eBook Chapters

Introduction
Phospholipids naturally form liposomes when placed in water. These liposomes consist of one or more phospholipid bilayers that enclose an aqueous interior. The liposomes offer multiple benefits due to their enhanced permeability and retention mechanism [1]. Liposomes have the potential to enhance the pharmacokinetic properties of encapsulated drugs [2], increase their circulation times, and allow passive targeting and accumulation in areas of inflammation and tumors. Liposomes help diminish the overall toxicity caused by unencapsulated drugs [3]. They surge a drug’s solubility and offer a sustained [4], controlled release of the encapsulated drug.
Stability studies and shelf-life determination are indispensable for maintaining the integrity and efficacy of liposome-based products. The key factors influencing liposome stability include temperature, pH, lipid composition, and the use of stabilizing agents. These elements must be carefully managed to ensure that liposomal formulations remain effective throughout their intended shelf life [5]. Research indicates that adding tetraether lipids to liposomes can significantly improve their stability in challenging conditions such as low pH, elevated temperatures, and autoclaving, thereby extending their shelf life [6]. The addition of antioxidants such as vitamin C has proven effective in surging the stability and antioxidant properties of liposomes, thereby extending their shelf life across various environmental conditions [7]. Studies have exhibited those liposomal formulations showed superior chemical, physical, and microbiological stability compared to traditional formulations such as ointments, emulsions, and gels. This superior stability makes liposomes a highly auspicious alternative for maintaining product integrity over extended periods

Generally microorganisms are so small and colourless in their natural state that it becomes difficult to observe them clearly under microscope. Stains and dyes, which are colouring agents, are used by biologist for better understanding of the morphological and anatomical structures of the organisms under study. Stains are prepared with great care and specification to get satisfactory result, while dyes are not as exacting in their characteristics.

Dyes are of two types, natural and synthetic. The natural dyes are used for histological purposes, whereas the synthetic dyes for bacterial stain. Usually dyes which are derivatives of cyclic compound benzene of benzole, are prepared from one or more substances found in coal-tar, and so are called coal-tar dyes. Chemically dyes are organic compounds containing both chromophore and auxochrome groups linked to benzene rings. Chromophore group provides the compounds the property of colour and thus benzene containing chromophores are called chromogens. It has no affinity to combine with fibres or tissue and as such not called dye. For being a dye, compound should contain an auxillary group which provides the compounds the properties of electrolytic dissociation.

The dyes may be acidic, basic or neutral. The acidic dyes are eosin, acid fuchsine and picric acid whereas the basic dyes are safranin, methylene blue, crystal violet etc. The acidic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a negative electrical charge. They are salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc. The basic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a positive electrical charge and are salts of chlorides, sulphates or acetates.

Gomori’s Method for Iron
The major deposits of iron in mammals are in the red blood cells as hemoglobin and in the phagocytes of the reticulo-endothelia system as ferritin and haemosiderin. It is essential mineral and an important component of proteins, involved in oxygen transport, oxygen storage in muscle tissues and oxidation of nutrients in the mitochondria. Enzymes of the electron transport chain, cytochromeoxidase, ferredoxin, myeloperoxidase, catalase and the cytochrome P450 enzyme also requires iron as co-factors.
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin or absolute alcohol and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with water 5 minutes.
4) Hydrochloric acid-Potassium ferrocyanide solution for 30 minutes.
5) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
6) Counter stain in nuclear fast red solution for 5 minutes.
7) Rinse in distilled water.
8) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute ethanol (one minute each).
9) Clearing in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each

Background
Staining is a crucial step in the microscopic examination of fine needle aspirates (FNAs) from canine mammary tumors. It enhances the visibility of cellular structures, making it easier to diagnose the tumor type. The cryopreservation of unfixed, air-dried smears of FNA can safely be used for staining up to 33 months, including immunostaining for epithelial and mesenchymal cell markers like cytokeratin and vimentin (Furusawa et al., 2023).
Common Staining Techniques
1. Romanowsky Stains: Romanowsky stains are a group of related stains, Dimitri Romanowsky in 1891. It used a mixture of Eosin (an acidic dye) and methylene blue (a basic dye). The original method has since been modified to include additional derivatives of methylene blue, such as azure B, leading to more distinct staining effects (Marshall, 1986). It is widely used in hematology, cytology, and microbiology for staining blood smears, bone marrow smears, and other cell types. These stains are significant for identifying and differentiating cellular components like nuclei, cytoplasm, and intracellular structures in various types of cells.
• May-Grunwald-Giemsa stain: A modification of the Romanowsky stain, combined with Giemsa for its ability to differentiate between cell types and structures. It stains nuclei blue and cytoplasm pink. Giemsa stain utilizes the azure dye to stain the azurophilic cellular components purple.

Background
Leishman stain (named after W. B. Leishman, a British surgeon) is one of the Romanowsky- type stains. It is a differential stain used to stain the different components of the cells variably. The Leishman stain is one of the best for routine blood staining and can be used for FNAC smear staining. It stains the peripheral blood smear when examining blood film under the microscope (Figure 20).
Leishman stain combines Azure B (blue) and Eosin Y (orange) dyes. Azure B has an affinity for DNA and acidic groups in cell nuclei, while Eosin Y has an affinity to basic groupings in cytoplasm. The staining results show crisp blue nuclei while the cytoplasm takes a purple hue.
Procedure for Leishman Staining
Sample Preparation
• Obtain a thin blood smear or FNAC sample.
• Air-dry the smear thoroughly.
• Flood the slide with methanol for 3-5 minutes for fixation
• Air dry the smear.

Background
Staining of milk somatic cells is the oldest method of enumerating cell types in milk by direct microscopic examination. Various stains, namely propidium iodide, methylene blue and hematoxylin-eosin stains, are used.
The total milk cell (TMC) pellet obtained above was resuspended gently in 500 μl of PBS 1X (Sigma, MA, USA). Place 20 μl of cell suspension on a clean glass slide (BioGenex, CA, USA) and let it dry at room temperature.
Materials and reagents required
1. Positively-charged glass slides
2. Glass coverslips
3. Hot plate
4. Fixatives – Methanol or ethanol
5. Hematoxyline and Eosin stain
6. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)
7. Distill water
8. Ethanol for dehydration
9. Xylene
10. Mounting medium (like DBX)

The whole brain or its slices could be stained for differentiation of the areas of gray and white matter for better understanding of macroscopic neuroanatomy. Various researchers have developed the methods of staining of either the whole brain or its slices. The review of all these methods is being detailed below. These would definitely help the teachers and students to teach and grasp the macroscopic details of central nervous system viz. nuclei, laminae, fascicule, capsule and other structures with little or no magnification.
Staining of Whole Brain and Sections from its Slices (Hewitt, 1959)
Fixation of whole brain in either 70% alcohol or 10% formaldehyde without removal of membranes and blood vessels.
Protocol
1. The collected whole brain is immersed in ten volumes of staining fluid.
2. The staining fluid can be resaturated, when ever it becomes paler and clearer in colour, then it can be used in smaller volume in proportion to the volume of brain for the next staining.
3. Complete staining is assessed by uniform red colouration of the brain. A cats’ brain requires at least 1 month and the human brain not less than 6 months. The time required is governed by size of the brain. The brain stem is cut of about 5 mm thickness to examine the completion of the staining.
4. The stained brain is immersed in ten volumes of 70% alcohol for differentiation.

Van-Gieson Stain for Collagen Fibers
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinize sections and hydrate to water through descending grades of alcohol.
2) Remove mercury crystals if tissue fixed in Zenker’s or Helly’s fluid.
3) Stain in iron haemotoxylin solution for 2 to 3 minutes.
4) Wash in running water for 10-15 minutes.
5) Rinse in distilled water.
6) Counter stain in Van Gieson’ssolution for 2-3 minutes.
7) Two to three dips in 96% alcohol.
8) Dehydrate through absolute alcohol and clear in xylene.
9) Mount with D.P.X mountant.
Observations:
Red : Collagen fibers
Yellow : Muscles, RBC and cornified epithelium
Blue : Nuclei

Stakeholder is an individual or group that has an interest in any decision or activity of an organization. A stakeholder is a member of groups without whose support the organizationwould cease to exist. Stakeholders are important to every project. Stakeholders are very important because they can have a positive or negative influence on the project with their decisions. A stakeholder is either an individual, group or organization who is impacted by the outcome of a project.

1. Introduction
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a systematic quality system essential for
ensuring the reliability, consistency, and integrity of laboratory data, particularly when the findings are used for regulatory decision-making. GLP ensures that laboratory studies are conducted in a scientific manner, maintaining high standards of ethical practice, precision, and reproducibility, with a primary focus on ensuring public and environmental safety. Introduced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1978, GLP gained global recognition through the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which established guidelines for its implementation. GLP principles are now widely adopted in regulatory testing for pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food safety, and environmental testing. The OECD’s guidance on GLP has been instrumental in developing standards across the globe, ensuring that test results are scientifically valid and can be accepted internationally. In Asia, particularly in India and other developing countries, GLP compliance has gained increasing importance as pharmaceutical, environmental, and chemical industries expand. Regulatory bodies in these regions have gradually aligned their standards with international norms to ensure their competitiveness in global markets. This chapter discusses the key SOPs necessary for GLP compliance and provides a regional perspective, focusing on India and other Asian nations, where GLP frameworks are evolving to meet international standards.
2. Objective of GLP
The overarching objective of GLP is to ensure that laboratory data is accurate, reliable, and reproducible across different studies. The scientific and regulatory communities rely on GLP to ensure that findings from preclinical studies and safety evaluations can be trusted and utilized for regulatory approval.
The key objectives of GLP include
• Accuracy and Integrity of Data: GLP ensures that every aspect of data collection, analysis, and reporting is conducted with integrity and accuracy, preventing errors or falsification that could affect regulatory decisions.

13.1. Quarantine Inspection and Certification

13.1.1. Scope/Purpose

Provides guidance and describes the standard operating procedures for certification of facilities for growing imported plants/plant material including transgenic plant material and other regulated articles such as biological control agents/beneficial organisms and living modified organisms under post-entry quarantine and inspecting the same to ensure free from quarantine pests and other regulated non-quarantine pests.

The purpose is to facilitate adoption of standard operating procedures by all the inspection authorities notified by the Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)/PQOs (with PEQ responsibilities) for undertaking certification of post-entry quarantine inspection facilities as well as conducting postentry quarantine inspection of growing plants and other regulated articles under the supervision of concerned inspection authority/ PQOs (with PEQ responsibilities) in accordance with phytosanitary requirements specified under the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 and amendments issued there under to prevent the introduction and spread of destructive pests that affects plants and other regulated articles such as biological control agents and beneficial organisms.

Normal Solution in Analytical Chemistry

A normal solution is that one that contains one equivalent weight expressed  in grams (one gram equivalent weight) to be dissolved substance per litre of solution, or one gram-milliequivalent weight per millilitre.

In the case of acid a 1N solution contains 1.008 gram of replaceable hydrogen per litre of solution. A 1N solution of a base is one that contains 17.008 of hydroxyl per litre. A 1N solution of a precipitating agent contains a weight of precipitating ion equivalent to 1.008 hydrogen. The quantity of pure reagent necessary per litre of 1N solution of a precipitating solution is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the valency of the precipitating ion. In case of normal solution of oxidising and reducing agents, the amount is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the total valency change in the ion concerned.

Unit of Length

A metre (m) is taken from the international prototype metre at the International Bureau of weights and measures; at 32ºF. (0ºC) = 39.37 inches (in.) = 3.280833 feet (ft.) = centimetres (Cm.). A centimetre (Cm.) = 10 millimetres (mm.) = 10,000 microns (µ) = 0.337 inch (in.) or 10-4cm. A millimetre (mm.) = 1,000 microns (µ) = 0.03937 inch. A micron (mµ) = 1,000 milli-microns (µ) = 3.937x10-5 inch. A milli-micron (mµ) = 0.001 micron or 10-7 cm. A foot (ft.) = 0.3048006 metre (m.) = 30.48006 centimetres (Cm.) = 12 inches (in.)., inch = 2.5 cm. An inch (in.) = 2.539998 centimetres (Cm.) = 25.39998 mm = 25,399.98 microns (µ).

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Standardization

Standardization means establishment of standards for matters such as quality, size, weight and color. Once standards are set grading is possible using the criteria established in the standards. Thus, standardization involves establishment and maintenance of uniform measurements of produce quality and/or quantity.

Grading

Grading follows standardization. It is a sub-function of standardization. It is a method of dividing products into certain groups or lots in accordance with predetermined standard. Grading before sale enables farmers to get a higher price for their produce .Consumer get standard quality products at fair prices. It is easier for them to compare the prices of different qualities of a product in the market. It minimizes their purchasing risk, for they will not get a lower quality product at the given prices .e.g. eggs are graded into different categories based on set standards. Similarly cattle feed is also sometimes categorized into different grades based on established standards.

Abstract

Old walnut seedlings in the age of up to twenty years were top worked using chip budding technique. In the seedling plants up to ten years of age, budding was done on older branches. But in the seedlings between 10-20 years of age, main branches were first dehorned during winters and the budding was performed on newly emerged branches in the month of May and June. Best results in the seedlings up to 10 years of age was obtained when budding was done in the second week of June with 89 and 97 per cent success in the year 2002 and 2003, respectively. The lowest success, however, was recorded in the plants between 10-20 years of age when budding was performed in the third week of May. Budding success in the plants between 10-20 years of age was slightly lower but they grew very fast as compared to those below ten years of age. Therefore, chip budding can be successfully utilized for the top working of old walnut seeding plants during second week of June when the buds become fully developed. For other areas this date may be different depending upon the maturity of the buds.

ABSTRACT

The present investigation was undertaken to standardize the DNA extraction methods, to optimize the PCR conditions and generate RAPD’s to study the genetic variability in chrysanthemum. Total genomic DNA was extracted from freshly emerged leaves of chrysanthemum cultivars (Flirt, Nagpur Red, Snow Ball) using different DNA extraction methods (CTAB method, SDS potassium acetate method, SDS miniprep method and urea phenol method). The highest amount of DNA (349μg/g of leaves) was extracted using CTAB method, while it was lowest (130 μg/g of leaves) in SDS miniprep method. The absorbance ratio was high for DNA extracted by CTAB method (1.82) followed by SDS- potassium acetate (1.65) and SDS miniprep (1.60) methods. For standardization of PCR ampl ification conditions, optimization was carried out to determine the optimal concentrations of template DNA, MgCl₂, Taq DNA polymerase and annealing temperature. In general, either no products or products with inconsistent bands were obtained when the concentration of template DNA was 25 ng or MgCl₂ was 1.0 mM with high annealing temperature of 45°C.

Abstract

Cut flowers of rose cv. ‘First Red’, with uniform stem length of 45 cm, harvested during different times of the year i.e. March, May and October, were used for standardization of holding solutions to increase the vase life. Harvest-wise pooled averages of two years data (2003-04) revealed that the cut flowers of March and May harvests gave increased flower diameter, more volume of solution consumed, maximum vase-life, reducing sugar and protein content with minimum weight loss when these were held in a solution containing 100 ppm 8-HQC (8-hydroxy quinoline citrate) +1.5 per cent sucrose. For getting similar results of October harvested flowers lower concentration of 8-HQC (50 ppm) with same level of sucrose was found most suitable

ABSTRACT

Asuccessful micro grafting technique in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) was developed using in vitro germinated seedling as root stock and shoots from stage II cultures as scions. Grafting success was dependent on the method of grafting, size of the scion and age of the root stock. Among the methods tried, side and cleft grafting were found to be suitable. Due to the ease of operation and faster union, side grafting was preferred. High levels of graft union were obtained when 2 - 3 cm long shoots from stage II cultures were grafted on to 8 - 9 days old in vitro raised root stocks in full strength MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium supplemented with Kinetin (2.5 mg l^-1), NAA (0.5 mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The very high growth of grafted scion was obtained, when the micro grafts were transferred into MS medium containing full strength macroelements supplemented with Kinetin (5mg l^-1), NAA (1mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The micro grafts after a process of hardening could be successfully transplanted into soil. Micro grafting techniques standardized could be used for rejuvenation of shoot explants of mature tree.

8.1 Introduction
The chemical composition of milk intended for market or milk product manufacturing must be standardised in numerous dairy processes. Standardising milk may necessitate the regulation of a single component (typically fat) while permitting the other components to shift or regulate two or more components concurrently. Definition: The term “standardisation” of milk denotes the process of adjusting the fat and solids-not-fat percentages of milk to the desired value in order to comply with the legal or other requirements.
Objectives of standardization are
1. To ensure that specific milk and dairy products meet legal requirements.
2. To offer a consistent product to the consumer.
3. To guarantee economic efficiency in production.
The volume of milk available for sale is increased by the addition of skim milk, and the separation of cream enables the production of other value-added dairy products, such as butter, table cream, or other high-fat products.

Seed size is an important parameter of seed vigor as it in influences the performance of seed in soil. Seed bulk at harvest contains a wide range of seed sizes but these may not all be of equal value for sowing. Farmers have always realized the necessary of using uniform seeds for good viability to obtain high emergence and growth. This will also help in getting optimum plant population and higher yields.
 
The influence of seed size on seedling vigor and crop productivity has already been proven since the days Hannaford who was considered as father of seed processing. To achieve uniformity in seed size this optimum sieve/screen size is very critical for optimum seed recovery and economical seed yield. Though the screen sizes are standardized for different crops but vary with different varieties. The shop floor should continuously explore and fine tune screen sizes for different varieties.

Abstract

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeonpea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In the experiments, ten treatments were applied viz.; Neem leaf extracts (T₁), Garlic extracts (T₂), Tulsi leaf extracts (T₃), bio-agents Trichoderma viride (T₄), Pseudomonas fluorescens (T₅), Polymer coating (polycot) @ 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg of seed (T₆), Polymer coaating + Trichoderma viride @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₇), Polymer + Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₈), Polymer coating (polycot) 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg seed + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed (T₉) and T₁₀ served as untreated. The observations were recorded six times at 10 days intervals and started from 40 days. These polymer alone @ 4.0ml per kg and in combination with bioagents and fungicides were applied to seed were tested against Fusarium udum. The highest per cent disease control and per cent wilt disease incidence were recorded 96.09 to 64.09 and 2.74 to 33.32, respectively in T₉ (Polymer + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed) at 10 days intervals followed by T₈ (Polymer + P. fluorescens) gave 94.46 to 53.06 per cent inhibition, T₇ (92.39 to 52.74) and T₆ (90.97 to 49.73) however, the lowest per cent disease control was noticed as 76.19 to 40.13 per cent in T₁ (Neem leaves extract) amongst all treatments except untreated.

The valorization of agri-biomass and organic waste is governed by a mix of regulations, standards, and policies aimed at promoting resource efficiency, reducing environmental impact, and fostering sustainable development. These measures include national and international initiatives, sector-specific laws, and economic instruments designed to incentivize waste management and promote the utilization of byproducts for energy, materials, and other applications. The valorization of agri-biomass and organic waste into biofuels, bio-based chemicals, bioenergy, and other value-added products is increasingly being recognized as a critical pillar of sustainable development, circular economy, and climate action. In India, the regulatory and policy framework surrounding this sector has evolved significantly in recent years, reflecting growing governmental interest in managing agricultural residues, reducing pollution, promoting renewable energy, and incentivizing green industries. A wide range of ministries—such as the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoA&FW), and Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG)—as well as regulatory bodies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) play pivotal roles in formulating and enforcing the relevant policies, regulations, and technical standards. One of the flagship policies in this domain is the National Policy on Biofuels (2018, revised 2022), which provides a roadmap for blending biofuels such as ethanol, biodiesel, and compressed biogas (CBG) with conventional fuels. It promotes the use of second-generation (2G) feedstocks like agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, and non-edible oilseeds for biofuel production. Under this policy, the government supports financial incentives, viability gap funding, R&D investments, and market linkages to boost bio-refinery infrastructure. This is supplemented by the SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) initiative, launched by MoPNG, which aims to establish 5,000 CBG plants across India using agri-residues, cattle dung, and organic waste, thereby encouraging decentralized waste valorization.

Food processing sector in India has largest segment of bakery with more than 1.3 million tonnes of production from organized sector and 1.7 million tons from 1,000,000 unorganized sectors. India is second largest producer of biscuits globally. Our bakery industry is positioned third in generation of revenues among processed food sector.

In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made there under as amended from time-to-time.

Pollution is continuously increasing in India. To control ambient air pollution CPCB has prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards

First discovered by Scottish surgeon sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected tissues. He named it as staphylococcus” (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes;
KOKKAS, berry).
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Staphylococcaceae
Genus : Staphylococcus
Species : Staph. aureus
Staph. Intermedius
Staph. hyicus
Habitat and Ecology
Staphylococcus occurs worldwide in mammals although the spread of staphylococcal strains between different animal species is limited. They colonise the nasal cavity, skin and mucous membranes and can be transient in the intestinal tract. It is an opportunist type organism.

The diseases caused by Staphylococci are found in all avian species and reported through out the world.

Etiology

There are more than 45 species and 25 subspecies in the genus Staphylococcus.

S. aureus is the most common species of birds causing disease. Staphylococci are Gram - positive, coccoid and when grown on solid medium, bacteria form grape like clusters.

Sir Alexander Ogston (1880) first isolated Micrococci in pus and in 1883 he subdivided them into two groups i.e. Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. He also first proposed the name ‘Staphylococcus’ (Greek ‘staphyle’ means bunch of grapes and ‘kokkos’ means berry). Experiments of Bumm (1885), Garre (1885) and Bockhart (1887) established its relationship with human infections. As well as Nocard (1887) first isolated Staphylococcus from mastitis in sheep and found its pathogenic significance in animals.

Properties of Genus

Morphology : Staphylococci are gram positive cocci, capsulated, non-sporing and non-motile. Each coccus cell is 1µm in diameter.  They are arranged in a group or grape like cluster as cell division occurs in more than one plane. During preparation of smear and staining the cluster is sometimes broken and cocci are seen in pair or single (Fig. 1).

Staphylococcal capsule is polysaccharide in nature. The capsule can inhibit phagocytosis and helps in virulence.

 Staphylococcal cell wall contains three major components i.e. peptidoglycan (PG), teichoic acid (TA) and surface proteins.

Abstract

Among the 29 Indian states, 14 are linked with 585 regulated mandis with electronic national agricultural market. Across the states, 7.35 million farmers with 53,163 commission agents are registered in these regulated mandis. Every year Government of India announces modified agricultural policies to safeguard the interest of the farming community. Amongst the policies, one of the mechanisms to protect the producers from price fluctuations is Minimum Support Price (MSP). While determining MSP, government takes into account cost of production, cost of living, as well as economic and socio-political factors. For the past two decades, it has been observed that one MSP graph is moving upward but still the farming community seems dissatisfied. The reasons behind MSP variation among states include offering bonus prices additionally with MSP by some states, due to variation in government procurement procedures and policies. As a result, MSP is playing an important role in manoeuvring of prices amongst the various state markets. MSP deviation provides chances for the private sector to take undue advantage and the farmers are adversely affected. The study analyses existence of deviation in mandi prices of staple food between two states from year 2007 to 2018. It will disclose whether centralized price system reduce the cost of government and aid the farmer to get fair valuation.

Description and Distribution
Star Anise is the dried, star-shaped fruit derived from Illicium verum which is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 8-15 meter and a diameter of 25 cm. Leaves are entire, 10 -15 cm long, and 2.5-5.0 cm broad, elliptic to oblanceolate; flowers are solitary, white to red colored, fruits are star-shaped, reddish brown in color, consisting of 6-8 capsules (follicles), arranged in a whorl, radiating from the top of a slender short central stem; each follicle is 12-17 mm long, boat-shaped, hard and wrinkled, containing a seed; seeds are brown, compressed-ovoid, smooth, shiny and brittle. The carpels have a pleasant anise-like odor and an aromatic, refreshing, sweet, anise-like taste; the seeds have the same taste, but, to much lesser extent. It is available, whole, and is not usually ground. The plant is indigenous to tropical and sub tropical East Asia. It is extensively cultivated in a limited area with particular ecological factor, in Kwangsi in south-east China, mainland Tonkin in Indo-China, and is mostly imported from China and Indo-China. No import statistics are, however, available for Star Anise. It is now produced to some extent in Arunachal Pradesh in North- East India.
Area and Production
Star Anise is a recent introduction to India, from China, which is the major producer, supplier and exporter of the crop. No organized commercial-scale cultivation has yet been started in the country, but, it is reported to be gradually picking up. According to the latest report by the Deputy Director of The Spices Board, located in Guwahati, in North-East India, about 12.5 tonnes of Star

Star gooseberry also known as Otaheite gooseberry   (Phyllanthus acidus Skeels) is an important underexploited fruit of family Euphorbiaceae. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg., Phyllanthus acidissimus (Blanco) Muell. Arg., Cicca acida Merr., Cicca disticha L. are the synonyms of star gooseberry. Food value of star gooseberry / 100g of edible portion is given below.

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

The stiffness of starch gels from different starches at 5% concentration was shown in decreasing order of stiffness in the following table. Of the cereal starches corn starch gel was firmest followed by wheat and rice starch gels. Among the roots and tubers starches, potato yielded a ropy paste, arrowroot a soft paste while cassava starch gave viscous fluid.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;

Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants which is abundantly found in roots, tubers, stems, fruits, and cereals. It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers with a chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n. Starch is composed ofamylose and amylopectin. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch while amylopectin is the branched form. Foods that are high in starch content are a good source of nutrition. Food starches are used in the food industry as thickeners and stabilizers. During the ripening of fruits, the starch is converted into sugars. Therefore, the presence of starch in fruits is used as an indication of maturity and ripening.
Principle: For estimation of starch contents, the sugars present in the sample are leached out and starch is hydrolyzed using either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Stach is then calculated as invert sugars.
Starch content by Acid Hydrolysis method
Reagents: Ethanol 95%, /50%,Concentrated HCl, Concentrated H2SO4, 1N NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein indicator, 10% alcoholic solution of Alphanaphthol.

Introduction

India is the largest banana producer in the world. They grow bananas on an area of 9 million hectares and get 36 MT per hectare. India exported 2,000,000 MT of banana worth $1 billion to other nations. The banana production system supports the labour market, alternative food system, export eco-system, and nutritional security, among other things. The development of climate-resilient banana varieties, tissue culture protocols, macro-propagation, ornamental bananas, micronutrient mixtures, site-specific nutrient management, biocontrol agents for pest and disease control, robust virus diagnostic kits, and so on are all highly recommended and encouraged to make the banana industry sustainable and profitable in the long run. Technologies and products for use after harvest are also vital. Branding, supporting entrepreneurship via incubation platforms, marketing intelligence, and handholding for technical support are necessary to sustain banana production and drive value addition. Bananas and plantains, more than any other fruit or vegetable, constitute a staple food for millions of people worldwide and contribute to a healthy diet. In addition to carbohydrates, it's a wonderful source of potassium, vitamins, and minerals. The fat-free fruit has a calorie count of 90 per 100 grams. Dessert bananas are normally eaten raw, while plantains or cooking bananas are commonly prepared in a variety of savoury ways, such as boiling, steaming, frying, or roasting. The banana industry has expanded in recent years, making a greater contribution to the economy in terms of both employment and food supply.

Livestock farming is an important activity to a large population of small and marginal farmers as well as landless agricultural labourers of Tamil Nadu. It also provides employment opportunities for most of the unemployed and underemployed in the rural areas. Tamil Nadu is bounded by the Eastern Ghats on the north, by the Nilgiris, the Anamalai Hills and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, and by the Indian Ocean on the south. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area. The land area has been classified into seven agro-climatic zones based on soil characteristics, rainfall distribution, irrigation pattern, cropping pattern and other ecological and social characteristics. Tamil Nadu endowed with 13.97 per cent of recognised breeds of the domestic ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats) with 22.55 millions of population (19^thLivestock Census-2012).

“It is unbelievable that such a tiny streamlet, as was our initial test trial with the first bacterial starters exactly 40 years ago, grew to a big river for an important industry. Who would have believed then that the use of starter cultures would be a matter of course today” (Niinivaara, 1994). The idea of inoculating Lactobacillus into dry sausage material was introduced by Jensen and Paddock in 1940(US Patent 2,225,783) with the aim to reduce the ripening time as well as ensuring the quality and aroma of dry sausages. The first LAB meat starter culture, introduced as a pure culture of Pediococcus cerevisiae, was developed in 1955 in the USA by Niven et al. (1955). At the same time, Niinivaara (1955) applied Micrococcus M53 to dry sausage production in Europe. The work of Niinivaara was continued byNurmi (1966) who combined micrococci with Lactobacillus plantarum. Today, several companies provide Lactobacillus sp., Pediococcus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Staphylococcus xylosus or S. carnosus strains in pure cultures or their mixtures for fermentation of meat (Hammes et al. 1985). A starter culture may be defined as a preparation or material containing large numbers of variable microorganisms, which may be added to accelerate a fermentation process. Being adapted to the substrate, a typical starter facilitates improved control of a fermentation process and predictability of its products (Holzapfel, 1997).

Starters are selected strains of micro-organisms deliberately added to milk during conversion into cheese, dahi, yoghurt and other fermented dairy products to bring about specific changes in the appearance, body, texture and flavour characteristics of the desired final products.

Functions of Starters

The primary function of almost all starter culture is to develop acid in the product. The secondary effects of acid production include coagulation, expulsion of moisture, texture formation and initiation of flavour production. In addition to these, the starters also help in imparting pleasant acid taste, conferring protection against potential pathogens and providing a longer shelf life to the product. These bacteria convert 1% of lactose in milk approximately to lactic acid with very little by-products such as acetic acid, ethanol, CO2 and normally with no substances causing taints and hence leading to a clean and wholesome milk souring.

Starter cultures were unknown until 1878, when Lister isolated pure cultures of the lactic acid bacteria responsible for milk acidification. In the 1980s, improvements to standardization and ripening of butter were made by introducing pure starter cultures. During the period 1910-20, Orla-Jensen, von Freudenreich, Sherman, Hammer and other dairy microbiologists prepared pure cultures for fermented milks. Commercial production and use of starter cultures grew rapidly and was widespread at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Dairy starters are the ‘heart’ of fermented milk products, the most crucial component in the manufacture of high-quality fermented milks. The cultures are harmless food-grade microorganisms, active bacteria intentionally grown in milk or whey or other formulated media which impart desirable and predictable flavour and texture to fermented dairy products.

The dairy microorganisms employed in milk fermentation are single-strain or multiple-strain cultures of lactic acid bacteria, producing different types of fermented milk products. Usually, one or two strains dominate the milk environment. Individual strains can be selected in advance for their resistance to both bacteriophages and antibiotics. Mixed starter cultures are used to ensure that fermentation will continue after a bacteriophage attack. Bacteriophages are highly strain-specific, and if the dominant strain in a mixed-strain starter culture succumbs to an attack, the phage-resistant mutant or the next dominant culture maintains a satisfactory rate of lactic acid production.

Startup India, the initiative of Government of India, was first announced by Honourable Prime Minister Mr Narendra Modi during his Independence Day speech on 15 August, 2015 and discussed elaborately again on 27 December 2015 in his radio address ‘Maan ki baat’ mentioning startup as new opportunities for the youth who want to set up new business or innovative projects. Indian Government lunched this ‘Startup India – Standup India’ campaign on 16 January 2016 with an intention to build a strong startup ecosystem for nurturing innovation and encouraging private investment.

Chapter 6 delves into the critical role of monsoon rainfall in shaping the economies and lives of numerous countries across the globe. While the concept of a country being only dependent on monsoons is a simplification, this chapter focuses on regions where the seasonal monsoon rains are the paramount source of freshwater for agriculture, industry, and daily life. These monsoon-dependent nations, predominantly located in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, parts of Africa, and even areas of South America, experience a dramatic annual cycle of wet and dry periods dictated by the shifting monsoon winds. The arrival and intensity of the monsoon rains are not merely meteorological events; they are pivotal determinants of agricultural yields, food security, economic stability, and the overall well-being of billions of people. Given this profound dependence, accurate and timely forecasting of monsoon rainfall is of paramount importance. The second part of this chapter explores the current state of the art in monsoon forecasting. We will examine the sophisticated methodologies and technologies employed by meteorological agencies and research institutions worldwide to predict the onset, duration, intensity, and spatial distribution of monsoon rains. This includes an overview of empirical models leveraging historical climate data, the increasing reliance on complex dynamical models that simulate atmospheric and oceanic processes, and the integration of advanced statistical techniques like Bayesian methods and downscaling to enhance forecast accuracy and regional specificity. Understanding the strengths and limitations of these cutting-edge forecasting techniques is crucial for effective water resource management, agricultural planning, disaster preparedness, and ultimately, for building resilience in monsoon-dependent regions.

West Bengal

In West Bengal, mangroves are present in Sundarbans, the large deltaic complex of three major rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, and 62% of total area is shared by Bangladesh and 38% by India. The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR), at the confluence of the Bay of Bengal covering an area of 9,630 km², lies between 21°40′N and 22°40′N latitudes and 88°03′E and 89°07′E longitudes, spreading in districts of South and North 24-Parganas in West Bengal, India. The major portion of SBR is designated as Reserve Forest, covering nearly 4260 km² and the area under mangrove vegetation is 2112 km² (FSI 2019). Compared to 2017 assessment there has been a decrease of 2 km² area of mangroves. The mangroves and their associates in the SBR exhibit great generic and species diversity and it is abode to rare and highly endangered flora and fauna, as well as, the only mangrove-tiger (Royal Bengal Tiger - Panthera Tigris tigris) kingdom in the world. Recognizing importance and uniqueness, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared the Indian part of Sundarbans as a ‘World Heritage Site’ in 1987, and also designated the ‘Sundarban Biosphere Reserve’ under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program in 2001. Recently, Sundarbans has been declared as a Ramasar Site, considering ecological significance. Totally 33 true mangrove species belonging to 21 genera and 13 families have been identified in Indian Sundarbans. Among the mangrove species listed, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops decandra, Kandelia candel, Aglaia cucullata, Excoecaria indica, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Xylocarpus granatum, Heritiera fomes, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, Brownlowia tersa, Nypa fruticans, Acanthus volubilis, Dolichandrone spathacea and Phoenix paludosa are under serious threat in Sundarbans (Kathiresan 2008; Gopal and Chauhan 2006). Particularly Heritiera fomes (locally called Sundari, from which Sundarbans derives its name), Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa are declining rapidly due to the reduction of freshwater input (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).

Coconut is a tall un-branched palm growing to a height of 15-30 m. it has a stout trunkraising from the swollen base which is known as bole. It is surrounded by a mass of fibrous. The stem is terminating into a radiating crown of leaves. Leaves are known as fronds. Palm is monoecious produces one inflorescence is enclosed in a strong tough double sheath called as spathe. Fruit is known as drupe, large in size, one seeded, round, ovoid I shape and the fruit has smooth thin green skin known as exocarp below which there is a thick fibrous hook known as mesocarp. Tall varieties live up to 80 . 100 years and dwarf varieties are live up to 40 . 60 years. Tall varieties begin flowering 5-7 years after planting and dwarf varieties . 3 years after planting

1. The botanical fruit type of coconut is
   1. Drupe
   2. Hesperidium
   3. Berry
   4. Capsule
2. Palm inflorescence are ____
   1. Monoecious
   2. Male
   3. Dioecious
   4. Female