eChapters

Introduction

According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) “all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10% is defined as Forest” (FSI 2009). The status of forests and forest management systems contribute to the vulnerability of forests to climate change. Indian forests are extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Forests and Climate Change are intimately intertwined. Forests have regulated the climate, rain, groundwater, soil of the earth over millennia. Their transpiration act as a regulator of the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide: the world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons of carbon – twice the amount found floating free in the atmosphere. The forest and soils are home of biological diversity.

Introduction

The rhizosphere plays a pivotal role in the boundary where biological and chemical activities profoundly impact various landscape and global-scale processes. Understanding these processes is crucial for maintaining planetary health and sustaining the organisms inhabiting it (Morrissey et al., 2004). To enhance the yield potential of staple food crops, leveraging the root systems of plants becomes essential to meet the anticipated doubling of global food demand in the future (Gewvin, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Amidst the challenges posed by global climate change and the burgeoning global population, there’s an increasing need for greater productivity from cultivated food, animal feed, and fibers on less favorable and often infertile lands—conditions already prevalent in many developing nations (Tilman et al., 2002). Advancing our understanding and control of rhizosphere processes stands as a critical frontier in research for the next decade.

Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a widely cultivated and essential staple crop globally, known for its versatile culinary applications and nutritional value. With the exception of Kerala, potatoes are grown in practically every state in India under a variety of climatic circumstances. During the brief winter months, which span from October to March, 82% of potatoes are grown in plains. In West Bengal, potatoes are the most widely grown crop after grains (Chakraborty, 2012). Originating from the Andes region of South America, potatoes have become a crucial part of diets worldwide, providing carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. With a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations, including the Irish potato famine, this crop has played a significant role in shaping agricultural practices and food security.

Veterinarian’s primary responsibility towards patients and their owners is to establish a correct diagnosis as it is a pre-requisite for rational, effective, eco-friendly and cheap treatment. Diagnosis of a disease is the crux of health problems. An accurate and prompt diagnosis helps in deciding effective treatment options, whereas incorrect and delayed diagnosis often leads to failure in disease outcome.

Diagnosis

The word “diagnosis” is derived from the Greek word “gnosis” that means knowledge. The diagnosis is not only the identification of the disease but also of disease process correlating with clinical manifestations with an understanding of disease etiology and its influence on the structure and function of the body. In fact making diagnosis is itself a process of ascertaining the nature of the disease or disorder from its signs and symptoms differentiating it from similar looking conditions.

12.1 Introduction

Technological advancements have completely changed human existence, bringing about profound societal shifts and stimulating the economy. Empowering women will have a good impact on women's daily lives and is essential to the growth of any society. Women now have many possibilities to showcase their creativity, ideas, and technological prowess both in India and around the world thanks to the advancements and inventions in the field of information technology. This review's main goal is to investigate how women use digital technology in urban and rural areas. India is rapidly digitizing, embracing all facets of technological advancement, and as a result, offering plenty of job prospects for women.To reduce the disparity between genders in technology fields in Indian society, women's involvement in these fields, both in rural and urban areas, must be the main focus.

Introduction

Growing waste production globally is a serious threat to a sustainable ecosystem. A World Bank analysis estimates that in 2016 alone, cities globally produced over 2.01 billion tonnes of solid waste or 0.74 kg per person each day. The amount of waste generated annually is predicted to rise by 78% from 2019 levels to 3.40 billion tonnes in 2050 due to fast urbanisation and growing populations (Chandra Paul et al., 2019). The wastes include radioactive substances, agricultural wastes, food wastes, industrial wastes, municipal wastes, garbage, paper waste etc. The extensive use of land for commercial, industrial, and residential reasons has resulted in a decline in the amount of open ground available for waste disposal. Proper waste collection, transportation, recycling, and disposal must be done to decrease the amount of waste on earth. To manage waste in developing nations and urban areas sustainably, integrated waste management systems that are effective, economical, efficient, and socially inclusive are crucial.

F- distribution: A probability density function that is used in analysis of variance and is a function of the ratio of two independent random variables each of which has a chi square distribution and is divided by its number of degrees of freedom.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 151).

Factor VIII: It is a glycoprotein based clotting factor of blood plasma that is essential for blood clotting and is absent or inactive in hemophilic patients. It is also called alsoantihemophilic factor

Facultative: Possessing the capacity to survive in more than one type of environment.

Faculative anaerobeic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

2.1 Gender Analysis

Inequalities between men and women are becoming more visible and glaring particularly in developing countries of the world triggering serious concern over developed experts. UNESCO statistics reveals that women perform 75 per cent of work, earn 10 per cent of the income and own 1 per cent of property. The 3rd UN Millennium Development Goal (MDG) has called for gender equality and the components of women to battle poverty, hunger and disease and to restorative development that is precisely sustainable.

The Beijing Platform for Action (1995) very well support this fact in form of twelve objectives and action points viz., women and poverty, education and training for women, women and health, violence against women and armed conflicts, women and the economy, women in power and decision making, institutional mechanism for the development of women, human rights of women, women and media, women and environment, and the girl child. Prior to the above declaration there were First, Second and Third World Conference on Women at Mexico (1975), Copenhagen (1980) and Nairobi (1985), respectively.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present. There are two types of research settings: macro and micro. The macro research setting encompasses the entire state, while the micro research setting focuses on specific districts, blocks, or village peripheries. The aim of this approach is to understand the study environment from broader perspectives using the state as a reference frame and the district and block profiles as units of in-depth analysis.

Introduction

Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports.

The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

Introduction

Rice is one of the most important staple foods among all cereals. The larger population in Asia and Africa depends on rice for their daily calorie and nutritional requirements. People are found to bank on rice as their main source of nutrition in emerging and underdeveloped nations (Yang et al. 2016). However, it is considered that the milled or polished rice is nutritionally poor as the majority of the essential micronutrients viz. iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), and important vitamins are lost during the process of milling and polishing (Johnson et al. 2011). So, by the way, the poorer section of the worldwide population mainly depends on rice and is most vulnerable to ‘hidden hunger’ as they are unable to afford other micronutrients-rich non-staple foods for their balanced diet and are often at the maximum risk for micronutrients deficiencies (Bouis and Saltzman 2017). The only possible solution for such malnutrition is to have nutritionally enriched food in the daily foodstuff. However, approximately one third of the world’s population is facing the problem of hidden hunger (White and Broadley 2009). Prolonged utilization of carbohydrate-rich food mainly based on rice, wheat, or maize is contributing to such nutritional deficiency in the poorer section of our society as most of them are unable to supplement nutritionally rich food for their diet. The deficiency of micronutrients can be termed a silent epidemic because it slowly weakens our immune system and hampers physical and intellectual development which may lead to fatality in some severe conditions. In the case of micronutrient deficiencies, deficiencies  of iron or iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), zinc deficiency, and vitamin-A  deficiency (VAD) are common, and have serious consequences.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present.

Rearing animals has been amongst the most ancient professions of humanity and since the advent of domestication, the livestock keepers have been involved with them to a certain extent on financial, social and emotional fronts and thus have been curious about certain key aspects of the livestock under their care. The curiosity can be defined with the ‘five W and one H’ of questions as What needs to be done (requirements)? When to do that (timing)? Where are they (location)? Why is there a need (rationale)? How will that meet my purpose (state)? The farming community has traditionally been using these attributes for making farm decisions by observing the animals constantly, or periodically at key occasions such as milking. Such monitoring, aided by the wisdom of experience of the generations of farmers, led to the identification of the key events or problems in the health and productivity of individual animals. However, such kind of monitoring requires a deeper engagement in livestock keeping than that is desirable in commercial farming and the decisions/ detections are severely limited by the capability of the observer.

Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) is a term that encompasses the deployment of sensors for the capture of key biological information, the use of algorithms for processing the biological information (data science), systems for making inferences and making decisions based on the processed data (artificial intelligence), interfaces that allow for making use of these data (reporting) and implements for automation (robotics). PLF is intended to optimize the process of animal production, health care and welfare by generating vast real time information to be used in various ways. There have been many systems being tried and found fit for practical applicability; whereas, few systems like geolocation and motion detection are extensively applied.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Retrospection

India is a unique country in the world with many religions and cultural diversity. Indian culture has been continuing through the ages because of its adjustability with others and openness. Unity in diversity is one of the major characteristics of Indian culture. It is a diverse nation where people of many religions live together peacefully. Religion in India is characterized by the diversity of religious beliefs and practices. In Indian history, religion has played an important role in the cultural set up of the country.

Hinduism is the main Indian religion and considered as a universal order, a way of life which is followed by the people. The origin for Hinduism is very old having no exact date of its inception. This is a belief and practices followed by people through the ages and considered as a process of humanity. The earliest known sacred text of Hinduism is ‘Vedas’ which dates back to at least 3000 BCE. However, it is believed that these texts are of divine origin and timeless. Hinduism was more philosophically and theoretically described in Upanishads, written roughly between 800 and 400 BCE. The Mahabharata and Bhagavad-Gita are other best-known book and widely cited on Hinduism. The Ramayana is the other most important epic book on Hinduism which teaches about life, principles, duty, justice etc. through the life-story of Rama.

Dasharatha was a great Hindu king of the Kosala kingdom and Ayodhya was the capital from where He ruled. He was the son of King Aja of Kosala and Queen Indumati of Vidarbha. Dasharatha had three primary queens namely - Kausalya, Sumitra, and Kaikeyi. Unfortunately, the King had no sons to continue his dynasty after him. Despaired Dasharatha summoned Rishyashringa, a forest rishi for a ritual to fulfill his desire of have sons. By that way, the King had four sons. Queen Kaushalya gave birth Rama and similarly, Kaikeyi gave birth Bharata and Sumitra gave birth two sons, namely - Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Lakshmana was very much attached and devoted to Rama while Shatrughna was devoted to Bharata.

Immunity

Immunity is the resistance of body against extraneous etiological factors of disease, which is afforded by the interaction of chemical, humoral and cellular reactions in body. This is an integral part of the body without, which one cannot think of life. During the process of evolution, nature has provided this defense mechanism in the bodies of all living creatures particularly of higher animals and man, that protects them from physical, chemical and biological threats. It can be classified as natural or paraspecific and acquired or specific immunity.

Natural/paraspecific immunity

There are some species which are resistant to particular diseases due to presence of natural resistance against them e.g. horse, pig, cat are resistant to canine distemper virus; dogs are resistant to feline panleucopenia virus, chickens are resistant to anthrax. Even within species, there is natural resistance that protects some individuals while others are susceptible e.g. Indian deshi cattle Zebu (Bos indicus) is quite resistant to piroplasmosis in comparison to Bos taurus. Besides, there are the mechanisms or barriers in body provided by nature.

• Neoplasm General

• Neoplasm in cattle and buffaloes

• Neoplasm in sheep and goat

• Neoplasm in equines, swine and camels

• Neoplasms in pet animals

• Neoplasms in poultry

• Neoplasms in wild animals

• Neoplasms in laboratory animals

1. Introduction

Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS) have garnered attention as a sustainable solution to address the environmental and economic challenges associated with traditional aquaculture practices. Recent studies, such as those conducted by Martins et al. (2023) and Chen et al. (2024), have underscored the efficiency and resource conservation benefits of RAS. This section introduces the overarching opportunities and challenges in RAS, laying the foundation for a detailed examination of the latest developments in the field, opportunity presented by RAS lie in its capacity for water conservation. Martins et al. (2023) highlight the continuous filtration and recirculation of water within the system, significantly reducing overall water usage. This not only addresses environmental concerns but also aligns with the broader goals of sustainable aquaculture and provides a unique advantage in biosecurity, as emphasized by Li et al. (2022). The ability to meticulously control water quality parameters minimizes the risk of diseases and contributes to a healthier and more resilient aquaculture system. This enhanced biosecurity is pivotal in mitigating the impact of disease outbreaks on aquaculture operations. Precision control over environmental factors within the RAS facilitates optimal growth conditions, resulting in higher production yields. Anderson and Smith (2023) delved into the advantages of this controlled environment, positioning the RAS as a key driver for meeting the growing global demand for sustainable seafood production.

Introduction

Pear (Pyrus communis L.) is one of the most important temperate fruit crops after apple in the family Rosaceae. It is diploid and a member of the Pomoideae subfamily, having chromosome number 2n=2X=34. The pear is a tree and fruit in the Rosaceae family, which also includes apples and quince. The pear has a fibrous center and is a mildly sweet fruit. It is abundant in dietary fiber, plant components, and vital antioxidants. Pears come in a variety of shapes, including round, oval, and elongated, and they can be smooth or bumpy in texture. The fruit has a thin skin that can be smooth or rough, and it ranges in color from green to yellow to red. The flesh of the pear is white, yellow, or cream-colored and is juicy and sweet, with a slightly gritty texture. Later in the 19th century, better pear cultivars were introduced in India. Pears come in second place among temperate fruits in India in terms of both production and land area. Due to the pear’s extensive climatic and soil tolerance, it is grown in both temperate and subtropical climate.

Importance and composition and uses

Pears are a good source of fiber and vitamin C, and they are relatively low in calories. Pear fruits are suggested for diabetic patients because of their low sugar content, which also lowers blood pressure and regulates heart rate. The 3.1 gm of dietary fibre it contains are very beneficial for intestinal health. About 27 to 41 mg of phenolics are present per 100 mg of fruit, making it a strong source of antioxidants. Moreover, pears have demonstrated vasodilator capabilities, and their components anti-arrhythmic effects often lower blood pressure and regulate heart rate. Fruits include the folic acid that makes up the vitamin B complex. It contains the glycoside arbutin, which has potential as a treatment for urinary tract infections. The body’s uric acid is helped to leave the body with its help. The pears’ leaves are effective in treating swelling and blisters. Fever, anaemia, and general malaise are also treated with their assistance. A destion can be made from the bark of pears. 

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)

Cape gooseberry, scientifically known as Physalis peruviana L. (Physalis edulis Sims) belongs to family Solanaceae. Fruits are enclosed inside a bladder- like husk which turns papery when mature making all seeds inside visible. There are more than 70 species under the genus Physalis. Out of these species only few of them are of economic value. Cape gooseberry is most widely known among these species as it bears superior fruit in comparison to other species. The fruits are good in taste and a good source of minerals and vitamin such as vitamin B complex, vitamin C and pro-vitamin A, rich in pectin.

Species diversity

Cape goosberry is also known by different names in Latin America: capuli, aguaymanto, tomate sylvestre, or uchuba, in Bolivia; uvillain, in Peru; capuli or motojobobo embolsado, in Colombia; topotopo, chuchuva, in Ecuador; uchuva, vejigón or guchavo in Venezuela; capuli, amor en bolsa, or bolsa de amor, in Chile; cereza del Peru in Mexico; teparee, tiparee, makowi, etc., in India. Physalis pruinose L. commonly known as strawberry tomato, husk tomato or ground cherry is also grown for its small yellow fruits. In mild-temperature climates, the fruit is used to make sauce, pies, and preserves. Unripe druits are toxic. In Australia, the plant is thought to have caused illness and death in cattle.

1. Introduction

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has transformed the functioning of modern libraries in the 21st century. The applications of ICT to data, information and knowledge resources have given rise to data centers, digital libraries, and knowledge repositories. New software’s that are based on international standards have emerged to undertake a wide range of jobs that suit the requirements of individual libraries. Rapid advances in the application of ICT have given rise to ‘Open Standards and Open Source Software’s. Libraries can benefit a great deal now by using these standards and software, as during the last twenty five years only rich libraries could afford to use commercial software. As a result the transformation of libraries was not universal in India. Now with the advent of open source software, we are expecting many libraries are going to be modernized. This transformation is not going to be limited to libraries only but to users as well who belong to different disciplines and walks of life due to social networking which is emerging as a major activity of libraries around the world. Libraries

Female Genital System

Developmental Anomalies

Agenesis

Absence of ovary, uterus, oviduct and cervix in females. It may be unilateral or bilateral.

Hypoplasia

Complete or partial lack of germ cells in ovaries. Hypoplasia of uterus is related with agenesis of gonads. Ovaries of freemartin are also hypoplastic. Hermaphrodite animal has ovary and testicular tissue both in the gonads.

Hermaphroditism

In hermaphrodites, there is presence of organs of both sexes in same individual animal. Both ovarian and testicular tissue occur in one animal leads to sterility in animal (true hermaphrodite) while in pseudohermaphrodite the gonadal tissue of only one sex is present but there is some degree of development of opposite sex organs.

Cucumber, both slicing and pickling types, is one of the most popular vegetable crops of the family Cucurbitaceae. Like other cucurbitaceous crops, the cucumber also requires a warm season for commercial cultivation and has little or no tolerance to frost. Temperatures above 20°C are optimal for cucumber growth and development. Currently, its cultivars are generally classified as either pickling or slicing types, each with its own set of quality attributes. Pickling types typically have more prominent warts (tubercles) and lighter-coloured skin. They are harvested more frequently at the immature stage, when their length and diameter (LD) ratios are lower. The LD ratio for pickles typically falls within the range of 2.8 to 3.2. On the other hand, slicing cucumbers are harvested and commonly sold in lengths ranging from 12 to 25 cm, with diameters ranging from 1.5 to nearly 7.5 cm. Most slicing cucumbers have cylindrical-shaped fruit with blocky or slightly rounded ends that taper slightly from the stem to the blossom end. Generally, slicers have an LD ratio greater than 4.0, a smooth surface, and thicker skin compared to pickling types. This difference is accentuated because slicers are harvested at later stages of maturity than pickling cucumbers.

The onion, or Allium cepa var. cepa L., 2n=16, is one of the most important vegetables that are grown and eaten globally (Kiani et al., 2023). It is referred to as the 'queen of the kitchen' because of its wide range of culinary applications (Selvaraj, 1976). It can be eaten raw or prepared in a variety of ways, including as pickles, soups, frying, boiling, and baking (Cattivelli et al., 2021). Apart from being consumed raw, onions also provide excellent raw materials for the processing sector. They can be processed into onion pastes, dehydrated powder, flakes, rings, shreds, and onions in vinegar or brine (Gnanasundari et al., 2023). Additionally, it possesses several health promoting factors such as antihyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, immune-protective, anti-obesity properties, and rich in several minerals and vitamins (Pareek et al., 2017). Medicinal value of onion has been known since antiquity; the third or fourth century A.D.'s "Charak Samhita" is one of the medical treatises that mentions it (Ray et al., 1980). Allicin, ajoene, allixin thiosulfinates, sulphites, and other significant biochemical components are found in onion, giving them considerable use and nutraceutical value.

Organic farming necessitates a shift from conventional to non-chemical agricultural methods and practices. For this, it needs creation of facilities for the production of organic inputs, adoption of crop rotation, green manuring and other best management practices for the organic production of crops and livestock. Further, the ‘towards organic approach’ in intensive agricultural areas and ‘scientific organic farming’ in niche areas have to be implemented for development of an organic farm. The synthesized information on how to convert an inorganic farm into an organic farm followed by its sustainable maintenance is the need of the hour. This chapter holistically deals with designing and maintaing the whole ecosystem organic.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, the growers, policymakers and consumers are talking about organic farming (OF) across the globe. For practitioners, it is still a confusion regarding what and how to practice OF. There is a wrong notion that simple addition of organic manures and the use of chemical pesticides for growing different crops is considered as organic farming. In sense real, organic farms are the cultivated fields without addition of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, livestock additives, etc., and only organic and (or) non-chemical methods are practiced, and the concept or practice is known as organic farming. A large number of farms have been converted from conventional into chemical farms during the last more than 50 years by using synthetic chemicals. In view of the increasing demand for organic products and spiraling soil and human health problems, there is need to transform them gradually into organic farms. So that, it can help enhance soil organic carbon status and fertility which in turn can support crop growth and produce healthy foods besides protecting the environment. However, the extent of chemical used might be varying from one farm to another depending on the crops cultivated, nutrient requirement, pest/ disease severity, availability and accessibility to chemical use, socio-economic condition of the farmers, geographical location, etc.

Since many years, there has been an extensive use of synthetic pesticides against which has caused pest resistance, resurgence, residues environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. Therefore, attention is given towards the alternate methods which are ecologically, economically sustainable. Botanical pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. As they have promising role in organic farming, they help in reduction of pest load and improve crop quality and thereby increase crop yield without disturbing the environment and helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems. This book chapter, discuss about the active functional ingredients of each botanical pesticide and mode of action, its importance in organic farming, their commercial formulations, major insect pests suppressed or controlled, their challenges in usage in agriculture and horticulture and its future prospects.

1. Introduction

Synthetic pesticide use has caused pest resistance, environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. It is essential to follow alternate methods because these synthetic pesticides have led to acute and chronic poisoning in farm workers, applicators, and even customers. Employing botanical pesticides, is the most effective way to replace the widespread use of synthetic pesticides, is one of the important alternative strategies. Among them, plant-based bio pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. Botanicals being natural and non-toxic to humans, animals, and the environment, have a significant role in organic farming as they help in promoting plant growth, controlling pests and diseases, and enhancing soil health. The use of botanicals is an essential component of organic farming as it helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems, improves crop quality, and increases yield without the negative impacts of synthetic chemicals. As the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers is prohibited in organic agriculture. Organic farmers rely on natural methods to protect their crops from pests, diseases, and weeds. The beneficial insects, crop rotation, and natural remedies such as neem oil or garlic sprays are used to protect the crops. The use of natural methods to manage pests and diseases promotes biodiversity, maintains soil health, and minimizes the environmental impact of farming. Thus, plant protection is crucial in organic farming to ensure sustainable and responsible agriculture practices.

Organic farming in groundnut cultivation is gaining global recognition as an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible approach. Groundnut is a versatile crop with high nutritional value and economic importance. This chapter explores the principles and practices involved in organic groundnut farming. It focussed on soil management, organic fertilization, pest, disease and weed management without using synthetic chemicals. This approach minimizes impact on the environment and reduces the presence of pesticide residues in the final produce. Moreover, organic practices help maintain soil health, conserve biodiversity and reduce environmental pollution. Thus, farmers can produce high quality groundnuts and fetch higher price and profits.

1. Introduction

The groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is known by different names such as monkey nut, goober, earth nut etc., and belongs to leguminosae family. It produces flowers above ground but the fruits/pods underground (Sanders, 2003). It can be grown successfully in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Globally, groundnut covers 32.7 M ha with a production of 53.9 MT with a productivity of 1648 kg ha-1 (FAOSTAT, 2021). Among the developing countries, Egypt has the highest productivity of groundnut with 2.70 t ha-1 (Nautiyal, 2001). Globally, India ranks first in groundnut area (5.42 m-ha) and is the second largest producer in the world with 10.1 MT with a productivity of 1863 ha-1 in 2021-22 (agricoop.nic.in). India ranks second next to China (34%) with 19% of world groundnut production in 2021. Gujarat is the largest producer contributing 36% of the total production of groundnut followed by Rajasthan (17%) and Tamil Nadu (7.5%). Groundnut accounts for 18% area and 26.8% production of the total oilseeds in India (CARP, 2022).

Background

Sheep and goats are the poor man’s cow because of the lower capital investment, and production costs. Also supplies milk quantities that are suitable for immediate household consumption thereby reducing problems of milk storage and marketing. Small ruminants, goats and sheep, mainly localized in the arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas of the country, have multi-faceted utility in terms of wool, meat, milk, skins, (mo)hair/pelts, manure and have also acquired socio-cultural niches in many communities (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007). Goat and sheep milk has many advantages over other livestock species’ milk being easy in digestion, non-allergic, naturally homogenized, improves immunity as it has antifungal and anti-bacterial properties. However, rearing small ruminants for meat is more popular among farmers as price of chevon and mutton are very high, continuously increasing over the years and sale of male for meat is easy, steady and accessible at farmer’s place or local places unlike milk, skin and fibre. Thus, small ruminants (SR) occupy a promising agrarian and economic niche in low to medium input production systems, not suitable for growing crops and dairy farming (Devendra and Chantalakhana, 2002), mostly driven by small and marginal farmers and landless laborers. Their meat and milk production represents 4.8% and 3.4% of the total meat and milk produced, respectively, in the world.

Introduction

The advent of Industry 4.0 marks a pivotal era of transformation in the industrial sector, characterized by a fusion of technologies blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres. This paper aims to delve into the bibliometric analysis of Industry 4.0, offering a comprehensive overview of the current state of research, predominant themes, and emerging trends within this revolutionary domain. By systematically mapping out the scholarly landscape, this study will not only highlight the intellectual contours that shape Industry 4.0 but also provide insights into the collaborative networks and influential regions propelling this field forward. Through this bibliometric scrutiny, we endeavour to discern the patterns of publication, citation trajectories, and the evolution of topics over time, thereby furnishing stakeholders with a strategic vantage point from which to foresee future directions and opportunities in Industry 4.0. This introduction sets the stage for a nuanced exploration of the intricate tapestry of research that constitutes the backbone of Industry 4.0, laying the groundwork for understanding its impact on the industrial paradigm and its potential to drive innovation, efficiency, and sustainability in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

Pests

The English name ‘Pest’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Pestis’, which means causing destruction. Pests are defined as ‘those organisms, which compete with man in his food supply, damage his possessions and attack himself’. They are of vital concern to mankind in their everyday life, as they cause considerable damage directly as well as indirectly to crops, domestic animals, birds and to man himself. They are also responsible for causing or transmitting many serious diseases. Pests include thousands of invertebrates such as, insects, nematodes, mites, ticks, snails and slugs, crabs etc. and vertebrates such as, rats, squirrels, jackals, pigs and boars, porcupines, rabbits, deers, bats, some species of birds etc., which are destructive to plants and livestock. Several microorganisms such as, fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma, phytoplasma etc. are also pests in nature. Weeds and phanerogamic parasites are also pests in the true sense.

Equine Rhabdomyolysis

It is also known as Azoturia or Monday Morning Disease. The disease occurs in well fed horse after a spell of inactivity. Suddenly after walking a few steps, the horse is unable to move further and feels pain with intense sweating and hardening of muscles.

Etiology

• Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles.

• High glycogen storage.

• Lack of oxygen supply.

Statistics is a branch of science which deals with the collection, classification, description and interpretation of data obtained by conducting surveys and experiments. The essential purpose of it is to describe and draw valid inferences about numerical properties of populations” (Ferguson 1966). The experience in statistics application indicates that a single statistical method can be used in different research areas for dealing with different types of problems. Various possibilities which application of a statistical method provides in certain research areas should be considered as an adequate way of dealing with a problem of the research. However, it should be noted that statistics is not a method by which it is possible to solve all the problems in a research. Nachmias and Nachmias (2009) stated that there are basically two types of statistics which include descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics enable the researcher to summarize and organize data in an effective and meaningful way. It involves the use of tables, charts, graphs, mean, modes, median, standard scores and correlation to treat collected data. Inferential statistics is concerned with making inferences from a unit of a population. Inferential statistics is concerned with making inferences from a unit of a population. Inferential statistics allow the researcher to make decisions or inferences by interpreting data patterns. Researchers use inferential statistics to determine whether an expected pattern designated by the theory and hypotheses is actually found in the observations. To decide whether this hypothesis is true, researchers might survey the respondents and then use descriptive statistics to make comparison between these groups and would employ inferential statistics to determine whether the differences between the groups are significant or not.

Multivariate analysis is essentially the statistical process of simultaneously analyzing multiple independent variables with multiple dependent (outcome or criterion) variables using matrix algebra. During the last two or three decades, multivariate statistical analysis has become increasingly popular. The theory has made great progress, and with the rapid advances in computer technology, routine applications of multivariate statistical methods are implemented in several statistical software packages. The traditional approach to the teaching of multivariate statistical analysis, as exemplified by Anderson (1958), relies heavily on advanced matrix mathematics. On the other hand, Hury and Riedwyl (1988) suggest that it is possible to understand most of the basic ideas underlying multivariate statistical analysis without a mastery of such mathematics, provided that these are conveyed with the help of real data sets. In this chapter we propose a non-mathematical data-driven approach for teaching multivariate statistical methods to students. Despite this, we are mindful of the need for students to know some basic linear algebra and univariate statistical concepts. Such basic knowledge provides students with the foundation necessary for the application of the appropriate multivariate statistical procedures and for the interpretation of results.

Q1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.

1. India ranks …first…. position in cattle population in the world.

2. India ranks … first …. position in buffalo population in the world.

3. India ranks … first ……. position in total milk production in the world.

4. …Buffalo…….. species produce the highest amount of milk in India.

5. Frieswal cattle is a cross of …Holstein Friesian….and ……Sahiwal…

6. Mehsana buffalo is a cross of …Murrah….and ……Surti……

7. India ranks … first …. position in goat population in the world.

The accumulation of nitrogen under non-leguminous and cereal cropping systems seem to be generally universal at least in the tropics. Free-living heterotrophic nitrogen fixing bacteria are very widely distributed taxonomically, geographically and ecologically. But only a few genera and species are known to possess the potential for high amount of nitrogen fixation. Azospirillum has shown high nitrogen fixation attributes. The association of Spirillum lipoperum (Azospirillum brasilense) and Digitaria decumbens was reported by Dobereiner and Day (1974).

I. Spirillum

The description of members of genus Spirillum was available as early as 1670s by Leeuwenhoek (Dobell 1960 and Muller 1773). But the genus Spirillurn was created in 1832 by distinguishing it from phototrophic spirilla which were placed in a separate genus Thiospirillum (Ehrenberg, 1838). The subsequent developments of the taxonomy of the chemo- heterotrophic spirilla which generated knowledge of their characteristics, were extensively reviewed by Giesberger (1936) and Williams (1959 a, b).

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

1. National Sources of Finance

A. Medium and Long-term Sources

i. Venture Capital: Funding from affluent investors who prefer to invest their money in enterprises with long-term growth prospects is referred to as venture capital. The individuals who provide such investments are known as venture capitalists. Venture capitalists usually acquire equity in the emerging company in return for their backing, which is typically provided as preferred stock.

Venture Capital is a funding source for new businesses. ‘Venture capital refers to investments made in ‘new and untested enterprises’ that do not have a solid growth history’. It comes as capital invested as shareholdings, aimed at establishing and creating firms focused on innovative concepts or new technologies that carry a high perceived risk, yet possess the potential for rapid expansion. Venture capital is generally arranged as equity or quasi-equity f inancial instruments. A venture capital firm acts as an intermediary between investors seeking high returns on their investments and entrepreneurs who require funding to launch their businesses.

Types of Venture Capital Funding

The various types of venture capital are classified according to their applications at various stages of a company’s lifecycle. Early stage financing, expansion f inancing, and acquisition / buy out financing are the three main types of venture capital.

In India, we have mostly two types of standards, which govern the sale of foods including milk and milk products.

These are: Legal standards and Quality standards.

Legal standards

Legal standard means the specifications or the requirements which pertain to the law of the Govt. and are set up by the Govt. to meet certain minimum requirements in terms of chemical quality (i.e. composition), bacteriological quality (i.e. hygienic quality), and labelling and packaging requirements.

In our country, legal standards are given under Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Rules, 1954-1955 (which are amended from time to time). Legal standards or PFA standards prescribe the minimum requirements for all types and categories of food. These standards are consistent with the minimum quality that is attainable under Indian conditions by the majority of the farmers, producers, processors, sale agencies etc. Further, any food that does not confirm to the minimum standards laid down by the legal rulers (PFA rules) is said to be adulterated, irrespective whether anything has been added to or removed from the original food.

Insecticide mode of action is divided in to four major chapters 1. Nerve & Muscle 2. Growth & development 3. Respiration & Energy production 4. Metabolic process 5. Unknown or Non-Specific (multisite inhibitors) (Source: IRAC). To understand the mode of action of insecticides, it is necessary to understand the function of nervous system and how it works in insect. The nervous system functions transmits information throughout the body. This system has three components: 1) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) to receive and transmit incoming signals (taste, smell, sight, sound, and touch) and to transmit outgoing signals to the muscles and other organs, effectively communicating them how to respond, and 2) Central nervous system (CNS) to interpret the signals and coordinate the body’s responses and movements. 3) Visceral or sympathetic nervous system (VNS) directly connected with the brain that supplies nerves to the anterior part of the alimentary canal (foregut and midgut), heart, and spiracles. Some additional nerves arise from posterior compound ganglion of ventral nerve cord (VNC) which supply nerves to the posterior part of gut and reproductive system.

Introduction

Carbohydrates, the aldehyde/ ketone derivatives of the higher polyhydric alcohols, or compounds that yield these derivatives on hydrolysis, constitute of mainly four groups viz. monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Energy comes mostly from carbohydrates, and products of their degradation are also used for the synthesis of other substances including fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids etc They are also components of compound lipids, conjugated proteins, and some of their derivatives can even function as medications (e.g., cardiac glycosides, etc). Disorders such as glycogen storage disorders (GSDs) and galactosemia can be brought on by an inherited lack of certain enzymes in the metabolic pathways of various carbohydrates. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by disruption of the metabolism of glucose.

In ruminants, the end products of digestion are largely volatile fatty acids viz. acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid and some monosaccharides. As they pass through the ruminal epithelium, they undergo different degrees of metabolism. The fate of volatile fatty acids are as follows: Acetate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle; fat synthesis); Propionate as precursor to glucose (glycolysis; milk lactose) and Butyrate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle). All the digested and absorbed monosaccharides and volatile fatty acids enter into the liver, where two mechanisms operate such as withdrawal of carbohydrates from blood (e.g. glycogenesis; glycolysis etc) and release of glucose by liver to blood (e.g. glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis etc). In case of monogastrics, the processes of digestion/ fermentation of carbohydrates especially occur in the small intestine. The fate of absorbed glucose and metabolic conversions in the animal body mainly comprise of storage as glycogen in liver and muscle (small amount); oxidation of glucose for providing energy (via Glycolysis pathway; other alternative pathways such as Hexose Monophosphate Pathway (HMP)/ HMP Shunt and Uronic acid pathway etc) and fat synthesis as well as storage in the form of fat in adipose tissue.

Introduction

Biochemical techniques are fundamental tools that allow scientists to investigate the molecular intricacies of biological systems, including DNA, RNA, and proteins. These techniques are essential for understanding cellular processes, genetic functions, and disease mechanisms. By employing biochemical methods, researchers can dissect complex biological systems at the molecular, cellular, and genomic levels, paving the way for advances in basic biology and therapeutic interventions.

Introduction

The dairy industry is a cornerstone of worldwide agricultural economies, underpinning nutrition, employment, and rural development. India stands out among nations with thriving dairy sectors, accounting for approximately 23% of global milk production (Prasad et al., 2023). With advent of Operation Flood in the late 1970s, India’s dairy industry has undergone transformative changes. This movement revolutionised milk production, rural income, and the organisation of cooperatives. The Indian dairy sector is still unorganized and only 18-20 per cent of the total milk produced is handled by organized sector (Gowda, 2023). There is rising trend of value addition along with rising demand of processed dairy products in India. These changes underscore the importance of effective dairy plant management systems, where strategic oversight of milk procurement, processing, and product manufacturing ensures quality, efficiency, and sustainability.

The world turned into a grossly inhabitable during the infamous COVID-19 pandemic, with community health issues everywhere. Each one felt unsafe if other earthly inhabitants were, be it humans or other living beings. Onset of SARS CoV-2 set a ‘new normal’ world order. The ever-evolving and mutating SARS CoV-2 variants extended the pandemic wave after wave thereby complicating the situation, pushing the global healthcare system to its limits and exposing its underbelly. The continually evolving variants were more aggressively transmissive and infective. As the world still reels under tremendous healthcare pressure, other infectious diseases are emerging as are identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO), creating international health emergency situations. The situation becomes alarming with the increasing zoonotic (spillover) and reverse zoonotic (spillback) factors being more proactive in the disease spread. There is a greater need to vaccinate not only humans but also animals, especially the domesticated ones and known reservoirs/carriers. Vaccines must be developed on priority and equitably distributed as the first step to counter a pandemic or potential pandemic. Vaccination is self-limiting due to increasing reported breakthrough infection cases. A strong link of the environmental health to the overall global health needs to be acknowledged, and due diligent measures taken. Hence, there is a strong need of the One Health approach as a 360° solution, and follow it up at global-scale both in letter and spirit. This chapter discusses spillover and spillback of diseases like SARS-CoV-2 and Mpox as case examples, the mitigation strategies and the need for workable One Health models, and challenges and measures to counter future outbreaks. It stresses on foolproof vaccination strategies across to catalyse individual and herd immunities for universal wellbeing.

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

Millets categorized as cereal crops are rich sources of nutrients, mostly cultivated across arid and semiarid areas of the world, specifically in southeast Asia and Africa. Millets are easy to cultivate, demands minimal field input and have appreciable market values. Despite of great value of millets, their production is limited mainly because of climate change which triggers multiple abiotic stresses like drought, high temperature, salinity, etc. Even though millets can withstand the majority of abiotic stresses, it necessitates their further improvement to develop more resilience against unprecedented effects of climate change by incorporating or enhancing stress tolerance characteristics. It is currently not attainable to create stress tolerant and high yielding varieties through conventional breeding techniques and thus modern approaches like genome editing become inevitable to achieve this goal. Also, available data for genome sequences of millets in these years promotes genome editing. The technique has drawn tremendous attention recently due to its potential in precise modification of alleles and is considerable to speed-up crop breeding by targeting important traits with precision. Additionally, many stress-resistant genes are identified in related monocots and are reported to be orthologs of millets which could assist genome editing for developing stress resilience and productivity in millets. Above all, the technique has also gained legal acceptance and has potential to revolutionary counter climatic challenges.

Millets are the staple food cropsacross the globe. The ability to thrive in harsh conditions established them as most suitable for current climate adversaries. The nutritional richness of millet reminded the need for adding them to our food basket.Despite possessing several desirable traits their cultivation is limited to a few pockets across the globe.Though significant progress has been achieved by conventional and transgenic breeding programs inmillets, there is a need for rapid improvement to meet the current needs.In order to accelerate the pace of breeding efforts, several molecular biology and biotechnology tools are being deployed by plant breeders. In the meantime, genome editing techniques like CRISPR, TALENS, ZFNs, Base and Prime editing have revolutionized the methods of genome engineering among which CRISPR has emerged as the most rapid, convenient and effective mechanism. The availability ofwhole genome sequence information, identified candidate genesfor various traits and successful transformation methods of millets promoted the application of CRISPR and resulted in the improvement of several traits. Initially, its application has been limited due to the restricted policies across the globe but the gradual change in the policies promoted genome editing across several parts of the globe. Thus, the application of genome editing for millet crop improvement can bring back those ancient grains to our food basket.

7.1 Learning Objectives
After comprehending this unit, we will be capable to:
i) Understand the conception of regression;
ii) Appreciate the significance of regression;
iii) Understand the difference between regression and correlation;
iv) Know about the regression lines;
v) Anticipate the difference between simple regression and multiple regression.

7.2 Introduction

Correlation is followed by linear regression. Regression is applied for forecasting the value of an unknown variable with the help of a known variable. The forecasted variable is called the dependent variable. On the contrary, an independent variable is used for forecasting the value of a dependent variable. If you desire to know, for instance, if exam achievement can be anticipated based on review time, whether cigarette consumption can be predicted based on smoking length, and so on, you may use linear regression. You must utilize multiple regressions if we deal with more than one independent variable rather than simply one.