eChapters

The oesophageal groove (also known as the reticular groove) is a physiological structure and reflex in ruminants that plays a crucial role in the digestion of milk and liquids, particularly in young animals. Its significance and the timing of its closure vary across different species of animals, reflecting adaptations to their feeding behaviors, nutritional needs, and developmental stages.
Anatomy and function of the oesophageal groove
The oesophageal groove is a muscular fold located in the reticulum, the first compartment of the ruminant stomach. When activated, it forms a channel that directs ingested liquids (e.g., milk in young animals) directly to the omasum and abomasum, bypassing the rumen. This mechanism prevents milk from fermenting in the rumen, ensuring efficient digestion and nutrient absorption. The closure of the groove is triggered by specific stimuli, such as suckling, milk temperature, and sensory cues like the smell or taste of milk.
Species-specific significance and closure time
The significance and closure time of the oesophageal groove differ among species, influenced by their physiological needs and feeding practices.
1. Cattle (Bos taurus)
Significance: In calves, the oesophageal groove is critical for survival during the milk-feeding stage. By directing milk to the abomasum (the true stomach), it avoids fermentation in the rumen, which can lead to bloating and metabolic disturbances.
Closure time: The reflex is most active in calves and begins to diminish as they transition to a diet of solid feed, usually around 8–12 weeks of age. In adult cattle, the reflex is rarely triggered, although specific
stimuli (e.g., salty solutions) can induce it.

Abstract

Sabatayn basin is one of the two mature basins producing oil and gas in Yemen. Due to the recent decline in oil production, the exploration activities have been extensively concentrated mainly on these two basins (Sabatayn and Sayun-Masilah). So, this present study has been conducted to evaluate the exploration potential of the remaining trap areas within these mature basins. Fractured basement of reservoir becomes very attractive exploration target in Yemen recently, after the recent discoveries of basement fractured oil fields. As the evaluation of basement traps needs time and fund, to reduce the same, this research study uses a new technique which was devised with the help of Geoinformatics by analyzing the surface and subsurface lineaments effectively. In this study, a satellite image Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+7) based analysis was conducted for extracting surface lineaments, and for the subsurface lineaments, the basement lineaments were extracted from seismic, magnetic and gravity data. An orientation analysis of these surface and subsurface linear features was performed to detect the basic structural grains of the study area. The correlation between these structural grains and subsurface oil and gas traps was performed to understand the connectivity to the reservoirs. This paper discusses in detail about the same and the importance of using surface and subsurface lineament analysis for delineating hydrocarbon reservoirs in the study area.

Introduction

Synbiotics refer to nutritional supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics in form of a synergism. The synbiotic concept was first introduced as “mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of health-promoting bacteria. Probiotics are live bacteria which are intended to colonize the large intestine and confer physiological health benefits to the host. A prebiotic is a food or dietary supplement product that enhances the activity of probiotics. Synbiotics are not drugs and the effects are due to changes in bacteria population or enhancement of activity of the bacteria. A synbiotic may contain fiber, but all fiber is not necessarily a synbiotic.

Using prebiotics and probiotics in combination is often described as synbiotic, but the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommends that the term “synbiotic” be used only if the net health benefit is synergistic. A synbiotic contains fiber such as fructose oligosaccharide, galactose oligosaccharide, etc. and is intended to stimulate the microflora in the large intestine. The combination of probiotics and prebiotics work separately in the small and large intestine, but synergistically increase the overall gut health. Prebiotic has shown to increase the population and/or function of the probiotic it is paired with, as the probiotic is an external species, whereas prebiotics stimulate the flora which is already present.

Orthopaedic Radiography
 
Radiography as an aid to diagnosis the orthopaedic cases has become an integral part of every modern hospital. This technique may also be helpful in detecting some previously unrecognized lesions in the area radiographed.

The radiologist must be aware of the radiological anatomy of part being examined, and of its normal variation with age, species and breed. The anatomical features which can be appreciated in a radiograph are:

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process that is affected by variety of factors. The primary goal of making silage is to maximize the preservation of original nutrients in the forage crop for feeding at a later date. Unfortunately, fermentation in the silo is a much uncontrolled process usually leading to less than optimal preservation of nutrients. In order to assist in the fermentation process, various silage additives have been used to improve the nutrient and energy recovery in silage, often with subsequent improvements in animal performance (Henderson, 1993; Bolsen et al., 1996; Muck and Kung, 1997; Kung and Muck, 1997; Muhlbach, 2000). Their main functions are to either increase nutritional value of silage or improve fermentation so that storage losses are reduced. The benefits obtained from silage additives depend upon their influence on the silage fermentation process. These benefits are usually measured by the reduction in fermentation losses and/or improvement in silage quality and feeding value.

Ensiling is the term given for all physical and chemical changes that take place when forage with sufficient moisture content (60-65%) is stored in the absence of air for silage preservation. Silage fermentation is an exceptionally complex process involving biochemical interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. Successful silage production depends upon the promotion of the fermentation brought by beneficial bacteria. The process is based on spontaneous lactic acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions. The lactic acid bacteria ferment the water-soluble carbohydrates in the crop to lactic acid, and to a lesser extent to acetic acid. Due to the production of these acids, the pH of the ensiled material decreases and spoilage micro-organisms are inhibited. The ideal characteristics of material for silage preservation are: DM content above 20% and an adequate level of fermentable substrate (8-10 percent of DM) in the form of water soluble carbohydrate. The ensiling material should also ideally have a physical form that allows easy compaction in the silo. Materials such as maize stover, sorghum stover and grass can be ensiled successfully, while crop residues such as rice and wheat straw, with low water soluble content, do not fulfill these requirements, and therefore pre-treatments, such as fine chopping or use of additives, or both, may be necessary.

Definition of silage: Silage refers to the product obtained when fresh, high-moisture green fodder undergoes fermentation in a controlled anaerobic environment. This process generates volatile fatty acids that help preserve the green material for an extended period.
Ensiling: The act of preserving green fodder as silage is termed ensiling
Silo: A silo is a sealed container designed for the preparation of silage. In India, pit silos are commonly used, typically measuring 2.4 to 3 meters in depth. For every cubic meter of space, approximately 400 kg of fodder can be accommodated, while a cubic foot can hold between 18 to 22 kg of fodder in a pit silo. Other types of silos include trench silos, bunker silos and tower silos. In rural areas, katcha silos are often constructed by excavating a pit or trench in the ground, with the walls and floor usually coated with a mixture of cow dung and clay in a 1:1 ratio.
Crops suitable for silage making: Crops that are high in soluble carbohydrates are ideal for silage production. Suitable options for ensiling include maize, sorghum, pearl millet, Napier grass and oats. Leguminous fodder crops are generally not suitable for ensiling unless they are combined with carbohydrate-rich fodders in a ratio of 1:3. The recommended ratio of green, succulent fodder to dry straw is 4:1 and the crops should contain approximately 30-35% dry matter at the time of ensiling. Hollow-stemmed plants are typically unsuitable for ensiling due to the air trapped within the stems; however, if the stems are trampled, they can yield good silage. To effectively ensile cultivated or natural grasses an addition of 3-3.5% molasses is necessary. Grasses and legumes present challenges for ensiling; grasses tend to be low in soluble carbohydrates, while legumes possess high moisture content, elevated protein levels and increased mineral content, which enhance their buffering capacity and resistance to pH fluctuations. Harvesting: The crop should be harvested between flowering and milk stage as they contain maximum amount of nutrients at that time. Crops with thick stems are suitable for silage making whereas thin stemmed crops are conserved for hay making.

It is recognized in developed countries that the production of silage of high quality cultivated forage can be a valuable component for the development of a high-performing and low-cost system of animal production, using a relatively low level of purchased concentrates. However, this appears inappropriate for smallholders in tropical countries, primarily due to lack or high cost, or both, of equipment for harvesting and conservation and production of cultivated forage being often limited due to lack of available land. Many agricultural, agro-industrial and fishery by-products have potential as animal feeds. Most farmers in developing countries rely for their food security on the cultivation of cereals, root crops and high-value crops such as fruits and vegetables, which understandably take priority in the allocation of land. Fruit, vegetables and root crops are increasingly integrated in the farming system and play a key role as staples in the human diet in most developing countries.

Silage is the green material produced by controlled anaerobic fermentation of the green succulent fodder crop retaining its moisture content. The process of preparing silage is known as Ensiling and the pit in which silage is prepared is called silo.

Crops suitable for silage making
The fundamental behind the conservation of fodder as silage is the acidic condition, which is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of carbohydrates rich fodder. Thus the necessity of the fodder crop being used for silage preparation is the presence of high amount of fermentable carbohydrates and the natural carbohydrate rich crops are the cereal crops like maize, jowar or bajra and grasses or their combination in 3:1 with leguminous crops. Otherwise high moisture leguminous crop after wilting in combination of molasses may be 
used.

Successful preservation of high-moisture forage and other crops depends upon the controlling the activities of microbes, particularly bacteria. Ensiling generally controls microbial activity by a combination of an anaerobic environment and a natural fermentation of sugars by lactic acid bacteria on the crop. The silage microflora plays a key role in the successful outcome of the conservation process. Therefore, it is important to understand both the microorganisms that are present on the crop at ensiling and how ensiling preserves the crop, inhibiting detrimental microorganisms. The crop at ensiling contains both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms and a range of both bacteria and fungi that affect silage quality.

Silage is preserved pasture. Fresh forage crops such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and lucerne can be preserved by ensiling. Silage is the green material produced by controlled fermentation of the green fodder crop retaining the high moisture content, which contain 20-40% dry matter.

Silage can be prepared from plants having thick stems and are generally not very suitable for hay making like sorghum, maize. Weeds can also be utilized along with main fodder crops for silage making. Silage making kills majority of weed seeds. It is highly palatable. The organic acids produced in the silage are similar to those normally produced in the digestive tract of the ruminants and therefore are used in the same manner.

Estimation of silage quality parameters: Process of making silage is called ensiling. The green fodder harvested at a proper stage is stored, packed and compressed in silo and it is then tightly covered to prevent the contact with air. Thus, the forage is preserved by controlled microbial anaerobic fermentation in a silo with minimum loss of nutrients for use as a succulent fodder during scarcity (lean) period. This form of preserved fodder is known as silage. Silage is prepared by obtaining enough acid content in ensiled feed which inhibit the microbial fermentation thereby preserving the green fodder. Following are
points to ponder:
1. Maize, sorghum, bajra crops having thick solid stems and rich in soluble carbohydrates, are best for silage preparation. Silage can also be prepared from oats, berseem etcetera, after wilting to 35 – 40 % dry matter.
2. Dry matter content in fodder crop for ensiling should be between 30 – 40 % (average 35 %) and should have sufficient soluble sugars for acid production during fermentation.
3. The crop is harvested in bloom stage, which is best for silage preparation.
4. If the crop is deficient in soluble carbohydrates, (for example, legumes), then a sugar industry by – product is added.
5. Silage having acidic flavour and pH 3.5 to 4.2 is considered to be excellent.
6. The crop should be properly trampled / pressed to remove the air out of silo.
7. The crop is chopped into small pieces for better microbial action due to increased surface are and sufficient acid production.

Introduction
Antibiotic-resistant E. coli develops as a result of the heavy use of antibiotics in the production of food animals, which is then found in the meat from those animals. There have been reports of a number of antimicrobial resistant E. coli infections linked to the ingestion of tainted milk and chevon. As a result, the existence of antibiotic resistant E. coli is a significant and expanding global public health risk. Escherichia coli of animal origin has also been seen to colonise humans, and because it is resistant to many conventional antibiotics, it can cause serious illnesses for which there are few effective treatment choices. Due to its ubiquitous presence in the environment, E. coli has traditionally been recognised as the main vehicle for the transmission of various antibiotic resistance genes and vectors.Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), which can make the bacteria resistant to some frequently used antimicrobial treatments, are tiny proteins (enzymes) that some strains of E. coli have been shown to manufacture under favourable conditions. A major issue around the world is the emergence of different E. coli strains that produce ESBL in foods that come from animals that are raised for food. The ESBL enzymes TEM, SHV, and CTX-M from Group A have been widely reported to be generated by E. coli and have been shown to hydrolyze ampicillin, carbenicillin, oxacillin, and an extended spectrum of cephalosporins, including ceftazidime and cefotaxime.
Extended beta spectrum lactamase producing E. coli
The occurrence of antimicrobial resistance and the presence of corresponding resistance genes in the environment is an ancient phenomenon. This is largely due to the fact that many of today’s antimicrobial agents are derived from natural precursors produced by soil bacteria such as Streptomyces. These natural compounds likely evolved to mediate microbial competition for

Imperfect assimilation and consequent defective nutrition, it goes further and produces neurasthenic states in consequence, and increased susceptibility to nervous stimuli and exaggerated reflexes. Diseases of bones, caries and necrosis. In TB it must be used with care, for here it may cause the absorption of scar tissue, liberate the disease, walled in, to new activities. It is a deep acting remedy and slow in action. It is meant for scrofulous children with large head, open fontanels and sutures, distended abdomen, slow in walking. Ill effects of vaccination. It is related to all fistulous openings. Ripens abscesses since it promotes suppuration.

Silica patient is cold, chilly, hugs the fire, wants plenty warm clothing, and hates drafts, hands and feet cold, worse in winter. Lack of vital heat. Prostration of mind and body. Great sensitiveness to taking cold. Intolerance of alcoholic stimulants/Ailments attended with pus formation.

In inflammation with pus formation, which has become chronic, silicea is of great help. It is equally useful in grandular or bony ulceration. Think of silicea in whitlow, unhealthy skin, smelly feet, mammary abscess, mammary cancer, TB of the skin, the bone or of the abdomen,

1.1. Sericulture

Refer to rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.

Major activities are mulberry cultivation, silkworms spin silk cocoons and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament for value added benefits.

Bombyx mori is the most widely used. Silk-fiber is a protein produced from the silk-glands (modified labial glands) of silkworms.

A silo is an airtight to semi-airtight structure designed for the purpose of preservation and storage of high moisture feeds as silage.
 
Role of the silo in silage making

Silo has only three functions in the ensiling process:
    1.    To provide a solid surface to permit compaction of the mass to eliminate air;
    2.    To protect the ensiled materials from air and water during the storage period;
    3.    Where desired, to aid in the removal of silage by providing a base for unloading equipment.

The principle of silver nitrate staining of proteins is based on the reduction of silver ions to its metallic form. (Silver ions in alkaline conditions bind with proteins through å-amino group of lysine and sulphur groups of cysteine and methionine residues). When the complexed silver ions are reduced in the presence of formaldehyde, they become metallic silver, which is seen on the gel as bands. Staining of proteins with silver nitrate after SDS-PAGE is quicker and ~ 10 times more sensitive than Coomassie brilliant blue staining and that is the reason it is widely used in research laboratories these days.

The procedure is as follows:

Silver Staining for Protein

Silver staining is one of the procedures, in addition to Coomassie Blue, R and G types, and fluorescent dyes that are available for detecting proteins separated by gel electrophoresis. Switzer introduced silver staining in 1979, a technique that today provides a very sensitive tool for protein visualization with a detection level down to the 0.3-10 ng level.

The basic mechanisms underlying silver staining of proteins in gels are relatively well understood. Basically, protein detection depends on the binding of silver ions to the amino acid side chains, primary the sulfhydril and carboxiyl groups of proteins, followed by reduction to free metallic silver. The protein bands are visualized as spots where the reduction occurs and, as a result, the image of protein distribution within the gel is based on the difference in oxidation-reduction potential between the gel’s area occupied by proteins and the free adjacent sites. A number of alteration in the silver staining procedure can shift the oxidation-reduction equilibrium in a way that gel- separated proteins will be visualized either as positively or negatively stained bands. Silver staining protocols can be divided into two general categories: 1) silver amine or alkaline methods, and 2) silver nitrate or acidic methods. In general, the detection levels’ using the various procedures is determined by how quickly the protein bands develop in relationship to the background (e.g. signal-to-noise ratio). The silver amine or alkaline methods usually have lower background and as a result are most sensitive but require longer procedures. Acidic protocols, on the other hand, are faster but slightly less sensitive. Clearly, each protocol has different advantages regarding timing, sensitivity, cost, and compatibility with other analytical methods, especially mass-spectrometry (MS) a tool that is being used in combination with gel electrophoresis or chromatographic methods for rapid protein identification. Until recently most of the silver staining protocols used either glutaraldehyde- of formaldehyde-based sensitizes in the fixing and sensitization step, thus, introducing the chemical modifications into proteins. The utilization of those chemicals causes the cross-linking of two lysine residues within protein chain, thus, strongly affecting two most crucial steps for the subsequent MS analysis: hampering the trypsin digestion and highly reduces the protein extraction from the gel .

Silviculture is the branch of forestry dealing with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of trees. Forestry is anything done in the forest and silviculture is anything done to forests. ‘Silva’ is the Latin word for forest and ‘culture’ for cultivation. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.

The Society of American Foresters defines silviculture as theory and practice of establishment, composition, constitution and growth of forests. Thus, silviculture refers to art and science of raising forest crops, methods of raising tree crops, their growth and aftercare up to the time of final harvesting. In simple words, silviculture is the growing and tending stands of trees. Silviculture is also used to manage forests for wildlife, water, recreation, aesthetics, or any combination of these or other forest uses.

1. The “silviculture of Indian trees” in three volume was published in 1921, by _____________. (R.S. Troup)

2. _____________ silvicultural system aims at opening of the canopy for regeneration and even-aged condition of the crop. (Uniform shelter wood system)

3. Irregular involutions and convolutions on the bole just above the base of a tree are called as ____________. (Fluting)

4. Stool shoots refers to the production of coppice shoots from_____________ of stumps. (Near the top)

5. Geographical area covered by forest area in India is_____________ per cent. (21-22%)

6. Indian forests were classified into _______ number of groups by Champion and Seth in 1968. (16)

7. The most favourable soil for the growth of Shorea robusta (Sal) is_____________. (Well drained deep moist sandy loam)

8. The clear felling system was introduced for the first time by_____________. (Heinrich Vancotta)

9. The book “Genera Plantarum” was written by_____________. (Englaer and Prantl)

10. “Pricking” is a term used in raising plants in_____________ area. (Main plantation)

Plants yielding oilseeds are economically important in India next only to food crops and play an important role for sustainability of  cropping systems and soil health. Oilseeds scenario in the country underwent a sea change in  last fifteen years. India changed from net importer in  1980s to a net exporter  during  early 1990s. Again, it is back to net importer importing more than 40 % of its annual edible oil needs. Country’s demand for edible oils is  rising to double  the current level of 4% (as against productivity growth of 2% in 1986-2001) in  next 12 years (Hegde 2004). To meet  challenges of oilseeds production, there is  need to adopt multi-pronged strategy which involves enhancing production through area expansion and productivity improvement through improved technologies and value addition . As a progressive step in this direction of self sufficiency, there is  need to identify alternative oilseed trees/plants which can be grown in wastelands. There are more than 300 different kinds of tree species which bear seeds  rich in oil and  introduction of simarouba is an important step in this direction. National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board under Ministry of Agriculture  identified simarouba as a potential Tree Bearing Oilseed (TBO) for popularization in India and placed it in  first place in their list of importance.

11.1 Introduction

The term “regression” literally means moving back towards the average. It was first introduced by the British biometrician Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911). in connection with the inheritance with the stature.

a) Definition

Regression analysis is a mathematical measure of the average relationship between two or more variables in terms of the original units of data.

In regression analysis, there are two types of variables. The variable whose value is influenced and is to be predicted, is known as the dependent (or predicted/ response explained) variable and the variable that influences the values of the dependent variable or is used for prediction purposes, is known as the independent (predictor/explanatory/ auxiliary/ regressor) variable.

15.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 In bivariate distribution if the change in one variable afects a change in the other variable, the variables are said to be correlated.

Q.2 If the change in both the variables takes place in the same direction then the variables are said to have a positive or direct correlation.

Q.3 The pair of variables say, Income and expenditure in house hold or the height and weight of a group of children possess the direct correlation between them.

Q.4 If the change in both the variables takes place in oposite directions, then the variables are said to have "Negative or inverse" correlation.

Q.5 The pairs of variables say (i) Price and demand of a commodities or (ii) Volume and pressure of a perfect gas" have a negative correlation.

Q.6 The two variables are said to have a perfect positive correlation if the deviation in one variable is followed by a corresponding and proportionate deviation in the other variable.

Q.7 There are some funny combinations of variables between which the correlation are said to be "spurious or nonsense".

True/False

Q.1.    Two independent random variables (X,Y) are always uncorrelated but reverse may not be true

7.1 Introduction

The integral calculus is concerned with the opeartion of “integration” which is the reverse process of differentiation. If f '(x) represents the differential coefficient of f '(x), then the problem of integration is to find f(x) from f '(x).

7.2 Integration of a Function Containing a Constant

If we integrate a function containing a constant factor, this factor must also be a factor of final integral.

Machine: It is a device capable to doing work on application of some effort. Work done by machine is to raise load or to lower load or to do some other types of work like rotation of shaft.

A simple random sample (SRS) of size n consists of n individuals from the population chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal chance to be the sample actually selected.

A simple random sample is a subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. An example of a simple random sample would be the names of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case, the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee has an equal chance of being chosen.

Also Referred to as Microsatellites

SSR markers are based short sequences of nucleotides (2-6 units in length) that are repeated in tandem:

Di-nucleotide repeat: CACACACA

Tri-nucleotide repeat: ATGATGATGATG

It is believed that when DNA is being replicated, errors occur in the process and extra sets of these repeated sequences are added to the strand. Over time, these repeated sequences vary in length between one cultivar and another.

The numerical based on simple mathematics like divide, multiply, sum, deduction, under root, percentage etc are given below to sharpen the inherent ability of the students. This simplication is a very good exercise to aqcquaint the students about basic mathmetics so that they can solve tough questions quickly. Therefore some tips are given below for solving the questions.

Introduction
Communication is fundamental to human interaction, socialization, and organizational success. However, the process of communication is often fraught with distortions—unintended alterations that can hinder the accurate exchange of information. Distortions can arise due to various factors such as noise, misinterpretations, emotional bias, technological barriers, and language differences. Addressing and mitigating these distortions is crucial in fields ranging from corporate communication to political discourse, education, and beyond.
One innovative method that has garnered attention for its ability to address communication distortions is the use of simulation games. These games, designed to replicate real-world scenarios, create controlled environments where participants can explore, identify, and respond to communication challenges in a practical and engaging way. This chapter explores the role of simulation games in understanding and mitigating communication distortions, with a focus on their application, benefits, and limitations.
What are Simulation Games?
Simulation games are immersive, interactive platforms that simulate real-world situations. These games are often used in educational, training, and organizational contexts to help participants experience and learn from complex scenarios. Simulation games allow players to assume roles, make decisions, and navigate challenges within a controlled environment that mirrors real-life situations.

Introduction

The term nitrogen use efficiency, (NUE) is widely used in research to cover problems in use of N in crop production systems. It describes N input/output ratio at different scales starting from farm levels to regional levels. An analysis of of NUE is helpful to analyze possible options for improving NUE in different crops and cropping systems. NUE at crop scale may be defined as the ratio between the yield and the N uptake by the crop. This ratio is sometimes called as the physiological NUE or utilization efficiency. High NUE can be achieved by high harvest index and a high productivity of dry matter per unit N uptake. The second component of NUE is the ratio of plant N uptake to the potentially available N. This ratio is called uptake efficiency or available N use efficiency. Enhancing the uptake efficiency of the crop is possible through enhancing the physiological uptake efficiency of the roots, enhancing root length density and matching the N supply and demand of a particular crop.

Modeling is heart of hydroinformatics. Simulation modeling became integrated part of modern science to justify feasibility of selected option among various competitive alternatives. Simulation modeling is a tool to evaluate the performance of a system, existing or proposed, under different configurations of interest and over long periods of real time. This chapter describes basic concepts, model simulation, model variables, modeling process, model performance etc. in brief.

Introduction

Crop models can be broadly classified into two categories: dynamic or process-based crop simulation models (CSMs), and reduced form statistical models. Since simulation models are based on various plant-related processes, they develop or alter in tandem with plant growth (Chetty 2009); as a result, they are inherently nonlinear (Olmstead 2009). To run, calibrate, and validate, they require a significant amount of date input. However, statistical models are helpful in situations where there is a lack of data because they describe the relationships between a subset of variables while keeping the others constant. (Chetty 2009).

ABSTRACT

The disposal of industrial effluents in rivers causes groundwater contamination. It is necessary to assess how these contaminants are likely to migrate in the groundwater system. In the present study, an attempt is made to study the migration of contaminants in the groundwater of Palar River basin in Tamil Nadu. Simulation of the contaminants was carried out by using numerical methods. The finite difference computer code MODFLOW (Modular 3-d finite difference flow) and MT3D (Mass transport 3-d) with Groundwater Modelling System (GMS) as pre and post processor was used to simulate the groundwater flow and transport in this study. The simulation was done in transient state for a time period of one year. It predicted the migration of plume of chlorides in groundwater. The changes in the distance and concentration rate of chlorides are identified for a particular period. Modelling provides a useful basis for contaminant transport studies, as well as in the evaluation of the hydrogeologic parameters relevant in the context of the transport problem.

26.1 Introduction

In a single equation model, the dependent variable Y is expressed as a linear function of one or more explanatory variables (say X1 , X2 , ... XK ). In such models, an implicate assumption is that the cause and effect relationship between (Y, Xs) is unidirectional. Here explanatory variables are the cause and the dependent variable Y is the effect.

However, there are some situations where two way flow of influence among economic variables exists. Thus one economic variable affects other economic variables and in turn is affected by them. Thus, in the regression of money M on the rate of interest r, the single-equation method assumes implicitly that the rate of interest r is fixed and it is tried to find out the response of money demanded when the level of interest rate is changed.

The concept of single cell micro-gel electrophoresis (SCGE)/comet assay is f irst introduced by Ostling and Johanson (1984) as a method to measure DNA single-strand breaks under neutral conditions. Singh et al. (1988) modified this technique by using alkaline conditions (>13 pH) of electrophoresis, which enabled detection of not only frank strands breaks but also alkali labile sites, DNA cross- linking and incomplete excision repair sites. Now-a-days, this technique is extensively used to study the genotoxic effects of various chemicals. The advantages of SCGE technique include: (1) collection of data at the level of individual cell, allowing for more robust types of statistical analysis; (2) need for small number of cells per sample (<10,000); (3) its sensitivity for detecting DNA damage; and (4) that virtually any eukaryotic cell population is amenable to analysis. The idea is to combine DNA gel electrophoresis with fluorescence microscopy to visualize migration of DNA strands from individual agarose-embedded cells. If the negatively charged DNA contained breaks, DNA supercoils are relaxed and broken ends are able to migrate toward the anode during a brief electrophoresis. If the DNA is undamaged, the lack of free ends and large size of the fragments prevented migration. Determination of the relative amount of DNA that migrated provided a simple way to measure the number of DNA breaks in an individual cell.

Genotoxic effects of any xenobiotics in PMNC and splenocytes of Wistar rats can be studied according to the working protocol of Dhawan et al.

Objetive

To completely exercise a cancerous hoof in presence with cauliflower like growth with regular bleeding & myosis.

Material Required

Amputation saw, thick padded with bandage roll, a mixture of powder containing resin and naphthalene ball powder, bicycle tube protection sleeper (Fig-3), local anesthesia.

Introduction
The distinctions that differentiate one genotype from another are encoded in their hereditary material i.e., DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is packaged into chromosomal pairs, with one strand of genetic material derived from each parent. The genes that govern a plant’s traits are situated on distinct portions of each chromosome (King and Stansfield, 1990). Depending on the context, a genetic marker may be defined as: (a) a chromosomal landmark that facilitates the tracing of a specific DNA region; (b) a distinct DNA segment with a known genomic position; or (c) a gene whose phenotypic expression is easily observable, and used to identify an individual and used as a probe to spot a nucleus, chromosomes, or locus. Molecular markers are distinguishable DNA sequences located at specific loci within the genome, inherited according to the established principles of inheritance from one generation to the subsequent generation. The presence of several molecular approaches, along with their distinct concepts and procedures, necessitates meticulous evaluation when selecting one or more marker types or loci (King and Stansfield, 1990). Various molecular markers have been described, based on mode of transmission, mode of gene action and method of analysis. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are variations in DNA sequences characterized by a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) that differs among individuals, serving as biological markers for the identification of genes linked to phenotypes. The genome sequences in public domain from various organisms have facilitated the examination of sequence variations among individuals, among cultivars, and among subspecies. These investigations demonstrated that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are prevalent and dispersed across the genome across numerous species, including plants (Drenkard et al., 2000; Nasu et al., 2002).The prevalence of SNPs polymorphisms in plant genomes renders the SNP marker system a valuable marker technology for mapping, marker-assisted breeding, and map-based cloning (Rafalski, 2002a; Batley et al., 2003).A single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) marker is a single base alteration in a DNA sequence, with a typical alternative of two possible nucleotides at a specific position. In recent years, numerous SNP genotyping methodologies have been established, utilizing diverse techniques for allelic discrimination and detection platforms (Rafalski, 2002b; Vignal et al., 2002; Sobrino et al., 2005; Tost and Gut, 2005).At now, SNPs are preferred for DNA fingerprinting, investigations of genetic diversity and association studies, phylogenetic linkages, studies of evolutionary history of species and population, genome-wide association mapping, and genomic selection. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most prevalent and reliable markers, suitable for automated high-throughput genotyping, highly reproducible, and capable of identifying variants, therefore superseding older markers due to their high throughput, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness (Alkan et al, 2011; Amdadul et al, 2016; Close et al., 2009; Muñoz-Amatriaín et al, 2014; Li et al., 2020; Qiuetal., 2012). The swift advancement and use of NGS technology have led to the creation and application of diverse reduced-representation genome sequencing methods for SNP genotyping. The methodologies encompass GBS (Elshire et al., 2011),

Aim: Determination the equivalent circuit parameters of a single-phase induction motor.

1. No-load test.

2. Blocked rotor test.

The performance of a single-phase induction motor is generally studied either by double revolving field theory or by cross field theory, the former being simple and gives a clear physical understanding.

Single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), or single strand chain polymorphism, is defined as conformational difference of single stranded nucleotide sequences of identical length as induced by differences in the sequences under certain experimental conditions. This property allows to distinguish the sequences by means of gel electrophoresis, which separates the different conformations.

Background

A single nucleotide change in a particular sequence, as seen in a double stranded DNA, cannot be distinguished by electrophoresis, because the physical properties of the double strands are almost identical for both alleles. Contrarily, after denaturation, single stranded DNA undergoes a 3- dimensional folding and may assume a unique conformational state based on its DNA sequence. The difference in shape between two single-stranded DNA strands with different sequences can cause them to migrate differently on an electrophoresis gel, even though the number of nucleotides is the same. Predictability, however, is a shortfall of SSCP - since conformational states are subject to many experimental conditions and sequence differences that cause minimal changes in strand conformation may not be detected.

Mamata Banerjee has raised the important issue of land use and acquisition for public, political, professional and media debate. With increasing population pressure on land, this issue deserves careful consideration and rational discussion. The Singur dilemma in a wider sense relates to both land use policy and norms of compensation for land acquired by government for non-farm purposes. Land conflicts are also spreading in other parts of our country, as far example where land is needed for establishing Special Economic Zones (SEZs). The Maharashtra Government has wisely adopted the policy of holding a referendum to seek the views of farmers and others who will be dispossessed of their land for meeting the needs of SEZs. Pro-active consultations will help to avoid difficulties later. Water conflicts are also affecting important irrigation projects. Land conflicts are likely to do the same and may affect the balanced growth of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy. How can we deal with this situation in a manner which leads to a win-win outcome for all the stakeholders ?

Sinusitis or accessory sinus suppuration is bacterial inflammation of the nasal and contiguous sinuses following acute rhinitis especially streptococci. Sometimes the infection travels from the second bicuspid and first two molar teeth whose roots are near to the antral floor. Sinusitis is an important etiological factor in the causation of many diseases of the lower respiratory tract.

Inflammation of the paranasal sinuses often follows the common cold, influenza, and other general infections. Germs that would normally be eliminated from the body may sometimes find their way into these little sinuses or chambers on each side of the nasal passages. Trouble may be due to inadequate drainage resulting from a deviated septum, or perhaps to the presence of polyps. Any chronic infection within the nose may lead to sinuses.

Acute Sinusitis is characterized by moderate degree of fever and local pain. The latter depends on the site affected: if frontal sinus, forehead; antrum, on one cheek: sphenoidal sinus, deep-seated headache. Headache is more marked in the afternoon.

Abstract

The sires have been evaluated and ranked on the basis of solutions obtained through univariate and multivariate REML using animal model and BLUP value for sire effects under mode l 8. The data considered from 1214 animals descendent from 110 sires of chokla sheep maintained at CSWRI, Avikanagar, Rajasthan. The traits were considered birth weight, weaning weight, 6 months weight and first greasy fleece yield for the present study. Three solutions were used: Best linear unbiased Predication (BLUP1) values of Model 8, and univariate (BLUP₂) and multivariate (BLUP₃) solutions of REML animal models. Less than half of the sires were superior to the populations mean under BLUP₁ for the traits studied. The corresponding values were above 60% under BLUP₂, which was much higher than BLUP₁.

A. Diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Anthracnose of sisal is also called as leaf spot or ring spot disease. The disease is frequently accompanied with sun scorch in Kenya and Tanganyika (Morstatt, 1930). This is considered as a leaf disease of minor importance, occurring on numerous species of Agave as well as the closely related genus Furcraea, including F. macrophylla Baker (wild sisal). The disease is distributed in warm temperate and tropical regions including southern Europe, British Guiana (Bancroft, 1914), the Neotropics, Cyprus (Georghiou and Papadopoulos, 1957), Kenya (Nattrass, 1961) and USA (Parris, 1959). It is also been reported to occur in various countries of Asia, including China (Tai, 1979), Korea (Cho and Shin, 2004), the Philippines (Teodoro, 1937) and Taiwan (Anonymous, 1979). In India, the disease was first reported as leaf spot caused by Colletotrichum agaves Cav. (Butler, 1905). Its occurrence was also reported from Antigua (Bancroft, 1910) and Puerto Rico (Macedo, 1943). Apart from sisal, the disease also occurs on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), potato (Solanum tuberosum) and over 35 other hosts, representing 13 families, chiefly in the Cucurbitaceae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae (Chesters and Hornby, 1965). The disease also occurs on onion and strawberry (Mordue, 1967).

Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) involve the integration of various agricultural enterprises—such as crops, livestock, fisheries, horticulture, and poultry—within a single farm unit to maximize productivity, ensure sustainability, and diversify income sources. The effectiveness of an IFS largely hinges on selecting the right site and devising a well-thought-out plan, which together create the groundwork for a resilient and efficient farming system. Site selection and planning in IFS focuses on identifying a suitable location and developing a farm layout that allows seamless interaction among different farming components. Key factors to consider include the compatibility of soil and climate, the availability of water and other natural resources, and the optimal use of space and inputs. A carefully chosen site and integrated design enhance synergy between farm components, improve resource efficiency, and increase the overall profitability and sustainability of the system.
TOPOGRAPHY, SOIL, WATER AVAILABILITY, AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
In Integrated Fish Farming Systems (IFS) in India, topography plays a crucial role in site selection and planning, impacting the success of the system. Topography affects water management, soil suitability, and overall feasibility of the farm. Local Topography and Site Selection Local topography largely determines which type of pond you will build. The choice is based on the study of the longitudinal profile and cross-secitonal profiles of the valley. Look for Sites:
• Where water drainage will be possible by gravity;
• Where the earthwork will be minimum;
• Where it will be easy to balance the volume of earth to be excavated and that to be filled in.

Soil conservation is essential for maintaining agricultural productivity, safeguarding natural resources, and minimizing environmental harm. To achieve effective results, it’s crucial to identify and apply suitable conservation structures based on the characteristics of the terrain. Choosing the right location for these structures is a vital part of ensuring their effectiveness and durability. This involves conducting thorough surveys using a combination of methods such as field observations, remote sensing, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to pinpoint the best sites for intervention. Site selection focuses on analyzing land features like slope gradient, precipitation patterns, soil composition, and existing land use. It aligns these factors with the specific conservation objectives—whether aimed at controlling erosion or enhancing soil quality—while also weighing the costs and benefits of various soil conservation techniques.
IMPORTANCE OF SITE SELECTION
The main goal of soil conservation structures—like check dams, contour bunds, percolation tanks, and gully plugs—is to minimize soil erosion, boost water retention, and enhance soil fertility. Their effectiveness largely depends on where they are placed. Poorly chosen sites can result in structural failure, inefficient water control, and negative environmental impacts. Hence, careful and precise site selection is crucial to ensure the success and long-term benefits of soil conservation initiatives.