eChapters

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term phenolic refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C6.C3)  and 2. Acetate/ malonate pathway.

Primary metabolism in a plant comprises all metabolic pathways that are essential to the plant’s survival. Primary metabolites, namely, carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are compounds that are directly involved in the growth and development of a plant whereas the secondary metabolites are compounds produced in other metabolic pathways that, although important, are not essential to the functioning of the plant. However, secondary plant metabolites are useful in the long term, often for defense purposes, and give plants characteristics such as color.
 
Secondary plant metabolites are used in signalling and regulation of primary metabolic pathways. Plant hormones, which are secondary metabolites, are often used to regulate the metabolic activity within cells. Secondary plant metabolites help the plant maintain an intricate balance with the environment, often adapting to match the environmental needs. Plant metabolites that color the plant are a good example of this, as the coloring of a plant can attract pollinators and also defend against attack by animals. Terpenes, alkaloids, sterols, pigments, growth regulators, and phenolics are the important secondary plant metabolites.

Amino acids serve as the building blocks of proteins and as precursors of many other important biomolecules such as hormones, purines, pyrimidines, porphyrins and some vitamins. They also serve as sources of energy when present in excess amounts and when they are used as fuel, amino acids undergo deamination reactions. The remaining carbon skeleton will either convert itself into glucose or undergoes oxidation to CO₂ via TCA cycle.

Central dogma: The Central dogma of molecular biology, which has been formulated as a simple linear progression of information from DNA to RNA to Protein, is summarized in the illustration. The replication process on the left consists of   passing  information from a parent DNA molecule to daughter molecules. The middle  transcription process copies this information to a mRNA molecule.  Finally, this information is used by the chemical machinery of the ribosome to make polypeptides.

Plants can synthesize all the 20 amino acids, which include essential and non-essential amino acids. They can be degraded by removal of the amino group and conversion of the remaining skeleton to useful metabolic intermediates which participate in the synthesis of glucose and other ketone bodies.
 
Biosynthesis of amino acids
 
The biosyntheses of amino acids have an important feature. Their carbon skeletons come from intermediates from glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway and citric acid cycle etc. The biosynthetic pathways depend on the intermediates from which they are derived. The primary amino group normally comes from the transamination of glutamate. Glutamine synthetase is a central control point in nitrogen metabolism, since glutamine is the amino group donor in the formation of many biosynthetic products as well as being a storage form of ammonia. Glutamate is the precursor of proline, ornithine, and arginine. Serine, cysteine, and glycine are derived from 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycine is synthesized from serine by removing CH2OH group. Tyrosine is synthesized from phenylalanine. Asparagine and glutamine are amides that are synthesized from aspartate and glutamate.

The importance of lipids have already been elaborated. They play a major role as source of energy and as components of membranes which have implications in plant growth regulation. The complete metabolism of fat leads to oxidation, the final products being CO₂ and water. The burning of one mole of palmitic acid gives 2340 kcal.  The molecular weight of palmitic acid is 256. This works out to approximately 9 kcal/g of palmitic acid. This energy is twice that derived from either sugars or proteins. Fats and oils are thus better and more efficient forms of storage of energy in living beings.

Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell is essentially the metabolism of glucose and other substances related to glucose in their metabolic processes. The chemical reactions involved in carbohydrate metabolism represents complex groups, sequences, and cycles of reactions which integrate at various points with the reactions concerned in the metabolism of lipids and proteins. The major types of chemical processes involved in carbohydrate metabolism may be grouped as follows: a) Anabolism of starch – Photosynthesis, b) Catabolism of starch, c) Catabolism of glucose – 1. Glycolysis and TCA cycle and 2. Oxidative pentose   phosphate pathway.
 
Plant cells “burn “ glucose for energy. Plants also produce sugars through photosynthesis. This is roughly the reverse of the burning process.

Plants are responsible for highly useful molecular reactions. All the enzymatic  reactions  that  occur in the cell are  termed  as metabolic reactions.  They  take place within organisms in an orderly and regulated way.  They  are  the  metabolic pathways and the compounds  resulting from the process, namely,  metabolism are called  the metabolites. Metabolism in Greek means change. It is the set of life sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to the environments around them.
 
Metabolism is a highly organized,   coordinated and purposeful enzymatic activity inside a cell. Metabolism has four functions: 1. To obtain energy from the environment, 2. To convert molecules into building blocks, 3. To convert the building blocks into proteins, lipids, sugars, nucleic acids and other cell components and 4. To synthesize and degrade organic molecules for specific needs of the cell.

Nucleic acids were first discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Meischer. Nucleic acids are high molecular weight polymers that are present in our cells. They  store and transfer genetic material from generation to generation. Knowledge of how genes are expressed and how they can be manipulated is becoming increasingly important for understanding   of nearly every aspect of biochemistry. These macromolecules pass on information for cellular growth and reproduction.  All the genetic information in the cells is called the genome. Every time a cell divides, the information is copied and passed on to the new cells.
 
Nucleic acids fall into two main classes according to the type of sugar they contain: the Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and Ribonucleic acids (RNA). Some sections  of  the  DNA  called  genes contain the information to make a protein. RNA translates the genetic information in the DNA to the ribosomes, where the synthesis of proteins takes place.

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms. They make possible biochemical reactions. Hence they are called biocatalysts. They are mostly a specialized class of proteins. However, there are some non-protein enzymes like ribozymes, which are RNAses. Enzymes speed up reactions at ambient temperatures. This is in contrast to chemical reactions like saponification of lipids which take place when lipids are boiled for a few hours with concentrated alkali.  Enzymes, namely, lipases, hydrolyze lipids at body temperatures in minutes. They are superior to chemical catalysts by a factor of 107 to 1014 .  An enzyme may be a simple protein or a complex protein. They are produced by cells and are mostly globular proteins. Each cell contains an estimated 3000 different enzymes.

The word protein was first coined in 1838 to emphasize the importance of this class of molecules. The word is derived from the Greek word proteios which means “of the first- rank”. Proteins are polymers/macro molecules made up of several amino acids. When there are more than 50 amino acids in a chain, the polypeptide is normally called a protein. Each protein in the cells of living beings has a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its biological function. The proteins are folded into specific defined structures, which are maintained by a large number of relatively weak bonds. The  three  dimensional structure is well defined and suited to it’s specific function.

Very small changes in the structure can modify the function. Hence, it is important to know the structure of proteins to understand their behavior and function. The biological activity of proteins depends on maintenance of folded conformation. Proteins fold into well defined three dimensional shapes and they are able to recognize their corresponding substrates or antigen molecules and bind them tightly. The protein structure has been classified into four different levels based on the folded conformation of the protein.

An amine reacts with a carboxylic acid to form an amide. Similarly, the amino group  on one amino acid molecule reacts with the carboxyl group of another amino acid  to form a compound called peptide. A peptide bond is an amide bond that forms when the –COO- group of one amino acid reacts with the -NH₃+ group of another amino acid. The resulting compounds are called peptides. Even after this there is a reactive amino group and a carboxyl group in the peptide. If these groups react further a poly peptide can form and later a polymer called protein can form.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They occur in all living plant cells as constituents of proteins and as free acids or amides. More than 200 naturally occurring amino acids have been identified in higher plants. Around 20 different amino acids have been observed to be incorporated into proteins. They have two functional groups, an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic group(-COOH). Both these groups are attached to the a carbon atom only. Amino acids with this structure are called a amino acids or 2-aminoacids. The unique characteristics of the 20 amino acids are due to the side chain (R), which can be an alkyl, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, sulphide, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.

Amino acids have the general formula, R-CH(NH₂)-COOH. The R represents a side chain. If R=H, the simplest amino acid glycine (NH₂ -CH₂ –COOH) results. Amino acids are alpha (a ) amino carboxylic acids. The carbon atom is tetrahedral in shape. The various groups attached to it are placed in different positions. Since the valence of the carbon atom is four, four groups can be attached to the carbon atom. Based on the groups attached to the carbon atom it may be of two types.

Lipids are non polar substances of biological origin that are sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, hexane, benzene etc. The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos meaning lard or fat. The lipids present in biological systems are either hydrophobic (non polar) or amphipathic (both polar and non polar). Lipids like fats, oils or glycerophospholipids can be hydrolyzed to get fatty acids and other products. Hydrophobic nature is useful in making lipids as membranes which act as effective barriers to more polar molecules. Steroids are also considered lipids, but cannot be hydrolysed and are components of non-saponifiables in fats. Waxes, which are esters of fatty acids with long chain alcohols are also considered as lipids.

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth. They occur in nature as glucose, starch and cellulose etc. Each year, photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide and water into starch, cellulose and other plant products. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives. They provide 4k calories energy per gram. They promote utilization of lipids and reduce wastage of proteins. They are readily available in roots, tubers, cereal grains, sugarcane and sugar beet.

Carbohydrates have the general formula C_n( H₂O)n, indicting that they are the hydrates of carbon. Some carbohydrates also contain nitrogen, phosphorous or sulfur. They are characterized by the number of carbon atoms they contain. If n=3, they are trioses, n=4 tetroses, n=5 pentoses, n=6 hexoses and n=7 heptoses. The most common sugars in plants are the hexoses. Two or more simple carbohydrates condense together to form polymer sugars like sucrose, starch and cellulose etc. The basic condensing bond is glycosidic bond.

All living organisms are basically made up of chemical components. The chemistry, composition and energy management of living organisms is what we call biochemistry. It tries to explain life processes at the molecular level. Although different organisms differ outwardly in their life processes, there are striking similarities in executing the different tasks. Genetic code, metabolic pathways, enzymes, coenzymes and even regulatory mechanisms are similar to a large extent in all the living organisms. Living organisms have certain extraordinary properties. They can grow, respond to stimuli and replicate themselves with high fidelity. All these activities are ultimately interpretable in chemical terms. The components that constitute organisms are all inanimate. The lifeless organic molecules with appropriate complexity and properties make a living being.

Biochemistry helps us understand how the inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintain life. The basic life processes or the biochemistry remains broadly the same in either the unicellular microorganism or the higher organisms such as the plants or the human beings. Life is nothing but thousands of ordered chemical reactions. In other words, chemistry is the logic of all biological phenomena.

14.1. INTRODUCTION

The climate of a place is the average weather that is experiences over a period of time. It is the natural phenomenon that has occurred throughout the history of the earth. Climate change is strongly associated with higher temperature, altered precipitation, and higher levels of atmospheric CO₂ and other greenhouse gases. It is a very slow process; it takes a long time to settle in. Climate change in IPCC (2007) usage refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activities. Over the last 150-200 years the changes to our climate are happening more quickly now than they have ever done before in the geological past. Human activities have altered natural climatic processes at a geographically rapid pace by booting atmospheric concentrations of several greenhouse gasses. Following are the changes taken place over years of industrial age (IPCC, 2007):

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Photosynthetically active radiation is a primary energy resource for terrestrial plants, necessary for the plant growth. Plants receives this photosynthetically active radiation from sunlight as a consequence, plants are also exposed to the ultraviolet (UV)-radiation. Seven percent of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is the UV range (200-400 nm). Though representing only a small portion of the total solar electromagnetic spectrum, UV-B has a disproportionately large photobiological effect. As it passes through the atmosphere, the flux transmitted is greatly reduced, and the composition of the UV-radiation is modified. This UV-radiation is mainly divided into three classes, namely UV-A, UV-B and UV-C. The UV-A region of the spectrum (wavelengths from 320 to 400 nm) are not attenuated by ozone, so their influence will be unaffected by ozone layer reduction. This portion of the UV radiation is less damaging and important for photomorphogenic signal in plant development (Bjorn, 1994). The wavelength of UV-B portion ranges from 280 to 320 nm. This region of UV is very energetic and effectively absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Thus, only a very small portion, approximately 4% is transmitted to the earths. Shortwave UV-C radiation (200-280 nm) is highly energetic and strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Thus, none of this sterilizing radiation is present in terrestrial sunlight.

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Air is polluted when it contains enough unhealthy particles and gases to harm human beings, animals, plants and even objects such as building and statues. Air pollutant may present as solid, liquid or gas form. Industrial revaluation in the 19th and 20th centuries leads faster increase in concentration of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The most important air pollutants that damage the plants’ growth and development, subsequently the economic yields of crop plants are ozone (O₃), nitrous oxides (NO₂ and NO), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH₄), peroxiacetyl nitrate (PAN), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen fluorides (HF), particulate matters (cement dust, magnesium-lime dust, carbon shoot etc.), smoke etc. Burning of hydrocarbons in motor vehicle engines gives rise to CO₂, CO, SO₂, and NO in varying proportions and ethylene (C₂H₄) as well as other hydrocarbons. Industrial plants release SO₂, H₂S, NO₂ and HF into atmosphere. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is another potentially injurious molecule, can form by the reaction between O₃ and naturally release volatiles (terpenes) from forest trees.

11.1. BORON TOXICITY
11.1.1. Introduction

Boron (B) is essential micro-nutrient. It is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, calcium uptake and carbohydrate synthesis and transportation. B affects many functions in plants, which includes flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cellular activities (division, differentiation, maturation, respiration etc.), water relationships and the movement of hormones. It is not translocated and leached easily from soils.

10.1. CADMIUM
10.1.1. Introduction

Cadmium (Cd) is a strongly phytotoxic heavy metal in an increasing environmental problem worldwide. It is one of the most dangerous metal due to its high mobility and the small concentration at which its effects on the plants being to appear. It is released into the environment by the power stations, heating systems, metal-working industries or urban traffic. It is recognized as an extremely significant pollutant due to its high toxicity and large solubility in water (Pinto et al., 2004). Soil solutions which have a Cd concentration ranging from 0.32 to 1.00 mM can be regarded as polluted to a moderate level (Sanita di Toppi and Garbrielli, 1999).

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Iron (Fe) is important component of a plant’s energy-power house chlorophyll. It also interacts with all the major enzymes and proteins at higher concentration in the soil, and it is toxic to plants. Fe-toxicity creates a range of nutrient disorders and deficiencies of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Zn in plants. These elements were reported to play decisive roles in manifesting toxicity symptoms in rice (Sahu, 1968; Ottow et al., 1983; Yamauchi, 1989; Sahrawat et al., 1996). Excess absorption and translocation of Fe in the rice plants led to toxicity, which has been a major limiting factor in wetland rice. Average yield loss due to Fe-toxicity accounts to 50% and in fact ranges from 10-100% (Brigit et al., 1993).

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Aluminium (Al) is not considered as essential nutrient, but at low concentrations it may increase plant growth or induce other desirable effects (Bollard and Butler, 1966; Foy, 1988; Huang et al., 1992a, b; Roy and Mandal, 2005). Al affects about 40-70% of the world arable land, which has the potential for food crops biomass production (Haug and Caldwell, 1985). Acid soils constitute about 3.95 billion hectares globally. About 38% of those are present in Tropical Asia (Datta, 2002). It is believed to cover more than 800 million hectares of forest and tropical Savana ecosystems of tropical America (Jaffe and Rojar, 1994; Prakash 2000). Nearly 75% of Amazon Basin contains acid and infertile soil classified as oxisols and utisols. About 383 million hectares (79%) of the Amazon area, suffers from Al toxicity. Acid soil occurs extensively in the some of the Mediterranean countries and Southern Australia. Low laying acid sulfate of Bay Islands in India chronically suffer from Al-toxicity (Chowdhury et al., 2001).

7.1. INTRODUCTION

Abiotic stress is a major limiting factor in crop productivity. Several stresses, such as high temperature, high light intensity, osmotic stress, heavy metals, and several herbicides and toxin lead to over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing extensive cellular damage and inhibition of photosynthesis (Allen, 1997). ROS is produced in both unstressed and stressed cells. Plants have well developed mechanisms against ROS, involving both limiting the formation of ROS as well as instituting its removal. Under unstressed conditions, the formation and removal of O₂ are balance. Introduction of molecular oxygen (O₂) into atmosphere by O₂- evolving photosynthetic organisms, ROS has been the unwelcome companion of anaerobic metabolism. In contrast to O₂, these partially reduced or activated derivatives of oxygen (O₂¹, O2-, H₂O₂, and HO) are highly reactive and toxic and can lead to the oxidative destruction in tissues during stress.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Low temperature is one of the major environmental factors that limit the plant growth. Many plants of tropical origin suffer cold damage when exposed to temperature below 20ºC (Graham and Patterson, 1982, Andrews, 1987). Cold temperature in crop plants are compounded by cold snap– a lower than usual drop in temperature that causes the crop to fail. Low temperature in growing season may reduce germination, retard vegetative growth by inducing metabolic imbalances and can delay or prevent productive development. Each plant species has an optimum range of temperature for its normal growth and development. It varies among the genotypes within a species, the specific temperature also depends on the growth stage and development of the particular genotype.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Temperature is the one of the most important environmental element influencing the plant growth and development limiting the productivity and adaptation of crops, especially when it coincides with critical ranges (Chen et al., 1982; Paulsen, 1994). Nearly all commercial crops in the arid and semi-arid tropics often suffer from heat stress. Every plant has an optimal temperature for its normal growth, deviation from this may cause stress to plants. The adverse effects on plant of temperatures higher than the optimal considered as heat stress. Crops are exposed to periods of heat stress during their life-cycle. The optimum temperature for the most species ranges from 25 to 35 0C. Above this value, a decline in the photosynthesis rate is observed (Berry and Bjorkman, 1980; Pimentel, 1998). Even brief periods of heat-shock between temperature ranges of 45-50 0C induce marked change in plant growth processes.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Water stress is the single most severe limitation to the productivity of rice in the rainfed ecosystem (Widawsky and O’Toole, 1990). Drought has been defined as the inadequacy of water availability, including precipitation and soil moisture storage capacity, in quantity and distribution during the life cycle of the crop to restrict expression of its full genetic yield potential. Drought is actually a meteorological event which implies the absence of rainfall for a period of time, long enough to cause moisture-depletion in soil and water deficit with a decrease of water potential in plant tissues. Under drought conditions, water stress develops in the plants as the demand exceeds supply of water; this may occur either/or both due to atmospheric or soil conditions, and is reflected in a gradient of water potentials developed between the soil or soil-root interface and leaf, the transpiring organ. Moisture stress is likely to develop to a different rate in different plant organs along with the gradient. Drought like many other environmental stresses has adverse effects on plant growth and yield.

3.1. INTRODUCTION 

Transitory waterlogging occurs extensively in both irrigated and dry land agriculture on clay flats and duplex soils. Most of the humid tropical lowlands, with adequate, rain-fed but poor drainage, have the problems of waterlogging, which is further intensified by low water table and poor root aeration. In submerged condition, only root is exposed to excess water and the injury to the shoot is not a primary effect.

The term ‘waterlogging’ is defined as a condition of the soil where excess water inhibits gas exchange of roots with the atmosphere. Waterlogging is different from ‘flooding’ because the latter results in addition factors of partial or complete submergence of the shoot. The waterlogging replaces a gaseous air by liquid water, leading to the gas stresses. Schematic representation of adverse effects of waterlogging on plant growth and survival has been given in Fig. 3.1.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Salt stress has become an ever increasing threat to food production. It is a major factor limiting the crop productivity in the arid and semi-arid areas of the world (Ashraf, 1994; Foolad and Jones, 1992) and it affects about 10% of the total global land area (Richards, 1995). Increased salinization of arable lands is expected to have devastating global effects, resulting in 30% land losses within the next 25 years and up to 50% by the year 2050 (Wang et al., 2003).

Soluble salts can cause harm to plant, if they are in high concentration in water or soils and it limit crop cultivation world wide. Generally an array of stresses interplay in saline soils and reduces productivity of salt sensitive crops. In India, about 12 mha of land has been affected with salinity and alkalinity (Yadav and Gupta, 1984); an area of nearly 4 mha of land suitable for rice affected with salinity (Paul and Ghosh, 1986). The optimum salt concentration for the growth of halophytes is found to be about 0.5 M NaCl (Flower and Yeo, 1981). Most of the crop plants are salt sensitive glycophytes.

Abiotic stresses are major constraints for many crop plants in specific areas over the globe which limits the crop production. Dudal (1976) estimated that only 10% of world’s arable land may be categorized as free from stress. The rapid change in environmental conditions likely to override the adaptive potential of plants, this environmental changes mainly originated from anthropogenic activities, which has caused soil and air pollution, plant are exposed to natural climatic or edaphic stresses, such as, high irradiation, heat, chilling, freezing, drought, excess water and waterlogging and nutrient imbalance. Among abiotic stresses drought is the main abiotic factor as it affects 26% of arable area (Table 1.1). Water stress is a single most severe, limitation to the productivity of rice in the rainfed ecosystem (Widawgky and O’Toole, 1990). Mineral toxicity/deficiencies are second in importance. Among mineral toxicity, salinity is wide spread and is estimated to affect 10% of the world land surface (Richards, 1995).

Abstract

Role of women in agriculture is a well-known fact and is unquestionable. The changing trend in agriculture technology, use of modern tools, and wider participation of community is crucial in making farming activity as an attractive field of employment. While most of the young and male population is shifting to urban areas for wage based non-agriculture activity, women have to bear the burden of agriculture in villages. The drudgery faced by women in farm activiies need to be reduced and value addition to the farm products is required at home  scale/community scale in the villages. Newer and economically viable systems need to be introduced at village level with ample scope for women to participate in these activities. Women should not only be partners in agriculture but they also should take lead in entrepreneurship and in value addition. Further marketing systems for the products need to be established. 

Abstract

The total Indian population is 1027.01 millions of which women account for 495.73 millions (2001 census). Women constitute about 48.27 percent of the population. The labour force participation of the women is 51.6 percent. In rural India, agricultural and allied activities employ as much as 89.5 percent of the female labour. Women have an active role and extensive involvement in livestock production, forest resource use and fishery processing. They contribute considerably to household income through farm and non-farm activities as well as through landless agricultural labours. They are deprived of exposure to knowledge and hardly participate in the process of decision-making. Female agricultural labourers are the poorest section of Indian society. Despite the women’s role in agriculture there has been a lack of adequate attention towards gender issue in the area of agriculture research.

Abstract

Women of sixteen villages in Bhadra wildlife sanctuary were interviewed for assessing the role of women on forest policies and conservation of natural resources. Survey conducted during 1996-1997 indicated that women in general declined to comment upon natural resources. Ninety percent of women had no knowledge about natural resources. Except for Fire Protection Act women had no knowledge of other government policies. They had no say in policies and conservation of natural resources in Bhadra wildlife sanctuary. As a result there has been encroachment of forest area, cultivation in forest land, shifting cultivation, hunting, smuggling, open cast mining and deforestation. To make role of women active and effective for conservation of natural resources in Bhadra wildlife sanctuary, suggestions have been advanced in this paper based on a survey.

Abstract

Sericulture, an agro-based industry contributes significantly to Indian economy.  Silk cocoons are reeled on charaka, cottage and multiend reeling machines. Of these more than 50% of raw silk comes from charaka sector. Charaka silk reeling units decreased from 23971 to 16263 (1998-2003) in Karnataka. These charakas are mostly operated at grass root level with labour coming from small, marginal and land less villagers. A study was conducted in 15 charaka reeling units in two taluks each of Bangalore rural, Mysore, Kolar and Chamarajanagar districts. Respondents were grouped into small (1-4 charakas), medium (5-8) and large charaka reelers (>8). Primary data was collected with pre-tested schedules.

Abstract

The present study aims to assess postural and muscular stress among farm women performing weeding and winnowing operations. Postural stress was assessed through postural deviation in spinal curvature, energy expenditure, physical cost of work, cardiac cost of work, pain in different body parts and muscular stress was assessed by percentage decrease in grip strength. Postural deviations were recorded with the help of flexi curve. Heart rate was calculated in 3 phases: before, during and after the work. Energy expenditure, physical cost of work, cardiac cost of work was also calculated. Grip strength of both hands was calculated by grip dynamometer. The mean value of ergonomic parameters were found more in weeding operation which were as follows : -Postural deviation (250), Average heart rate (5.35), energy expenditure (5.70), physical cost of work (3.05), total cardiac cost of work (35.82). After weeding operation farm women perceived very severe pain in lower back, buttocks, and palms, while after winnowing they experienced very severe pain in shoulder, upper back and upper arms.

Abstract

The present paper examines the effect of fodder cutting and uprooting activity on the cardiovascular system of farm women. The research design comprised of field study conducted on 30 farm women. The activity of cutting and uprooting were studied with the traditional tools as well as with the improved tools. Newly designed and developed slashing knife and uprooter were provided to the respondents for performing the activity of cutting and uprooting. The results revealed significant reduction in average working heart rate (2.08** - cutting and 4.99** - uprooting; Significant at 5% level) and peak heart rate (-3.55**- cutting and 1.70**- uprooting; Significant at 5% level).  It was found that there was significant reduction in muscular stress after use of improved tools over the existing tools.

Abstract

Farm women are the backbone of Indian agriculture. They contribute more to food production and family income in terms of skilled and entrepreneurship than is generally known or accepted. Thus the governmental efforts to reach the development goals may be jeopardised by not taking into account the women’s contribution to agriculture. In this age of scientific development farm women have not participated to the extent they are expected in agriculture because they are not recognized as tangible contributors to agricultural development. They always remained as invisible workers in spite of their pivotal role and remain silently behind all the efforts of men. Very few scientific and empirical investigations have been made to examine the actual participation of farm women in crop production and dairy production activities. Taking the above situation into consideration, four minuscule studies were conducted in Bangalore, Mysore, Mandya and Chamarajanagar districts of Karnataka to know the level, extent and nature of participation of women in home, farm and livestock production activities.

Abstract

The food security scenario in South Asia has witnessed rapid progress over the last few decades, yet nutrition outcomes, especially those related to women and children, have failed to keep pace. This paper contends that the role of women in providing food and nutrition security at the household and individual level needs to be examined, if the paradox of persisting malnutrition amid macro level food sufficiency is to be resolved. Food security, in its broader connotation, results from the availability of adequate food, effective consumption, and desirable nutrition outcomes. As such, it is intricately linked with a woman’s multiple roles expressed in her productive, reproductive, and caring functions. However, even focused efforts aimed at resolving the problems faced by women in performing one or other of their roles, may fail to produce expected results, if the issues underlying each function and their inter-linkages are not fully understood. The paper thus attempts to review various aspects of the relationship between women and food security in South Asia, highlights the issues that require urgent focus and indicates emerging concerns in the region.

Abstract

Self Help Group (SHG) has emerged as a new paradigm for combating poverty and self help promotion has become one of the major developmental strategy in the country today. The self help groups are motivated to take up suitable micro entrepreneurship for income generation either individually or in groups, which is dependent on the resource availability and their skills. The empowered SHG women have started different small enterprises such as papad making, malt preparation, different value added products, and other agro based industries which has increased their income. In recent years agro processing and value addition to the farm produce have attained great socio economic significance. A massive thrust to food processing and other agro based industries will add value to the product there by increasing the income of farmers, create employment opportunities, diversify rural economy and foster rural industrialization.

Abstract

The known views in society about the biotech foods were collected and structured in statements. An opinion survey of sixty scientists of CCS Haryana Agricultural University on these statements was conducted. Half of the scientists agreed that there were no biotech food products in our country. Biotech foods were considered safe for human consumption by 61.7% of the respondents. A large majority of the scientists considered that biotech foods were different in taste from foods made from conventional crops. Similarly 65% of scientists had the opinion that biotech crops increase food allergies. Fifty percent of the scientists agreed that biotech foods were regulated and tested. The rest opined that labeling is needed for biotech foods even in USA. Overwhelming majority felt that biotech foods were not widely accepted. Meat, milk and egg products from biotech animals were not concieved as unsafe to eat by 43.3% respondents. Equal number of scientists felt the same about foods produced through biotechnology and viewed that these were not tested for health.

Abstract

A survey was conducted in five different villages of Kangra district (HP) namely Padhiarkhar, Lachoon, Avery, Saliana and Patti. Thirty families from each village were selected. A sample of 650 subjects of different age groups was surveyed to assess their food and nutrient intake. It was observed that the food and nutrient intake was less as compared with the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA). To meet the RDA of the vulnerable section of the society some of the energy rich recipes were prepared under All India Coordinated Research Project in Home Science. The recipes prepared were weaning mix (salty), Weaning mix (sweet), Papad, Shakerpare, Mathri, Pinni, Amaranth ladoo, Methi ladoo and Panjiri. These products were organoleplically acceptable. No fat content was found in the papad but it contained good amount of the vitamin C i.e. 70mg/100g. Maximum fat content was found in the panjiri (39.3g/100g). Protein content ranged between 0.78-5.64g/100g, minimum in panjiri and maximum in weaning mix (salty).

Abstract

Women constitute almost half of the population of modern India. Eighty percent of the women population in India live in the rural areas and most of them are engaged in agriculture and allied activities and play a significant role in domestic and socio economic life of the society. Women play a vital role in ensuring proper development and growth of children. They also contribute significantly towards income generation, food preparation and health of the family members. However it is this women segment which is most neglected and suffers from poor health. Health and Nutritional status of this important and substantial segment of the society is very important. The present study investigates the nutritional profile and morbidity status of women in villages around Bangalore city.

Abstract

Women play a pivotal role in agriculture, in addition to the traditional role of nourishing progeny as mother and attending to the day to day needs of the home as housewife. Women also add to the family income as wage earners. While comprising half of humanity, contributing to two thirds of the world’s work hours, a woman earns only one third of the total income and owns less than one tenth of the world’s resources.  In a country like India which is the home  for over 400 million women, the economic status of women is in pathetic condition and they have always been discriminated against men in human resource development with  utter disregard to their actual and potential contribution to the national progress in general and agricultural progress in particular. The largest sector of India’s economy, agriculture, contributes to 37 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) and accounts for 60 percent of the employment.

Abstract

The participation level of farm women in economic activities of self-help groups to know the socio-economic factors contributing to their participation in such groups and the constraints faced by them was studied during 2004-05 at Kadur taluk of Chikkamagalore district of Karnataka. Apart from these findings on the factors affecting their involvement in SHGs and the problems faced by them, the study also revealed that majority of farm women had medium level of family income, mass media participation and, low level of communication status.

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to analyse factors contributing to participation of rural women in Self Help Groups (SHGs), constraints faced by them and to elicit their opinion to strengthen the role of SHGs. The finding has revealed that, majority of the respondents has suggested that they should be provided with loans and the rate of interest on loans should be less.  Further, they also suggested that instead of existing loan structure from the bank and saving amount within the group must be increased which can be invested on other activities. It was also reasoned that the provision of low interest loan from the banks and purchase of raw materials at cheaper rate can improve the financial status of farm women.

Abstract

In India, women’s economic productivity is rather critical to 60 million households whose family members live below the poverty line. Therefore, the empowerment of poor women is vital for bringing down rural poverty.  The operation of the DWCRA project during the VIII plan of government of India (GOI) had inadequate impact and therefore, failed in organizing cohesion within and among the groups to identify the activities that could generate sustained income.  Considering the importance of women and lacunae in the Rural development programmes, Swarnajayanti Grama Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was evolved and was launched on 1st April, 1999. With this, the erstwhile programmes viz. IRDP, DWCRA, TRYSEM, SITRA, GKY and MWs ceased operation.  SGSY aims at establishing a large number of micro enterprises in the rural areas. The ‘beneficiary’ families (known as Swarozgaris) may be individuals or groups (Self Help Groups).

Abstract

The study was conducted in Tumkur district which is considered as a very progressive district with 7230 SHG’s. It has 11 taluks out of which Tumkur taluk was selected for the study. Within this taluk, a cluster of 7 SHG’s were considered for the study. The results show that more than three fourths of Stree Shakthi group members came to know about the Stree Shakthi Programme through anganawadi workers (92.5%) followed by news papers (7.5%). It is also interesting to note that 87.5% reported that to a great extent their attitude changed about bringing up their children without discrimination, sending their daughter to school compulsorily and growing vegetables in their backyard. Further results reveal that SSP is changing the attitude of rural setting. Family problems, cast and religion, lack of encouragement in the family, political problem were the major constraints in SHG as perceived by the members.  Still SSG has made some qualitative changes in the lives of the rural people.

Abstract

The green revolution concentrated only on a single enterprise, the crop.  Later on, developments in other enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, etc took place, however in an isolated manner.  Now it is essential to diversify the economic activities in an interdependent and integrated manner at micro level within the available resources. The system thus developed will be termed as integrated farming system approach.  This helps in generating sustained, stable farm income and higher employment. To achieve these objectives, several extension programmers were designed and conducted in integrated farming system demonstration undertaken by the Extension Education Unit of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in close association with other subject matter specialists. The programmes were implemented in selected taluks of Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka. One such case study is presented here.

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

Abstract

Rural woman plays dominant role in dairy husbandry activities. Capacity building of rural women in this enterprise is the need of the hour to sustain 4% growth rate in dairy sector as the future demand for dairy products is bound to increase.  Specific objectives of the study are to understand the socio-economic and dairy husbandry scenario of households; knowledge level about different aspects of dairy husbandry; impact of training on knowledge and; policy implications for their capacity building for this enterprise in the state of Haryana. The data towards this end was collected from a survey conducted on 180 women trainees where pre and post models were used. The background socio-economic variables of women trainees were: 26-45 years age group, literacy of 76.12% and the main occupation was agriculture and household management. Milch buffalo (84.45%) was the main dairy animal. Milk production of more than 5 litres was found in 55.54 percent households and selling of milk more than this quantity was seen in 14.14 percent households. About 60 percent of woman trainees themselves looked after the animals. Pre-training knowledge reveals that majority of women knew the right milking method (70.6%) and breed of buffalo (62.2%).

INTRODUCTION

Women constitute half of the humanity, contributing to two-thirds of world’s work hours. She earns only one-third of the total income and owns less than one-tenth of the world’s resources. This shows that the economic status of women is in a pathetic condition and this is more so in a country like India. Rural women in India share abundant responsibility and perform a wide spectrum of duties in running the family, maintaining the house, involving in activities like rearing, feeding livestock, attending to farm labour, and the likes. Still they suffer economically and are socially invisible. Training of rural women is important so as to increase their involvement in developmental process, enhance their skill and make them equal partners in national development.