eChapters

Abstract: Snapdragon, a decorative ornamental, is used as model plant for genetic and biochemical study. These are popular flowering potted plants, bedding plants and cut flowers around the world due to their flowering floriferousness, wide range in flower colour, size, and shape with numerous phenotypes (Tall Giant/ Grandiflora, Super Giant, Dwarf, Semi-dwarf, Miniature, etc.) series (Butterfly, Rocket Hybrid, Sweet Heart, Pixie, etc.) and cultivars available in market. Hybrid seed production transformed the crop; continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern snapdragon breeders. Snapdragons are of the few floriculture crops which have genetic evolutionary race history, precise elucidation of taxonomic relationships between taxa, genomic maps, and advanced molecular genetics. In particular elucidation of the genes involved in control of floral development and in anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of new flower colours or modification of floral symmetry and expression.

Keywords: Antirrhinum, taxonomy, flower shape, structural genes, molecular biology.

Snapmelon [Cucumis melo L. var. momordica (Roxb.) Duthie * Fuller] originated  in India. It was intensively cultivated in the 19th century in Northern India (Duthie 1905) where it is commonly called as ‘Phut’ which means to split or crack. Immature fruits are cooked or pickled and the low sugared mature fruits are eaten raw. The mature fruits crack or burst. Fruit cracking is  either longitudinal or random starting in middle of fruit (Fig.1).

The North Eastern Region of India possesses unique potential for fishery activities. The region represents all agro-climatic zones ranging from warm water drainage system to cold water conditions facilitating freshwater fishing and is identified as the hot spot of freshwater biodiversity. So far about 267 fish species have been reported to be present in the region, which is approximately 33.13% of the total Indian fresh water fishes (Munilkumar and Nandeesha, 2007). The total land coverage of the region is 2.55 lakh sq. km. which is about 7.76% of the country, out of which 70% is hilly terrain (Mahanta and Tyagi, 2003). The main fishery resources of the region comprises of rivers (18,968 km), reservoirs (8,019 ha), beels/lakes (1,48,491 ha) and tanks and ponds (42,782 ha) (Ghosh and Ponniah, 2008).

The North Eastern Region of India with its large fish eating population, needs planned sustainable development of its existing as well as potential fishery resources. A challenging environment for fisheries development prevails in the region by way of very high demand and price of fish. Given the socio-economic conditions and vast fishery resources of the region, there is a strong chance for diversion of work force to productive sectors like fisheries thus transforming the economy of the region and further socio-economic development.

11.1. Definition

Jones: Variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social interaction or social organization.

Gillin and Gillin: Variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition on the population or ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.

Davis and Mac Iver: Change in the relationships.

ABSTRACT

Social primates appear to be knowledgeable about one another’s behaviour to different extents. But do they know as much about one another’s beliefs and intentions? Are they adept at recognizing the similarities and differences between their own and others’ states of mind?

Introduction
An animal’s asymmetry in aggression towards another species is commonly used to characterise its dominance. In other contexts, dominance describes people who emerge victorious from brief dyadic competitions. Most animal groups are arranged in a hierarchical fashion, whereby members at higher ranks have more access to resources and opportunity for procreation than members at lower ranks. Signals of Dominance: Acts or structures known as signals are employed by signalers to convey information to recipients in a way that elicits a response from them. This response usually has positive fitness consequences for both the signaler and the recipient. These signs don’t always have to be easy to see.
Communities vary in the hierarchical pattern of dominance. The most common kind of rank relationships are those in which there is a “alpha” who is better than all other members of the group, a “beta” who is better than all members except the “alpha,” and so on down the hierarchy to the lowest ranker who is under all others. Therefore, if powerful males may be arranged in a single sequence, the system is known as a simple and linear dominance hierarchy.
Concepts of Dominance Hierarchies
1. Establishing dominance
2. Maintaining dominance
Dominance Hierarchy Types
1. Statistical hierarchy
2. Confidence hierarchy
3. Assessment hierarchy

4.1 Research Setting

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

The term “research setting” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with suffice. The term research setting implies the specific details of the location where the study was carried out are referred to as the research context. Typically, the study area consists of a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience. The investigator should have sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable them to easily collect data from every corner of the area. Each setting” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection. The knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection.” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection. Because of the COVID-19 epidemic, the majority of the data collection for this study was conducted over the phone in accordance with the interview schedule. In order to easily comprehend the people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours, investigators also need to have a fundamental awareness of their sociodemographic background. A research setting is an environment where research components and inputs are interwoven, contextualized, and mutually enhance system performance. The research setting has a crucial role in describing and affecting the interactions between various components and elements. The idea behind this kind of presentation is to absorb the study environment in terms of wider

4.1 Research Setting

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commending by the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who lives in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive, and mutually contributive to the system performance. The research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

Research setting refers to the detail information of an area where the study has been conducted. The study area, generally comprises of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the convenience of the investigator who possesses adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility etc. of the locality so that he/she can easily approach each and every corner of the area for data collection. Here. in this study the data collection was done mostly over telephone based on the interview schedule due to Covid-19 pandemic situation. Besides the investigators must also have the basic knowledge about the socio demographic background of the people so as to have an easy understanding of their knowledge, attitude and behavior. 

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present. There are two types of research settings: macro and micro. The macro research setting encompasses the entire state, while the micro research setting focuses on specific districts, blocks, or village peripheries. The aim of this approach is to understand the study environment from broader perspectives using the state as a reference frame and the district and block profiles as units of in-depth analysis.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present.

4.1 Introduction

The research setting pertains to the comprehensive details of a specific area’s social environment where the study is carried out. The study area typically encompasses a distinct geographic region such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the convenience of the researcher who possesses sufficient knowledge about the locality, including its communication infrastructure. This ensures easy access to every part of the area for collecting data.

Migration is a complex phenomenon that has significant implications for individuals, communities, and countries worldwide. It involves the movement of people from one geographical location to another, either within a country or across international borders. The research setting of migration refers to the specific context in which migration patterns and processes are studied. Understanding the research setting is crucial for comprehending the underlying factors, dynamics, and consequences of migration.

4.2 Profile of the State

4.2.1 General Information of the State

West Bengal is a state located in the eastern part of India, situated along the Bay of Bengal. It has a population of over 91 million people and covers an area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 square miles). West Bengal ranks as the fourth most populous and thirteenth-largest state in India in terms of area, and it is the eighth-most populous country subdivision in the world. The Bengal region, which is a part of the Indian subcontinent, shares borders with Bangladesh to the east, Nepal to the north, and Bhutan to the northwest. It also shares boundaries with the Indian states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Sikkim, and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, which is the third-largest metropolitan city and the seventh-largest city in India by population.

The word ‘social forestry’ was coined by J. C. Westoby and used in the ninth Commonwealth Forestry Conference at New Delhi in 1968. In India the term was first used by the National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India in 1976, to denote tree raising programmes to supply firewood, small timber and minor forest products to rural population. Prasad (1985) defined social forestry as forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services for the benefit of people. This implies that the production of forest goods for fulfilling the needs of the local people is social forestry. Thus, conceptually it deals with the people to produce goods such as fuel, fodder, small timber, etc. to meet the needs of local community particularly the underprivileged section (Shah, 1988).

The word 'social forestry' was coined by Westoby and used in the ninth Commonwealth Forestry Conference at New Delhi in 1968. In India the term was first used by the National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India in 1976, to denote tree raising programmes to supply firewood, small timber and minor forest products to rural population. Prasad (1985) defined social forestry as forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services for the benefit of people. This implies that the production of forest goods for fulfilling the needs of the local people is social forestry. Thus, conceptually it deals with the people to produce goods such as fuel, fodder, small timber, etc. to meet the needs of local community particularly the underprivileged section (Shah, 1988).

The word ‘social forestry’ was coined by Westoby and used in the ninth Commonwealth Forestry Conference at New Delhi in 1968. In India the term was first used by the National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India in 1976, to denote tree raising programmes to supply firewood, small timber and minor forest products to rural population. Prasad (1985) defined social forestry as forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services for the benefit of people. This implies that the production of forest goods for fulfilling the needs of the local people is social forestry. Thus, conceptually it deals with the people to produce goods such as fuel, fodder, small timber, etc. to meet the needs of local community particularly the underprivileged section (Shah, 1988).

The idea of social forestry is not new in India. It may be found in Lord Buddha’s teachings from around 2500 years ago. According to Buddha’s teachings, a devout Buddhist should plant one tree and nurture it for five years so that it matures into a complete tree. By doing this, a person should plant around f ive trees over his lifetime. It is also believed that the Great Emperor Ashoka planted fruit trees and shade trees by the roadsides for the benefit of passing travellers.

The rural economy in India has been largely supported by forests. In the past, the local people kept an ecological balance while managing their woods to provide food, fuel, fibre, fodder, timber and herbal remedies. However, India’s forests have rapidly disappeared due to biotic pressure from expanding human and animal populations, a lack of technical skills, insufficient investments, and ownership changes. In addition to biotic pressure, other factors that led to the depletion of forest resources includes inadequate scientific and technical inputs; staff lacking the necessary skills and training to assume their expected new roles; poor investment in forest development; and damage from mining, irrigation projects, industries, roads; and shifting cultivation. As a result, in the early 1970s, new ideas in forestry development were introduced. Therefore, a variety of activities were incorporated in social forestry initiatives, including planting trees on agricultural bunds and roadsides, creating woodlots on shared lands, and integrating local people in the gathering, processing, and management of forest products.

The concept of social health is not much known as compared to that of physical or mental health, but it forms one of the four pillars of most definitions of health, i.e., physical, mental, emotional, and social. Social health is a state of well-being and a positive dimension of health, which is included in the definition of health given by WHO. An individual can handle, and act based on different social conditions.

Social health is the aspect of overall psychological well-being that stems from connection with the community. It’s about having close bonds with family and friends, enjoying a sense of belongingness to groups, and feeling supported, valued, and loved. To say that our relationships determine both how well we live and how long we live; connection is as vital to survival as food and water.

For instance, research has shown that a positive, satisfying relationship is one of the best predictors of health across the lifespan, whereas loneliness is not. That’s why it is helpful to distinguish social health as a distinct aspect that is an interconnected pillar of overall well-being.

Sustainable Development A social cause is a problem that influences a considerable number of individuals within a society. There are many environmental issues the India like pollution, waste management sustainable development, rain water harvesting etc.

4.1 Urban Issues

(i) Water Problem

The world’s population is increasingly found in the cities. Now a days, throughout the developing world, urbanization trends are gaining speed and are irreversible. From a technical standpoint, it is easier to provide water and sanitation services to people living closer together in urban settings than in dispersed rural communities. However, the costs of meeting the needs are much higher per capita, and are growing. The health risks posed by the lack of sanitation increase exponentially as densities increase and as people share drinking water and sanitation resources.

The urban environmental sanitation crisis in developing countries is taking a large health, economic, and environmental toll on all city residents. Willingness to pay for basic water and sanitation services is often high in peri- urban neighbourhoods, provided that services are appropriate, effective, and affordable. The use of a strategic sanitation approach should helps to build capacity within implementing agencies and enhances the ability of communities to make sustainable sanitation improvements.

(ii) Energy Problem

Energy is basic to development. Modern energy services are powerful engine of economic and social opportunity: no country has managed to develop much beyond a subsistence economy without ensuring at least minimum access to energy services for a broad section of its population. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that the billion who live in developing countries attach a high priority to energy services. On average, these people spend nearly 12% of their income on energy. At the same time, the provision of energy services especially through the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass can create adverse environmental effects. In rich countries, much attention is directed to the regional and global consequences of fuel combustion, because many of the local effects have been controlled at considerable expense over the past half- century. In developing countries, the local environmental problems associated with energy use remain matters of concern that are as, or even more, urgent than they were in industrialized countries 50 or 100 years ago. Further, it is the poor who suffer most severely from such problems, because it is they who are forced to rely upon the most inefficient and polluting sources of energy services for lack of access to better alternatives.

Introduction

Studies have indicated that four significant forces viz. IT, Mobile, Cloud and Social Media would create unique work environment in the coming years. Social media presents both opportunities and challenges. It has reached a stage where a single tweet can make or mar an organization. It has emerged as a force to reckon with.

Social media can be defined as any media dedicated to community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Whatsapp, Google Plus, Hike Messenger, Pinterest, Reddit, Instagam, WeChat, Skype, YouTube are some of the social networking sites that have received tremendous response from billions of people all over the world.

Earlier, there were mass media like pamphlets, booklets, newspapers, radio, television, etc. to connect with the masses. These traditional mass medias were mostly based on one way conversation. Various researchers, scientists, policy makers, government and non-government organizations, research institutions utilized these traditional mass media to the fullest but mostly with a limitation of one way communication and farmers have to rely on the information mashed on them. In last decade, the social networking services (SNS) have emerged as a wonderful and powerful social media.

Social media are electronic communication platforms that allow users to interact, create, share, retrieve and exchange information and ideas in different forms.

Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share, and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks.

There are many forms of social media including blogs, micro-blogs, wikis, social networking sites, photo-sharing sites, instant messaging, video-sharing sites, podcasts, widgets, virtual worlds, and more. Ex: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn and Youtube etc.,

Role of social media in Transfer of Technology

According to the Indian economic survey of 2018, more than 50% of the Indian workforce is employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture contributed to 17–18% to the country’s GDP. Agriculture’s share in India’s economy is less compared to the industrial and services sectors. The industrial and service sectors have higher growth rates. The significance of the agricultural sector in India’s economic and social growth goes well beyond. Nearly 60% of India’s families depend on rural incomes. In addition to this, the majority of India’s poor population (around 70 %) lives in rural areas. Also, as the population is growing at a fast rate, food security in India depends on producing cereal crops and in increasing the production of fruits, vegetables and milk to sustain the needs of a growing population. To achieve this we need a productive, diversified, competitive, and sustainable agricultural sector. India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, spices and milk. It has the world’s largest cattle herd and the largest area under wheat, rice, and cotton. India is also the second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep & goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea.

Introduction

Social disinterestedness could be an anticipation that applies issues of amends and candor to policy. Aback the Sixties, the anticipation of amusing disinterestedness have been activated in an advance of institutional contexts, calm with apprenticeship and accessible administration. The anticipation of amusing disinterestedness is about afflicted aback to the works of philosopher and Plato. Definitions of amusing disinterestedness will vary, about all focus aloft the ethics of amends and fairness. Disinterestedness in fashionable societies involves the role of accessible directors, United Nations bureau breadth assemblage accountable for authoritative assertive that amusing casework breadth assemblage delivered equitably. This bureau demography into application actual and accepted inequalities a part of groups; candor relies on this amusing and actual context. Amusing and bread-and-butter bigotry has abiding furnishings on societies and as well the bloom of populations. The acceptance from an ample alter of disciplines breadth assemblage acclamation disinterestedness in avant-garde agency that. Solutions alter from acclamation cyber banking accretion aberration to apprenticeship quality, cyber banking action to bent amends reform and affluence of accession disinterestedness problems that anon and alongside accept an aftereffect on animal bloom and well-being. The aggregation seeks to acknowledgment such queries as, will a bigger pay advance superior of action measures, calm with health, nutrition, and ancestor’s circadian life? As added cities ahead hikes in their pay, this assay can acquaint approaching choices apropos the after-effects on staff, their families, employers, and as well the community. An administration of assets, resources, and liabilities a part of the individuals during a nation or association that’s advised accurate and simply. Whereas some accept that bread-and-butter disinterestedness needs that anybody voters pay an agnate quantity, others accept that the abundance paid care to wait aloft the abundance that every accountable will allow to pay while not disproportionate hardship. Put simply, disinterestedness is possession. Aural the affairs world, disinterestedness refers to stock. Aural the accounting and aggregation disposition world, disinterestedness (or added normally, shareholders’ equity) refers to the abundance of basic contributed by the abode owners or the acumen amid a company’s absolute assets and its absolute liabilities. The fashionable era is casual through an alluringly and annealed aggressive laissez-faire abridgement that’s about there’s no acknowledgment to actualize some individuals at an advantage while not creating others worse off. This cessation refutes the claims of ambitious bread-and-butter planners, United Nations bureau assert that markets breadth assemblage disorganized free-for-alls which centralized chief would be added economical. During a class disconnected association the advantages of amusing appear can’t be aggregate appropriately by the all categories of individuals. It’s simple to appetite agitated with the abstraction that markets appreciate appropriate and to again draw inappropriate abstracts apropos policy. It’s basic to arouse that authority is apropos a way to achieve goals; it doesn’t say something apropos what your goals care to be. Locution that the bazaar aftereffect is economical doesn’t beggarly that that aftereffect is about alluring for all the individuals. In fact, in some affairs analive action could advisedly baldest accessory bulk aftereffect that’s not economical.

10.1. Social value

Ideas which help an individual to discriminate whether a particular object or behaviour is good or bad, desirable or undesirable.

Norms: Times rules which govern the action

Normative behavior: People are expected to behave in accordance with the values held by the individual.

S.C. Dood defined the value as “desiderata” i.e., anything desired or chosen by someone, sometime.

Value may be considered as attitude-related attribute that are projected upon people, objects and situations.

The societal implications of nanotechnology are the potential benefits and challenges that the introduction of novelnanotechnological devices and materials may hold for society and human interaction. The term is sometimes expanded to also include nanotechnology’s health and environmental implications, but this article will only consider the social and political implications of nanotechnology.

As nanotechnology is an emerging field andmostof its applications are still speculative, there is much debate about what positive and negative effects that nanotechnology might have.

Beyond the toxicity risks to human health and the environment which are associated with first-generation nanomaterials, nanotechnology has broader societal implications and poses broader social challenges. Social scientistshave suggestedthatnanotechnology’s social issues should be understood and assessed not simply as “downstream” risks or impacts. Rather, the challenges should be factored into “upstream” research and decision making in order to ensure technology development that meets social objectives.

Introduction

Financial inclusion has become a global agenda because it is now well recoganised that a nation can prosper only if it ensures inclusive growth. Financial access and use of formal financial system, the means of financial inclusion, have positive association with inclusive growth (Levine and Demirguc-Kunt, 2008). The financial systems which are more inclusive have provided broader access to appropriate financial services to ensure that the benefit can be availed by poor and disadvantaged sections of the society (Akter, 2016). Since, financial inclusion is the process of ensuring availability of f inancial services and well-timed and sufficient credit as required by vulnerable groups such as low income segment and weaker segment of the society at an affordable cost (Rangarajan Committee on financial inclusion, 2005). Thus, the study of financial inclusion on the basis of socio economic factors is the key to investigate individual characteristics associated with financial inclusion (Allen, Kunt, Klapper, Peria, 2012). Understanding financial usage on the basis of socio economic factors enables framing appropriate financial inclusion strategies to achieve financial inclusion in real sense. Many international agencies like International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, World Bank release data on financial inclusion around the world. Global findex report is published by World Bank after the interval of every three years to present the picture of financial inclusion on various socio economic parameters. Around the world, 74% adults, 72% female, 70% income poorest population, 63% out of labour force population and 66% rural population report to have account at formal financial system (World Bank Global findex report, 2021).

Introduction

Lavender (Lamiaceae family) produces characteristically lavender- coloured (purple) flowers, although pink, white and green forms of some species also exist. There are approximately 20 species of lavenders with hundreds of various genotypes differentiated by variations ranging from morphology to chemical composition of essential oil. Cultivation of lavenders for essential oil is thought to have begun in the 16^th century. Recently there has been an upsurge of interest in lavender as a medicinal herb crop. Lavender is a perennial herb and is a native of the western Mediterranean and the eastern coast of Spain, France, Switzerland, North Italy, Corsica and North Africa. Lavender and lavandin oil have long been the major essential oils produced on the southern slopes of the French Alps. The oil possesses refreshing, sweet aroma and blends with many other essential oils. Therefore, it is widely used in perfumery, cosmetics and medicines.

Introduction

Land serves as storage for water and nutrients for plants and other living organisms, but the land resources are limited. India has about 18% of world’s population and 15% of livestock population to be supported from only 2% geographical area and 1.5% of forest and pasture lands (Rao et al., 2015). The per capita availability of agricultural land has declined from 0.48 hectare in 1951 to 0.16 hectare in 1991 and is likely to decline further to 0.08 hectare in 2035. This decline in per capita land availability in the country is mostly on account of rising population (GOI, 2010). 

4.1 Demographic Profile of Watershed Communities

• Population Distribution: Examining the spatial distribution and density of population within watershed areas, including rural settlements, urban centers, and peri-urban zones. Analyzing population distribution within watershed areas involves understanding how people are distributed across various types of settlements, including rural, urban, and peri urban zones. Here's a breakdown of each:

a. Rural Settlements: These are typically smaller communities dispersed throughout the watershed area, often engaged in agriculture, forestry, or other primary industries. Population density in rural areas tends to be lower compared to urban centers. The distribution of rural settlements can be influenced by factors such as terrain, availability of natural resources, and historical land use patterns.

b. Urban Centers: Urban areas within watershed boundaries consist of cities and towns with higher population densities and more developed infrastructure. These areas are characterized by a concentration of economic activities, services, and amenities. Population distribution within urban centers can vary widely, with some areas experiencing high population density in downtown cores and others having more spread-out suburbs.

Livestock plays a subsidiary role in the farm as far as food production is concerned. Their role in absorbing the huge quantities of crop residues, coarse grains, cereals by-products and farm left-over and returning valuable manure to the soil to sustain their fertility for generation is significant. Livestock in general and dairying in particular is emerging as a driving force in the growth of agricultural sector in India. Dairying is the backbone of the marginal farmers and landless labourers spread over numerous villages scattered throughout the country. It is primary source of income and employment for many of India’s poor. This sector can play an important role in determining future prospects for the employment generation and poverty alleviation in the country.

After the Independence of India, the occupational avenues have undergone a tremendous change. With the spread of education and other amenities of life the traditional occupational structure has considerably changed. The Gujjars who had been a nomadic tribe are extensively becoming sedentary. The Gujjars are one of the important pastoral communities of India. Different social scientists and anthropologists have documented the origin and social aspects of the present Gujjars, who lived a pastoral life. Gujjars have their own Gujri language, which they generally speak among themselves. But they correspond with other people in Urdu generally. The main source of income for Gujjars is dairying. Consumers also prefer milk sold by them, as the quality of milk is good. The role of Gujjars to the rural and urban economy cannot be undermined.

Though information on sociological and anthropological aspects of the pastoral communities has been generated in various studies elsewhere but socio-economic studies are scanty. No concerted efforts have so far been made to study the socio economic of Gujjars, particularly with reference to various important economic parameters like resource structure, family composition, education status, economic status.

The present chapter is an attempt to study the socio economic aspects of one of the well known pastoral communities- the Gujjars of the Jammu district.

Socio-economic impact assessment is an important activity that justifies the implementation and continuation of the project efforts and to enhance the observed ability of the project outcomes. there are several approaches available for assessment of the impact of project interventions. in the present investigation, before or after research design was used for impact assessment.

Socio-economic impact assessment activity, the benchmark survey boss carried out before the initiation of the project. The benchmark survey focused on the socio-economic profile of tribal households in the project area including the landholding, personal profile of the household head, household income, its sources, income source diversity. The survey also focused on the agronomical aspects like the productivity of major crops, cropping intensity and income generation from various farm activities. Further, in the benchmark survey, data was also collected on the aspects related to household food security. The findings of the benchmark survey are presented below.

The adoption of artificial intelligence is transforming agricultural production, management and value chains while creating significant economic and social implications. This chapter examines the socio-economic dimensions of AI adoption in agriculture. It considers economic impacts, changes in labour and employment, rural livelihoods and the accessibility of digital technologies. Particular attention is given to the digital divide and barriers that may limit adoption among different agricultural communities. The chapter also addresses policy, governance and ethical considerations surrounding AI deployment. AI applications across agricultural value chains and regional and global perspectives are discussed. Finally, the chapter considers future socio-economic transformations, research gaps and the requirements for responsible and inclusive agricultural digitalization.

The dairy sector plays a key role in ending poverty, especially for rural communities. Nearly one billion people earn their livelihood from dairy. Dairy has an important role to end hunger, achieve food security and improve the nutritional value of diets in a sustainable manner. Dairy products contribute to good health and wellbeing at all stages of life. Its nutrient-rich pack ensures a nourished and healthy population. Dairy has been linked to protection against non- communicable diseases. The Indian context for Dairying is an economic symbiosis of crop and cattle population. Livestock plays a pivotal role in the economy; animal husbandry is the most important economic activity in rural areas. The dairy sector today provides eighty million farm households with the triple benefits of nutritive food, supplementary income and productive employment for family labour, mainly for women. 

Introduction

This chapter has analysed the impact of shrimp farming on the farmer households. Income and employment generation being two important aspects, impact of shrimp culture on these two are discussed in this chapter. The income generated through shrimp culture is compared with the income from paddy cultivation. Returns to scale and returns to labour from shrimp culture are discussed to know whether shrimp culture is a preferred activity compared to paddy cultivation or not. Besides, the impact of shrimp farming on asset creation, expenditure pattern and savings behaviour of the sample households has been discussed in this chapter.

Abstract

Knowledge and communication is an important resource for agriculture and can contribute substantially to ensure food security and sustainability by creating awareness and skill development through access to information. The initial and most prominent player of knowledge delivery is public sector extension services, which from past few years, are usually criticized for their ineffective targeting, poor reach and the huge administrative cost of delivering information. Since past few years, the drastic increase in mobile penetration even in rural areas has lead to evolution of ICT-based extension services models to disseminate agriculture related information.

Integrated Fish Farming (IFF) is emerging as a transformative approach in India’s agricultural landscape, particularly for small and marginal farmers. By combining fish culture with agriculture, livestock, poultry, horticulture, and other allied activities, IFF offers a cost-effective and sustainable model that enhances farm productivity and rural livelihoods. With more than 80% of Indian farmers falling into the small and marginal category, many face challenges such as limited land, inconsistent income, and increasing environmental stress. IFF addresses these issues by enabling the efficient recycling of farm waste, thereby minimizing dependence on expensive chemical fertilizers and commercial feeds. This integrated model produces multiple income streams—fish, eggs, vegetables, milk, and manure—ensuring financial stability and nutritional security for farming families. IFF also significantly contributes to employment generation through diverse year-round activities such as pond management, livestock care, and the marketing of farm products. It provides particular opportunities for women and youth in rural areas, helping to reduce underemployment and rural migration. The nutrient-rich food produced through IFF supports public health by addressing malnutrition in underdeveloped regions. India’s extensive water resources, agricultural base, and favorable agroclimatic conditions make it well-positioned to scale up IFF practices. States such as West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Chhattisgarh, and Bihar have already demonstrated success with combinations like fish + poultry, fish + duck, and fish + paddy systems. Furthermore, support from government schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) is accelerating its adoption. As India advances toward climate-resilient and diversified agriculture, IFF stands out as a vital solution for ensuring economic sustainability, food security, and ecological harmony, making it a cornerstone of future rural development.

Introduction

The hot arid zones in India are spread over nearly 31.7 million hectare area of which 41.5 per cent is arable and 19 per cent is cultural wasteland. These zones are perpetuated mainly in North –West and Southern part of the country. The major parts of the country under hot arid climatic conditions are Western Rajasthan (19.62 Million ha), North-western Gujarat (6.2 M. ha), South-western Punjab (1.45 M. ha), South-western Haryana (1.28 M. ha), Andhra Pradesh (2.16 M. ha), Karnataka (0.86 M. ha), and Maharashtra ( 0.13 M. ha). These areas/ zones are characterized by hostile agro-climate and fragile eco-system, an annual rainfall between 100 – 500 mm with a coefficient of variation (CV) varying from 40 – 70 per cent, low and erratic rainfall combined with extremes of temperature (450-500 cal/cm²/day); low relative humidity; high potential evapo-transpiration value ranging from 1600 mm in eastern part and 1800 mm in western part of the hot arid zones. Other important characteristics of the hot arid regions are hot winds with high velocity, poor soil condition, poor ground water with brackish and saline in reaction, poor vegetation, frequent occurrence of drought and frost, difficult to execute agro-techniques, difficulty in post harvest handling and marketing owning to limited and inefficient transportation and marketing facilities, etc (Yadav and Soni, 2008).

Introduction

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important commercial vegetable crop cultivated extensively in India and it belongs to the family Alliaceae. It is used both in green and mature stage for salad and spice in a variety of flavoured dishes and soups Onion is liked for its flavour and pungency which is due to the presence of a volatile oil ‘allyl propyl disulphide’- an organic compound rich in sulphur. Onion bulb is a rich source of minerals like phosphorus, calcium and carbohydrates. It also contains protein and vitamin C. It is being used in several ways as a fresh, frozen, dehydrated bulbs and green bunching types. Dehydrated onion is in great demand which reduces transport cost and storage losses. Onion has got good medicinal value. It contains several anti-cancer agents which have shown to prevent cancer in animals. The beneficial compound called ‘quercetin’ present in onion has shown to be powerful antioxidant. Extracts of onion are being used in the prevention of ‘atherosclerosis’ and ‘coronary heart disease’. onion extensive culinary, dietary, therapeutic, trading, income and employment generation value. Onion is commodity of mass consumption and is grown almost all over the country mainly by small and marginal farmers (Shukla and Singh-2018).

A global review of onion area and production revealed that onion is grown in the world in an area of 43.64 lakh hectares with a total production of 873.44 lakh tons and productivity of 21.79 tons/ha. China and India are leading onion growing countries with a total production of 247.00 and 159.40 lakh tons, respectively during the year 2017. India produces around 174 lakh tons of onion annually ranking second in the world. Currently in India the production of onion 31129 million tons with the cultivated of 1914 lakh hectares in 2021-22 observed respectively. Among the different onion growing states Maharashtra tops in area and production. (https://www.districts of india.com).

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal grains in the world today and serves as a staple food source for more than half of the world’s particularly in India, China and a number of other countries in Africa and Asia. It occupies an area of about 161 million hectares at global level wi`th production of 503.8 million tones milled basis. More than 90% of the rice is produced and consumed in Asian countries. (FAO United Nation 2017).

Rice provides 21 percent of global human per capita energy and 15% of per capita protein. Although rice protein ranks high in nutritional quality among cereals, protein content is modest. Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, and fiber, although all constituents except carbohydrates are reduced by milling.

Rice commodity recognized as a supreme commodity to mankind, because rice is truly life, culture and tradition. It has its own history and religious importance in human life. India is one of the world’s largest producers of white rice. For India, like many other developing countries, the issue of feeding ever increasing population is of prime importance, this problem can be solved by maximizing agricultural production through use of high yielding varieties and adopting improved package of practices of rice crop. India is facing the challenges of food and fodder production to meet the demand of rising human and cattle population. One of the major causes of this problem is low level of adoption of improved agricultural practices by the farmers. Population www.thecropsite.com

There are three seasons for growing rice in India viz. autumn, winter and summer. The main rice growing season in the country is kharif. It is known as winter rice as per the harvesting time. The sowing time of kharif rice is June – July and it is harvested in September - October. India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. North-Eastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Southern China, while the japonica variety was domesticated from wild rice in Southern China which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grows in Assam and Nepal.

This chapter is framed with different factors relating to socio-economic profile of shrimp farmers in Dhamara coastal zone. Shrimp farming offers significant employment opportunities, which may help alleviate the poverty of the local coastal population in many areas, if it is properly managed. The published literature on that topic shows large discrepancies, and much of the available data is of anecdotal nature. Estimates of the labor-intensiveness of shrimp farms range from about three times less to three times more^] than when the same area was used for rice paddies, with much regional variation and depending on the type of farms surveyed. In general, intensive shrimp farming requires more labour per unit area than extensive farming. Extensive farms cover much more land area and are often but not always located in areas where no agricultural land uses are possible. Supporting industries such as feed production or storage, handling, and trade companies should also not be neglected, even if not all of them are exclusive to shrimp farming.

Typically, workers on a shrimp farm can get better wages than with other employments. A global estimate from one study is that a shrimp farm worker can earn 1.5-3 times as much as in other jobs; a study from India arrived at a salary increase of about 1.6, and a report from Mexico states that the lowest paid job at shrimp farms was paid in 1996 at 1.22 times the average worker salary in the country.

Existing positive as well as negative interactions among the members of the society determine the communication structure, leadership and technology diffusion pattern within the given social system. Sociometry is a method for gathering and analyzing data on communication choice and interaction pattern of individuals, within a group in order to identify communication structure and pattern.

Sodium benzoate is added to many fruit products to act as a preservative for the extension of the shelf life. Food Safety and Standards Regulations have specified the maximum level of sodium benzoate (Benzoic acid) in different products like sauce, ketchup, pickles, squash, etc. Therefore, the estimation of sodium benzoate (benzoic acid) in such products is considered a routine quality control procedure.
Principle
Benzoic acid which is sparingly soluble in water is converted into watersoluble sodium benzoate by the addition of NaOH in a sample containing sodium chloride solution. When the Sodium Benzoate solution is acidified with excess HCl, water-in-soluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard NaOH.

Antibiotics have been used since their discovery to cure illness at therapeutic levels and to boost animal feed production at subtherapeutic levels by promoting animal development. Antibiotics have been regarded as necessary additives or supplements for improved growth and preservation of a healthy intestinal ecology in the production of chicken for more than 50 years (Huyghebaert et al., 2011). The Indian government outlawed the use of antibiotics in poultry feed in 2019. (Colistin, for example, is no longer allowed in poultry feed.) As a result, a lot of effort is being put into creating antibiotic substitutes. Alternatives to antibiotics should ideally possess the same advantageous qualities.

 Family: Argasidae
 •The family includes fowl ticks and tampans.
 •The integument is leather like, frequently mammillated and without dorsal shield.
 •Capitulum and mouth parts are situated anteriorly and on ventral side, thus invisible from dorsal side.
 •In general eyes are absent, if present these are two pairs and situated on lateral sides of supracoxal folds.
 •Spiracles are one pair and situated posteriolaterally to the third coxae.
 •Sexual dimorphism is not evident.
 •The important genera are Argas, Otobius and Ornithodoros.

Introduction

For many years it has been an elusive task to provide a precise definition as to what constitutes quality in wheat. Each country has its own traditions in bread and other bakery products. Quality will mean different things to a miller, a baker, a grain handler or a plant breeder. As the baking industry becomes increasingly specialized, specific qualities are sought. Even among those wheat varieties generally recognized as having desirable quality traits, the influence of environment can be substantial, and this necessitates a high level of skill on the part of grain buyers to survey the current year’s crop and blend the wheat for a specific end-use. This genotype X environment effect on quality also limits the capacity of end-users to source identity-preserved wheat from a narrow geographic area. Those of us engaged in the field of plant breeding are concerned primarily with those traits that can be manipulated genetically, and we study their stability under a range of climatic conditions. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria.

The pressure of population on land is increasing and the average size of a farm holding is reducing, to below one hectare. Farmers are increasingly getting indebted and the temptation to sell prime land for non farm purposes is growing. If there are other opportunities, about 40 per cent of farmers want to quit farming, says a survey conducted by National Sample Survey Organization. We hear deplorable stories of farmers ending their life not being able to cope with the loss and indebtedness from agriculture.
 
On the closer examination, we find that agricultural land is still a great source of income. But it is the practice of unsustainable methods, improper resource management leading to successive crop failure that makes agriculture non-profitable and risky. As a result, many young farmers are leaving agriculture and migrating to cities. Under these conditions, how are we going to persuade educated youth, including farm graduates, to stay  in villages and take to agriculture as a profession? How can youth earn a decent living in villages and help shape the future of our agriculture? At the same time, we also hear the stories of highly educated persons wanting to move into agriculture as their profession.
 
It is a well known fact that the recession had hit the Information Technology sector and the professionals across the globe in a big way. Some of them were ‘sacked’ and even thrown to streets as ‘loss cutting’ measures by the companies. Many qualified software professionals were forced to find an alternative job. But software professional, Sri. Kondana Chandrashekara Gatty, who was in the Information Technology field for nearly 10 years, did not feel the pinch of recession since he had switched over his carrier field from IT to agriculture.