are distributed in the tropical region of the world and they spend their entire lives in freshwater. In Indian territory Western ghats of Maharashtra and north east part of India are considerably more diverse in freshwater crab biodiversity. While only freshwater crab species Barytelphusa cunicularis is commonly observed all over India. In Maharashtra Kolhapur and Konkan region stands out for well-established crab market, driven by high freshwater crab consumption. Freshwater crab serve as good protein food, lipid and cheap carbohydrate source as well as valuable mineral source for human consumption particularly tribal and poor people. Freshwater crab aquaculture, like other types of aquaculture practices, offers a wide range of culture systems, extensive monoculture to intensive monoculture. In freshwater crab aquaculture crab farmers mainly prefers Barytelphusa cunicularis as a culture species.

Introduction

The global population is expected to reach 10 billion by 2050, with seafood making up about 15% of the animal protein consumed, averaging 20.2 kg per person in 2020 (Boyd et al., 2022). Due to the overfishing of fish stocks, estimated at 93.8%, aquaculture is seen as crucial to meet future seafood demand (FAO, 2022). Aquaculture offers a promising solution to food security challenges by leveraging our oceans, seas, and freshwater bodies to produce healthy and nutritious food. However, it's worth noting that aquaculture has been linked to the loss of mangroves, with shrimp farming accounting for 38% of historical global mangrove depletion (Friess et al., 2019).

Mangrove forests play a crucial role in supporting diverse ecosystems and providing essential services, primarily in tropical and subtropical coastal areas where they thrive in intertidal zones. However, these same areas are often utilized for aquaculture activities, leading to significant mangrove forest conversion. For instance, aquaculture has been responsible for converting approximately 5,44,000 hectares of mangrove forests in eight tropical countries (Hamilton, 2013). To address the challenge of balancing mangrove conservation with aquaculture production, integrated mangrove aquaculture (IMA) has been proposed. IMA involves planting mangroves within or alongside shrimp or f ish ponds. However, it's important to note that mangroves within IMA shrimp systems typically do not provide the same level of biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services as intact mangrove forests.

According to the facts, groundwater salinization and the scarcity of freshwater are indeed expanding. In the coming decades, saline water will replace freshwater as the principal resource for agriculture and aquaculture. Over 8.62 million hectares of land in India and over 397 million hectares of land worldwide have been rendered unusable for traditional agriculture as a result of secondary salinization. Use of salinized land and the water resources for aquaculture is a flexible solution to reduce environmental problem with multiple potential benefits on the economic, social, and environmental fronts. As aquaculture demand has increased, new production methods have been developed. Inland saline aquaculture, here defined as a land-based aquaculture system using saline groundwater and surface water, is practised by a number of countries, including Israel, USA, India, and Australia. The possibility that saline groundwater may differ chemically from coastal seawater is one of the key barriers to the growth of inland saline aquaculture. One must either change the chemistry or choose species that can tolerate the fluctuations to get around this. Several species are farmed or evaluated for their potential including finfish like tilapia, Indian Major Carps, catfishes, climbing perch, Asian sea bass, cobia, milkfish, mullet, and sturgeons. By combining the usage of resources, cultural systems play a significant part in attaining the disruptive technology of inland saline aquaculture. This review revealed the finfish species raised in inland saline resources as well as culture methods such as pond-based, tank-based, biofloc, and aquaponic systems for inland saline aquaculture. One of the cutting-edge food production methods required to boost aquaculture productivity and meet the expanding seafood demand is inland saline aquaculture. In spite of this, inland saline aquaculture has yet to become an industrial-scale and rural business to produce sustainably from unutilized lands.

Introduction Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly growing sector worldwide due to transform the intensive cultural practices. The demand for shrimp in the global trade market has increased significantly. The commercially farmed shrimp species, Pacific white leg shrimp, P. vannamei, dominate the market compared to tiger shrimp, P. monodon. Achieving higher shrimp aquaculture production often involves employing high stocking densities and large volumes of feed. This intensification can lead to increased waste and the accumulation of toxic substances, resulting in water pollution, requiring costly management measures to address these issues (Liu et al., 2019; Abakari et al., 2021). Therefore, addressing waste management and water quality concerns is crucial for sustaining the productivity and profitability of shrimp aquaculture operations. In addition to these, several other associated problems – decline in available land resources, escalated environmental pollution, the spread of recurring diseases, the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms, and the impacts of climate change – with the development of shrimp aquaculture were reported (Santos and Ramos, 2018). To avoid these issues, it is essential to regulate and implement sustainable shrimp aquaculture practices that can be achieved through species and system diversification and environmentally sustainable technologies. Adopting these BFT systems allows for a more sustainable and resilient aquaculture operation (Zhao et al., 2016; 2021).

Fisheries management has evolved, acknowledging the intricate connections between individual fisheries, ecosystems, and human activities. Discards, the portion of the catch discarded at sea, have garnered attention due to their significant global impact. Analysing the global research landscape on discards, the USA, Spain, and Australia lead in publications, highlighting the global interest in addressing this issue. This review article explores the reasons for discarding, its consequences, and the subsequent fate of discarded catch. Discards result from factors like economic considerations, fishing regulations, and storage constraints. The aftermath of discarding involves various outcomes; the survivability of discarded fish varies, with high mortality observed in small fishes and those with gas bladders, death, or being used as bait. The timeline of discards, spanning from the 1970s to the present, reflects the increasing awareness and international efforts to address this issue. In 2019, the estimated annual global discards were 10.5 million tonnes, recorded significantly in the northwest Pacific and southwest Atlantic regions. This review article delves into gear-wise and species-wise discards, revealing variations in discarding practices across fisheries. The Indian scenario highlights the decline in discards, especially in shrimp freezer trawlers. The decline in discards is attributed to changes in fishing technologies such as bycatch reduction devices, management actions like discard bans, quantifying the economic disincentives due to discards, and societal attitudes that aim to mitigate discards. Regulations and initiatives worldwide, assessing discards in fisheries is crucial for sustainable resource utilization, as depicted in a flowchart illustrating the necessity of such assessments. In conclusion, reducing discards contributes to healthier ecosystems, sustainable fisheries, and long-term global food security, calling for continued efforts to minimize wasteful practices in fisheries, this article emphasizes the need for responsible fishing practices.

Introduction

Tumaria wetland (29° 18' N & 78° 57'E) is a manmade wetland near Corbett Tiger Reserve, Nainital district, Uttarakhand (Figure 1). It was constructed in the year 1961 and has an average depth of 3.1 m. It was mainly used for irrigation, fish production and has been a favorite place for several migratory birds during winter season (Bhattacharjee and Bargali, 2013; Bhattacharjee,2014). Tumaria bears a humid subtropical climate; emprises hot and dry summer which commences from early October to the mid of June. The area experience wet season from the mid of June to early October and then feels the cold winter. The reservoir catchment area is 284.16 sq. km and its north area is covered with thick, reserved forest of Jim Corbett National Park (Figure 2). The infestation of Salvinia weed is one of the major problems being faced by this wetland.

The exotic free-floating weed, Giant Salvinia (Salvinia molesta Mitchell), belongs to Salviniaceae family and is a native of south-eastern Brazil (Forno, 1983). It is commonly known as water fern, water weed, Kariba weed or water spangle and African payal in India (Jones, 1987). During the past 50 years, it has widely extended throughout the world and has infester the areas of Australia, New Zealand, Africa, southern USA, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia and some Pacific islands (Thomas and Room, 1986) (Figure 3). In India, it was f irst established in the state of Kerala since early 1970s (Cook, 1976; Thomas, 1976 and 1979). This aquatic weed has invaded in various aquatic habitats, such as lakes, wetland, rivers, reservoirs and paddy fields.

Introduction

The biology is the study of life forms, subdivided into a variety of specialist categories that include their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.The conservation of endangered species is often equated with the preservation of biodiversity by people all over the world. Although endangered species are among the most obvious and understandable markers of the continual loss of biodiversity, ecologists are aware that biodiversity involves much more than just endangered species. An increasingly popular and crucial component of initiatives to preserve the ecological diversity of the planet is the protection of such species.

Endangered species

Endangered (EN): A taxon that is not critically endangered but facing a very high risk of extinction in the natural environment in the near future, it is considered to be endangered.

The important criteria are

1. A decline of at least 50% over at least 10 years or three generations that has been observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected. 2. Population thought to consist of no more than 2500 mature individuals.

Introduction

Because of their incredible diversity of life and amazing distinctiveness, coral reefs are frequently referred to as the "Tropical Rainforests of the Sea". Reefs are vast biological treasure troves that provide millions of people throughout the world with a variety of economic and environmental services. Corals are useful and beautiful things that are members of the phylum Anthozoa. The massive reefs that are only visible at low tides are built by hermatypic corals and their symbiotic zooxanthellae. Corals are only found in the ocean and, taxonomically speaking, are part of the scleratinia order.

The solitary forms, known as ahermatypes, are both solitary and colonial and lack symbionts. Corals that form reefs are actively growing in the ocean's photic zone. Around the world, a belt of coral reefs can be seen in the tropical waters. Coral reefs are of immense importance, but due to both natural and man-made influences, they are rapidly degrading and disappearing at an alarming rate. By 2030, 90% of the reefs would be in danger if current rates of erosion are permitted to continue. It is crucial to comprehend the coral reefs' current state of health and the growing dangers to them. The study's goals are to examine management and conservation strategies and shed knowledge on the expanding issue of coral exploitation (Jhajhria, 2021).

Introduction

In 1952, the classical theory of survey sampling neared completion. In 1952, Horvitz and Thompson created a general theory with an aim to create objective estimations. As Horvitz and Thompson completed the Classical theory, the random sampling strategy was mostly agreed upon. The majority of the great books on sampling were written by numerous authors. (Yates, 1949; Deming, 1950; Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow 1953; Cochran et al., 1953).

Why Sample?

• Particularly in fisheries, it is impractical to count every single specimen.

• Sampling gives a depiction of an organism's abundance and dispersion.

• A sufficient number of samples must be used to ensure that the results are accurate representations of the condition. Notwithstanding the fact that the sample is considered to be the credible and representative of the population and that the data shows accuracy, the sample may not accurately reflect the system's real population. As a result, sampling introduces a mistake.

• Sampling error is the statistical error showing the difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true values of a population parameter when all the units in the population are counted in the same way that the sample is counted.

Introduction

Plastics has the versatile properties like light weight, durability, less expensiveness, and it is readily available for the consumers usage. Due to these diverse properties, the usage of the plastics is increasing day to day and their production has been increased drastically in the past 50 years (Cressey, 2016). At present, global plastics production has reached to 159 million tonnes. This diversified consumption has led to the production of enormous amount of plastic waste (Hahladakis et al., 2018) and their properties allows for long range transport in the ocean (Baalkhuyur et al., 2018). According to the Earth Action reports, nearly 68,64,299 tonnes of plastic waste will end up in nature due to imbalance between the plastics consumption and production. India is among 12 countries responsible for 52 % of the world mismanaged plastic waste (Plastic Overshoot Day: Report 2023).

Marine litter occurrence and impacts are common in worldwide marine systems (Bhattacharya and Khare, 2019) and they are degraded into micro sized particles called microplastics through a various physical, chemical and biological processes such as U-V light, wind and ocean currents (Solomon and Palanisami, 2016). Microplastics are < 5mm in size and are further divided into large and small microplastics of size 1–5 mm and 20 µm–1 mm, respectively (Loder and Gerdtz, 2015). Microplastics are classified into 2 categories: i) primary microplastics, intentionally produced as small sizes, used in cosmetics, microfibers from clothing, fishing nets, and their shape, size, colour, and chemical composition may vary depending upon the products. ii) Secondary microplastics are the tiny particles including fibres, fragments formed by the degradation or breakdown of larger plastics particles due to the UV rays from sunlight oxidation process. These particles are generated from the plastic films, accidentally or intentionally discarded fishing ropes and nets, plastic bottles and plastic bags etc. (Andrady, 2011).

Introduction

''Sewage, also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, is produced by communities of people. It is characterized by its volume or flow rate, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and bacteriological status. Sewage primarily consists of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (water used to flush toilets, combined with human waste)."

The four primary types of wastewater are domestic, industrial, agricultural, and urban. Domestic wastewater comprises black water containing human and animal feces, along with gray water from household tasks such as bathing, washing, cooking, and gardening. Industrial wastewater consists of industrial byproducts like pulp, paper, petrochemical runoff, chemicals, salts, and acids. Agricultural wastewater originates from agricultural practices, contaminated groundwater, and farming methods, particularly those involving fertilizers and pesticides. Urban wastewater is a blend of domestic and industrial wastewaters, compounded by sewage infiltration and rainwater.

Introduction

India has a coastline of 8,118 km, with an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million sq km and a continental shelf area of 3,72,424 km², spread across 9 maritime States and seven Union Territories, including the islands of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. India represents 2.5 percent of the world’s landmass and supports a population of over one billion people. India is also one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world, with 7.8% of the recorded species of the world, including 45,500 recorded species of plants and 91,000 recorded species of animals. The marine ecosystem is extremely diverse, attributed to the geomorphologic and climatic variations along the coast. The coastal and marine habitat includes near shore, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, mud flats, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes, wetlands, seaweed and sea grass beds, deltaic plains, estuaries, lagoons and coral reefs.

Importance of Study

The detailed studies on the coastal and marine biodiversity of the Indian mainland are lacking, and so these habitats and the biodiversity are represented poorly. It is obvious that the biodiversity is distributed widely among different associated habitats and conserving a single area would never support all the important species and ecological processes worth protecting. Furthermore, biodiversity can only be conserved by preventing habitat loss and by restoration. The importance of any single species in the functioning of an ecosystem may not be high, but protection of a mosaic of habitats will certainly preserve diversity among the species of conservation importance. Also, to achieve the Biodiversity Aichi Targets with reference to the marine environment are to preserve ecologically sensitive areas and maintain the health of the marine environment by protection, sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.

Introduction

Plastic is the main component of environmental pollution, as it is continuously disposed of into the environment in substantial quantities. Since the creation of the first plastic polymer in the mid-twentieth century, plastic production has increased dramatically, from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 280 million tons of plastic produced in 2011, with an annual growth rate of 8.7 % (Europe, 2017). By the 2050s, humans are expected to generate 26 billion tons of plastic waste, four times the current levels of plastic waste globally. Due to this serious concern, the United Nations has prioritised plastic waste and its management as one of the fundamental environmental concerns in its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Plastics appear in the environment in visible and invisible forms. The visible form refers to common scenes, such as bags “flying” on tree branches, PET bottles floating in rivers, lakes, and seas or face masks we use daily. The visible form of plastic in the environment is an aesthetic mockery and a reminder of the socially indiscriminate reception of all offers from the petrochemical industry. The invisible form of plastics is called nanoplastics.

Introduction

The production of seaweeds in 2018 is about 36 million tonnes were produced from the dominated by the species Japanese kelp, Laminaria japonica followed by Eucheuma spp mostly originated by mariculture (SOFIA, 2022). In India seaweed are widely present in the Gulf of Mannar in the Tamilnadu and Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat coastal region. Parallelly the work on the seaweeds is also unrestricted in India, being top in the area of research especially in their bioactive compounds(Fig.,1). Since the age of ancient Egyptians to our current generation, peoples towards the beauty conscious unrestricted. Currently the exposure of e-commerce platform to the all-aged groups makes them the urge to buy more beauty enhancing products. From the film stars, whom it’s their main line of work to the people it doesn’t costs any financial income the role of cosmetics is unavoidable. Though it’s not providing any physical health, the emotional sanity enduring self-confidence is one of the principal reasons. And so the beauty industry is considered as the a dynamic segment that is ripe for disruption and the well-known actors are their key for its premiumization. Nowadays peoples are concern about their health along with beauty which leads to many companies investing in green and ecofriendly cosmetic product development. Seaweed is one among them. Seaweeds are marine macro algal species includes Chlorophyceae (green algae), Rhodophyceae (red algae) and Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) grown along the seashore which get differentiated based on the presence of carotenoids like chlorophyll, phycobiliproteins, fucoxanthins, beta carotene and so on. The presence of versatile bioactive compounds like diterpenes, proteins, antioxidants, flavonoids, phenols and especially polysaccharides (sulfated and non-sulfated) associated with seaweed makes them a good alternative to the synthetic cosmeceutical industry by producing novel beauty products (Couteau & Coiffard, 2016).

Introduction

Revolutionary makeovers have happened in the fisheries, from traditional f ishing practices to the FAD and so on. However the introduction of trawlers had made a huge impact on the marine ecosystem. As trawling is made for catching the bottom dwelling shrimps, but one of the untargeted catch in trawling is Squid. As the squids gained an important role in the export market, the demand for the squids is being increasing inevitably. In response specialised fishing practices called Squid Jigging directly targeting squid resource in parallel minimised the harm on other Marine resources. The frozen and dried squids are extensively exported from the India since 1973and now it ranked fourth in terms of quantity and economic value (CMFRI). In the year 2020-22 The total f ish production of India was about 162.48 lakh tonnes in which the marine and inland sectors contributed about 41.27 and 121.21 lakh tonnes respectively (Handbook of fisheries statistics, 2022), In That the bulk of the squid landing comes from the west coast (0.28 lakh tonnes) from landed, which mostly dominated by Karnataka and from the east coast (0.12 lakh tonnes) the catch is dominated by Tamilnadu followed by Odisha. Even though a considerable amount of squid catch is obtained as the by-catch from the trawl nets, but the primary catch comes from squid jigging.

Introduction

Seaweeds, also known as marine macroalgae, grow in intertidal zones to deep sea environments. Based on their pigmentation, seaweeds are classified into three groups. They are red (Rhodophyta), green (Chlorophyta), and brown (Phaeophyta). Seaweeds are the primary producers in marine ecosystems; they also contribute to carbon fixation, nutrient cycling, reducing wave energy, preventing coastal erosion, and oxygen production. The complex, three dimensional growing nature of seaweeds helps habitat marine flora and fauna. Seaweeds are consumed as food in many countries, particularly in Asia due to their high nutritional content. Along with their nutritional value, they contain bioactive compounds with potential pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications. Agar and alginate from seaweeds are used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Seaweeds are integral part of marine ecosystems. Chemical pollutants including pesticides can disrupt these ecosystems by harming their populations, which directly or indirectly affect the marine environment. seaweeds are not only essential components of marine ecosystems. They are also consumed directly or indirectly in various food products (e.g., sushi, soups, and salads). The pesticides in the marine environment absorbed by seaweeds and bioaccumulate in the food chain. Seaweed cultivation is an emerging sector worldwide. The applications of seaweeds are food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and biofuels production. Seaweeds contaminate with pesticides leads to economic loss and reducing market demand. Manu of the seaweed consuming countries have safety limit for pesticide residues in food products, including seaweeds. The presence of pesticides in seaweeds also helps the development of risk assessment and management strategies including source identification, exposure pathways, and mitigating measures. The monitoring of pesticides in seaweeds provides the contamination levels over time, which helps to identifying the emerging issues, assess the effectiveness of regulatory measures, and guide adaptive management strategies.