eChapters

A pesticides residue is any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance.

Pesticide residue analysis (PRA) may be defined as the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the representative samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which components to be separated is distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while other moves in a definite direction. By separating the sample into individual components, it is easier to identify (qualitative) and measure the amount (quantitative) of the various sample components. There are numerous chromatographic techniques and corresponding instruments.

Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) is the most widely used analytical technique for estimation of volatile and thermo stable type of pesticides with speed, accuracy, reproducibility and sensitivity.

Although Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) is widely used technique for pesticide residue analysis, it has some limitations. It can analyze of volatile and thermo stable type of pesticides only because it operate at high temperature. These problems have overcome in HPLC. Although HPLC can analyze both polar as well as non-polar type of compounds but it has less sensitivity than GLC.

Principle

Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

For the determination carbamates, the extract is subjected to C-18 solid phase cartridge clean up.

Principle: Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors FPD-P/NPD without cleanup. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Introduction

It is necessary to ascertain the quality of irrigation water so as to gauge the possible effects of this water on the soil. The irrigation water often results in water logging, salinity and alkalinity problems. It is therefore very important to know its quality. Following are the basic criteria or characteristics on which irrigation water quality is judged.

1. Presence of total soluble salts in irrigation water.
2. Proportion of carbonates and bicarbonates in relation to calcium and magnesium in irrigation water.
3. Proportion of sodium in relation to other cations in irrigation water.
4. Concentration of specific ions in irrigation water.

Several parameters are employed to judge the quality of irrigation waters No parameter in complete in judging the quality of irrigation water. Further the quality of water should be judged by considering the crop and soil factors. Any judgment without considering the above factors may not be useful. Researchers devised many parameters by following above said criteria. Some of the commonly adopted parameters used to judge the quality of irrigation water are:

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

Factors for deterring the Fertilizer Schedule are two factor

Soil Supplying Power: Growing different crops during different seasons alters the soil nutrient status, estimated by soil analysis at the beginning of the season. The soil supplying power increases with legume in rotation, fertilizer application and addition of crop residues. The available nitrogen and potassium in soil after groundnut are higher to initial status of the soil. But after pearl millet, only potassium status in the soil is improved and no changes in P.

Nutrient Uptake by Crops: The total amount of nutrients taken by the crops in one sequence gives an indication of the fertilizer requirement of the system. The balance is obtained by subtracting the fertilizer applied to crops that nutrient taken by the crops.

Residual Effect of Fertilizers: The extent of residues left over in the soil depends on the type of fertilizer used. Phosphatic fertilizer and FYM have considerable residue in the soil, which is useful for subsequent crops. The residues left by potassium fertilizers are marginal. Legumes add nitrogen to the soil in the range of 15 to 20 kg/ha. The amount of nitrogen added depends on the purpose. Green gram grown for grain, contributes 24 and 30 kg N respectively to the succeeding crop. Inclusion of leguminous green manures in the system add 40 kg to 120 kg N/ha. The availability of phosphorous is also increased by incorporation of green manure crops.

1. Botanical Name : Aesculus indica Colebr

2. Family : Sapindaceae

3. Common Name : Himalayan horse chestnut

4. Name in Indian languages: Khanor, Bankhor, Tatwakhar (Himachali), Bankhor, Kanor, (Hindi), Kakra, Hanudun (Kashmir), Kanur, Gun, Khanor (Punjabi). Pangar (Kumoani), Ghode Pangro(Nepali).

5. Description

Aesculus indica or Himalayan horse chestnut, is a spectacular tree with pinkish white blossoms. It is found growing in the Himalayan forests between 2,000 and 3,000 metres msl. It is an attractive tree, bearing beautiful, multi coloured blossoms during May and June. The leaves are also ornamental and form a beautiful canopy. The tree, therefore, is becoming popular as an avenue tree. The tree yield s which are eaten by the people.

1. Botanical Name : Alangium salviifolium(L.F.) Wangerin

2. Family : Cornaceae

3. Common Name : Sage-leaved alangium

4. Name in Indian languages: Akola or Ankol (Hindi), Gandhapushpa (Sanskrit), Ankol (Marathi), Ankol (Gujarati), Ankod (Bengali), Ankolam (Malayalam), Ankola (Kannada), Alanji (Tamil).

5. Description

Sage-leaved alangium (Alangium salvifolium) is a small, bushy tree with a medium dense canopy. It has several medicinal properties. The roots, bark, fruit seeds and oils are used for treatments. The useful in stomach related disorders. The plants are short to medium in height. The trunks are short with sparse thorns.

1. Botanical name : Antidesma acidum Ritz.

2. Family : Phyllanthaceae

3. Common Name : Antidesma

4. Name in Indian languages : Amati (Marathi), Himalcherry (Hindi), Kareekome (Kannada), Airyoporiyan (Malayalam), Aanepooi (Telugu), Nolaidali (Tamil).

5. Description

Antidesma acidum is a shrub or a tree growing up to 10 metres tall. The bole, which usually branches from near the base, can be 10cm in diameter. It is found in dry deciduous, deciduous and evergreen forest at forest edges or in open spaces and bamboo thickets; or half-shady habitats associated with dipterocarps, pine, oak. It is often disturbed, much degraded or frequently burnt vegetation.

1. Botanical Name : Artocarpus hirsutus L.

2. Family : Moraceae

3. Common Name: Wild jackfruit

4. Name in Indian languages : Hebbalasu (Kannada), Anjili (Malayalam), Aiyinipila (Tamil).

5. Description

Artocarpus hirsutus is a tropical evergreen tree species. It prefers moist, deciduous to partially evergreen woodlands. It grows in altitudes ranging from sea level to an elevation of 1000 m. The height of tree can reach up to 35 m and about 4.5 m in girth. The main stem is straight and cylindrical. It is used as shade tree in coffee plantations. The seeds (with 17% oil) are eaten or used medicinally. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 32°C. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,500 - 3,500 mm. Older plants succeed in full sun or moderate shade, but younger trees require reasonable levels of shade. It is fast growing species with deep tap root.

1. Botanical Name: Artocarpus lacucha Buch- Ham.

2. Family: Moraceae

3. Common Name: Monkey Jack, Lakoocha

4. Name in Indian languages

Lakuch, Lakooch, Lakoochi, Barhal, Dahu, Dahua (Hindi), Badhar, Kshudraphanas (Marathi), Ilagusam, Irappala, Solaippakku, Tinippalavu (Tamil), Chimpa, Lakucham, Pulinjakka (Malayalam), Esuluhuli, Lakucha, Otehuli, Vatehuli (Kannada), Dephal, Dahu (Bengali), Lakoocha (Oriya), Dridhavalkala, Granthimatphala (Sanskrit), Badhar (Nepali).

1. Botanical Name : Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.

2. Family : Phyllanthaceae

3. Common Name : Burmese Grape

4. Name in Indian languages

Sohramdieng (Khasi) and Sohmyndong (Pnar), Khatta phal (Hindi), Moktok (Manipuri), Bhubi, Iphek (Tripura)

1. Botanical name : Baccaurea courtalensis (Wt.) Muell.

2. Family : Euphorbiaceae

3. Common Name : Burmese grape, Mootapalam

4. Name in Indian languages : Mootilpazham, Mootilthoori, Mootippuli (Malayalam), Kolikuki (Kannada).

5. Description

Baccaurea courtalensis is a trees of tropical evergreen forests of the southern Western Ghats. It is an endangered tree. The tree bears tiny crimson flowers on long stalks growing on the trunk of the tree (cauliflory). These stalks are arranged in clusters on the trunk. When in bloom the whole trunk appears red and is a beautiful sight. Fruits hang in clusters from the trunk of the tree. A tall tree produces cauliflory inflorescence. The flowers are unisexual, dioecious, male inflorescence in clustered racemes on short tubercles all over the trunk, red, female inflorescence in clustered racemes, mostly confined to base of the trunk, hence its named Mootapalam.

1. Botanical Name : Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.)

2. Family : Zygophyllaceae

3. Common Name : Desert Date, soap berry tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Hingot (Hindi), Ingala, Ingalarade, Ingalare (Kannada), Namunta, Nanchunta (Malayalam), Hingalbet, Hingam (Marathi), Tapasadruma, Angaravrksa (Sanskrit), Nanchundan, Nancuntan (Tamil), Gara, Gara-Chettu(Telugu).

1. Botanical name : Berberis aristata DC

2. Family : Berberidaceae

3. Common Name : Indian barberry

4. Name in Indian languages

Darhaldi (Bengali), Kilmora (Kumaoni), Daru-haldi (Hindi), Maradarisina, Maramanjal (Malyalam), Daruhald (Marathi), Chitra, Chutro (Nepali), Mullukala, Usikkala (Tamil), Daruharidra (Sanskrit).

1. Botanical Name : Borassus flabellifer L

2. Family : Palmae (araeceae)

3. Common Name : Mukkana, Palmyra Palm, toddy palm

4. Name in Indian languages

Taad, Tal, Trinaraaj (Hindi), Taad (Marathi), Talam (Tamil), Karimpana (Malayalam), Tatichettu (Telugu), Olegari, Taalegari, Taatinimgu (Kannada), Taala (Bengali), Sanskrit: Taalah

1. Botanical name: Buchanania lanzan spreng.

2. Family: Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name: Cuddapah almond , Chironji

4. Name in Indian languages: Chironji (Hindi), Piyal (Assami), Chironji (Bengali), Kole Maavu (Kannada), Charam (Tamil), Mungapera (Malayalam).

5. Description

It is an excellent fruit tree for agro forestry and social forestry. This species is found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests . The flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and the oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of puddings. Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children. Very good juice may be prepared from the pulp of chironji fruits.

1. Botanical name : Calligonum polygonoides L.

2. Family : Polygonaceae

3. Common Name : Phog

4. Name in Indian languages: Phog (Hindi), Phog(Punjabi), Balanja, Berwaja (Afghanistan).

5. Description

Phog (Calligonum polygonoides L.) is a under-utilized shrub, dominantly found in arid and semi-arid region of Thar Desert. It is a typical sand dune plant, found in whole of arid zone. It is a slow growing, branching shrub. It has a massive network of underground root which works as effective ‘sand binder’ and thus preventing erosion and stabilizing sand dunes. It grows well in absence of any type of vegetation and dominant biomass producer of the sandy areas of the desert. It is very hardy and being capable of growing under adverse conditions of soil and moisture. It is frost hardy. It is becoming increasingly rare due to the demand for its roots, overgrazing and sand mining.

1. Botanical name : Canthium parviflora Lamk syn

2. Family : Rubiaceae

3. Common Name : Wild jessamine, Carray cheddie

4. Name in Indian languages

Kare pan (Kodwa), Karemull (Kannada), Kayil (Konkani), Madhakara, (Malayalam), Kirma (Marathi), Tutidi (Oriya), Sinnabalusu, (Telugu), Mullukaara (Tamil), Nagabala (Sanskrit).

1. Botanical Name :Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

2. Family : Capparaceae

3. Common Name : Caper berry, Bare Caper, Kair

4. Name in Indian languages

Dela (Delhi and Punjab), Karir, Karil (Uttar Pradesh), Kair (Hindi), Nepati (Marathi), Sirakkali (Tamil), Karimullu (Malayalam), Kariramu (Telugu), Chippuri (Kannada), Khirar(Urdu), Kera (Gujarati).

1. Botanical Name : Careya arborea Roxb.

2. Family : Lecythidaceae

3. Common Name : Wild Guava, Ceylon Oak

4. Name in Indian languages

Kumbhi (Hindi), Kumbha (Marathi), Aima (Tamil), Peelam, Pela (Malayalam), Araya, Buddaburija (Telugu), Alagavvele, Daddal (Kannada), Kumbhi (Bengali), Kumbh(Oriya), Godhajam, Kumbhi (Assamese), Girikarrnika (Sanskrit).

1. Botanical name : Carissa spinarum L.

2. Family : Apocynaceae

3. Common Name : Wild Karonda

4. Name in Indian languages

Jungli Karonda, Karunda (Hindi), Karamacha (Bengali), Karmarda (Gujarati), Karmanji, Kavali (Karnataka), Karavada, Karanda, Karwant (Marathi), Vaka, Kalivi, Kavali Kalli (Telugu), Chirukila, Karvand, Kalakkay, Kalachedi (Tamilnadu), Karamdika (Oriya), Karamarda, Avighna (Sanskrit).

Soil texture refers to the relative distribution of sand, silt and clay on a sample of <2 mm size. It is an intrinsic soil property and basically refers to the particle size distribution in a soil. A number of physical characteristics and chemical properties of a soil are influenced by texture or particle size distribution. To estimate the content of sand, silt and clay particles, the soil samples are first brought into a dispersed state by mechanical and chemical treatments so that different binding agents are removed. In the dispersed soil samples, the soil particles settle down at a differential settling rate according to their size. In laboratory, the common methods for analysis for particle size distribution are : Buyoucos hydrometer method and International pipette method. In this chapter, the procedure of Buyoucos hydrometer method is described.

Principle

This method is based on the principle of variable rate of settling of particles as per their size and as described by Stokes’Law. Large particles shall settle fast. The measurement of density of the suspension is done at different times using a hydrometer (ASTM 152H-Type hydrometer is preferred). The measurement in this hydrometer is based on a standard temperature of 20 _oC and a particle density of 2.65 Mg m_-3 and the units are expressed in grams of soil per liter.The principal source of error in this procedure is the incomplete dispersion of soil clays as the clay particles are cemented by agents such as organic matter, CaCO and iron oxides. Incomplete dispersion results in low values for clay and high values for silt and sand. Thus, soils with higher organic matter (>1.0%) should be first treated with 6% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) for removal of organic carbon. The rate of sedimentation is also affected by temperature and the density of the dispersing solution.

Wet sieving procedure separates soil into different size aggregates. However, for comparing the aggregate size distribution among management treatments and soil types, it is convenient to use indices. Mean weight diameter (MWD) and water stable aggregate percentage are some of the common indices used in aggregate stability studies.

Mean Weight Diameter (MWD)

This index was proposed by Van Bavel (1949) and is being used widely. The entire soil sample is passed through an 8 mm sieve prior to analysis and is subjected to wet sieving procedure as described before. The parameter which Van Bavel (1949) called the MWD is equal to the sum of the product of (a) the mean diameter (d ) of each size fraction and (b) the proportion of the total sample weight (w ) occurring in the corresponding size fraction. The summation is carried out over all ‘n’ size fraction including the one that passes through the finest sieve.

Estimation of plant available phosphorus content in soil has been attempted using several extractants. However, Bray’s reagent and Olsen’s reagent are the two common extractants used in India. Bray’s reagent (0.03 N NH₄F and N HCl) is used for acid soils, where, the fluoride ion complexes with Fe and Al in soil and thus releases the bound P. The Olsen’s reagent (0.5 M NaHCO₃) is used for neutral-alkaline soils.

This procedure uses Diethylene Tri-amine Penta Acetic acid (DTPA) as the chelating agent, which combines with free metal ions in soil solution and forms soluble complexes.

Enumeration of microbial flora present in soil is done by dilution plating technique. The technique is based on the fact of diluting the source inoculums to the extent that after plating the known volume of inoculums on appropriate media, the colonies will appear in countable range and each colony will be assumed to have been derived from a single cell/colony forming unit. Three numerically dominant groups of soil microbes are bacteria, actinobacteria and fungi. The most commonly used culture media for their enumeration include

Nutrient Agar-for heterotrophic bacteria,

Actinomycetes isolation Agar or Kenknight and Munaier’s agar for actinobacteria

Martin’s Rose Bengal Agar for fungi.

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

The articulations of the neck are between the bones of the cervical vertebrae. The atlanto occipital articulation and the atlanto axial articulation are the special vertebral articulations while the articulations between the rest of the cervical vertebrae are common vertebral articulations.

Atlanto-occipital articulation

Type of joint: This is a condyloid type of hinge joint (Ginglymus).

Articular surfaces: The atlanto-occipital joint (Figure 2-3 B) is formed between the condyles of the occipital bone and the condyloid cavities of the atlas vertebra.

Pituitary gland (Hypophysis cerebi)

The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) lies at the base of the skull and is housed within a bony structure called the sella turcica in the body of the besisphenoid bone. It is a small pea shaped gland which is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The pituitary gland has two distinct parts called the lobes. These are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe which is also called as anterior pituitary consists of five types of cells, each of which secretes different hormone or hormones. The types of cells, the hormones secreted by each type and the functions performed by them are narrated below.

The thyrotrophs secrete thyroxin called as Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH). It stimulates production of thyroid hormone.

The gonadotrophs secrete leuteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). The LH stimulates the production of oestrogen and progesterone by the ovaries in female and testosterone by the testes in male. The FSH stimulates the production of oestrogen and the growth of egg cells (oocytes) in the ovaries in female and sperm cells (spermatozoa) in the testes in male.

The corticotrophs secrete the Adreno-Cortico-Trophic Hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the production of cortisol and adrenogenic hormones by the adrenal cortex.

The somatotrophs secret Growth Hormone (GH). The GH is a growth promoting hormone which regulates the growth and differentiation of the skeletal system.

The lactotrophs secrete the Prolactine Hormone. The prolactine hormone is responsible for initiation of milk secretion by the acinar cells of the mammary gland.

The venous blood from the head and neck is carried by two jugular veins (Figure 2-11 B), the internal and external jugular veins on each side. Both of these extend from the base of the head to the thoracic inlet and are located on the ventrolateral part of the neck. The internal jugular vein is smaller while the external jugular is larger one.

The internal jugular vein is formed by the union of the thyroid, laryngeal and occipital veins beneath the wing of the atlas between the mandibular salivary gland and the rectus capitis ventralis major muscle. It passes down the neck in company with the common carotid artery, vagus and sympathetic nerves enclosed within a carotid sheath, receives in its course the muscular venous branches, tracheal vein and the oesophageal vein and terminates by joining the external jugular vein just in front of the thoracic inlet.

The external jugular vein is the larger of the two jugular veins and is formed by the union of the superficial temporal and the maxillary veins just behind the caudal border of the mandible and on the deep face of the parotid salivary gland below the temporomandibular joint. It becomes superficial by emerging through the parotid gland, passes down the neck subcutaneously in the jugular furrow, receives the internal jugular vein forming a common jugular vein in front of the thoracic inlet. It receives along its course, the external maxillary vein, parotid veins, auricular veins, small veins from the muscles of the cervical region and the cephalic vein at its termination. While in the jugular groove it is bounded dorsally by the brachiocephalicus muscle, ventrally by sternocephalicus and medially by the sternomastoid part of the sternocephalicus muscle. The vein is covered by skin and fascia and is separated from common carotid artery, vagosympathetic trunk, recurrent laryngeal nerve and internal jugular vein by the upper border of the sternomastoid muscle.

The right and left common jugular veins unite and form the jugular confluence which joins the cranial vena cava ventral to the trachea slightly to the right of the median plane at the level of the cranial border of the first rib.

Horse

The optic and oculomotor nerves in horse are thinner than those in ox. The oculomotor nerve leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic and abducent nerves through the orbital foramen and the trochlear nerve leaves the cranial cavity through a small foramen immediately above the orbital fissure in horse as against the foramen orbitorotundum in ox. The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve leaves the cranium through the orbital fissure, the maxillary branch through the foramen ovale and the mandibular branch through the foramen rotundum. As against this, the ophthalmic and maxillary branches in ox emerge through the foramen orbitorotundum and the mandibular branch through the foramen ovale. The lacrimal nerve, a branch of the ophthalmic, runs rostrad on the rectus dorsalis and levator palpebrae superioris and ramifies chiefly in the lacrimal gland and the upper eyelid. One of its branches communicates with the orbital branch of the maxillary nerve, penetrates the periorbita, gains the temporal region behind the supraorbital process, forms a plexus with the branches of the frontal and auriculopalpebral nerves and divides to distribute fibres to the skin of the temporal region. The continuation of the maxillary nerve as infraorbital nerve gives out the caudal maxillary alveolar and middle maxillary alveolar branches to supply the molar and premolar teeth and before emerging through the infraorbital foramen gives out the rostral maxillary alveolar branch for the incisor and canine teeth.

Horse

The bony cage of thorax is longer but narrower in horse than that in ox. It is compressed laterally

The thoracic vertebrae are eighteen in number. Their bodies are shorter. The spinous process of the first one is shorter and it is curved backward. The height of the spinous process increases up to third and fourth and there after it diminishes gradually up to fifteenth beyond which it is almost same. The backward inclination of the spinous process is most pronounced in the second. The spine of the sixth vertebra is straightly vertical and that of the last two vertebrae is directed slightly forward.

The ribs are in eighteen pairs. First eight pairs are sternal and the remaining ten pairs are asternal. These are shorter, narrower and more curved. The length of the ribs increases up to sixth and then it diminishes. The cranial borders of the ribs from second to sixth are sharp and from ninth to eighteenth they are rounded and thick. The lower edges of the ribs are excavated for receiving the costal cartilages. The first rib inclines little forwards, the second rib is vertical and the rests slope backwards.

The first pair of costal cartilages articulates at their distal ends with each other and with the sternum. The upper ends of the cartilages form synarthroidial joints with the ribs.

The sternum of horse is composed of seven sternebrae. It is canoe or boat shaped and presents three faces, three borders and two extremities. It is compressed laterally in front and dorsoventrally behind. The dorsal surface is narrow and triangular. It is concave craniocaudally. The lateral surfaces are convex above and slightly concave below. The lateral borders separate the dorsal surface from the lateral surfaces and they give attachment to two lateral sternal ligaments. The ventral border is the direct continuation of the cariniform cartilage of the cranial extremity of the sternum. It is thin, sharp and convex from before backwards. It is very prominent and can be felt by palpation in live animal. It is also called as sternal crest or keel. The cranial extremity presents a laterally compressed cariniform cartilage which presents a deep notch dorsally for articulation with the first pair of costal cartilages. The first sternebra is fused with second and the manubrium is made up of cariniform cartilage and the first sternebra.

Horse

The muscles of lumbar spine in horse are more or less similar to those of ox. Of the sublumbar muscles, the psoas minor lies under the bodies of the lumbar and last three thoracic vertebrae. It arises from dorsal ends of sixteenth and seventeenth ribs and eighteenth thoracic vertebra and the first five lumbar vertebrae.

The psoas major arises from dorsal ends of last two ribs and the ventral faces of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It is much wider than that of ox and covers the quadratus lumborum entirely.

The origin of iliacus muscle is limited to sacrum and ilium only. It has no lumbar origin and it is not so intimately united with psoas major muscle.

The quadratus lumborum is less developed.

The intertransversarii lumborum is absent between the fifth and sixth lumbar transverse processes.

The muscles of abdominal wall in horse do not have any striking differences, except that the obliquus abdominis externus is thicker and more extensive. The muscular portion of this muscle reaches the external angle of ilium and as high as lumbar transverse processes.

Horse

The caudal vena cava in horse is largely embedded in the substance of the liver on its diaphragmatic surface. Here its free surface is covered only by the peritoneum. After crossing the liver, the caudal vena cava continues caudally along the right side of the abdominal aorta. During its course it gives off several branches from the dorsal and lateral surface.

The lumbar veins (parietal) are five or six pairs in number. The last one or two of these often join the internal iliac veins.

The renal veins are thin walled. The right renal vein is shorter than the left one.

The phrenic veins are two or three in number. The circumflex iliac veins join either the caudal vena cava or the internal iliac vein.

The portal vein is formed by the union of cranial and caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins in the cranial part of the sublumbar region at about the level of second lumbar vertebra. It passes cranially and to the right of the median plane continues through the portal ring of the pancreas and reaches to the portal fissure of the liver. Before entering the portal ring of the pancreas, the portal vein receives right gastroepiploic vein, right gastric vein and cranial pancreaticoduodenal vein. The cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins are formed by the tributaries from the veins which are satellites of the branches of the respective arteries. After its entry into the hepatic portal, the portal vein divides into three principal branches. These include the right branch for right lobe, the middle branch also for the right lobe and the left branch for the left and the quadrate lobe.

The lymph nodes of the abdomen and pelvis are in two major divisions, lymph nodes of the wall of the abdomen and pelvis and those of the viscera of abdomen and pelvis. The lymph from all the lymph nodes is collected by different lymph ducts which carry and pour their contents (lymph) in the cisterna chyli near the hiatus aorticus on the abdominal surface of the diaphragm.

Lymph nodes of the wall of abdomen and pelvis

The lumbar aortic lymph nodes are a chain of small lymph nodes situated along the caudal part of the abdominal aorta. These lymph nodes receive afferents from the peritoneum, sublumbar, spinal and abdominal muscles and the lumbar vertebrae. The efferents from these lymph nodes join each other and form two lumbar trunks which later on unite in a single lumbar lymphatic trunk that opens into the cisterna chyli.

The medial iliac lymph nodes are situated near the origins of the deep circumflex iliac and the internal external iliac arteries. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the internal iliac, tuberal, gluteal coxal, lateral iliac, subiliac, superficial inguinal and popliteal lymph nodes. The efferents from these lymph nodes either form a lumbar trunk or join any of the lumbar aortic lymph nodes.

Abdominal part

The sympathetic trunks enter the abdominal cavity between the psoas minor and the crus of the diaphragm of the corresponding side. They run caudally on the ventrolateral surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae and the ventral common vertebral ligament. The left trunk is ventrally related to the abdominal aorta and the right trunk to the caudal vena cava. The sympathetic trunks of the opposite sides in the cranial half of the lumbar part lie rather close to each other and as they pass caudally, they gradually divert from each other. The lumbar sympathetic ganglia are small spindle shaped usually six in number and are present one in each lumbar segment. The first two are larger than the rests. Each is connected with the ventral division of the corresponding lumbar spinal nerve by the ramus communicans. The interganglionic segments of the sympathetic trunk are usually single but some times they split.

Splanchnic nerves

The greater (major) splanchnic nerve is formed by the contribution of sympathetic nerve fibres from fifth or sixth thoracic to thirteenth thoracic sympathetic ganglia. It becomes larger and larger as it passes caudally along with the sympathetic trunk. It enters the abdomen at the level of the first lumbar vertebra gets separated from it, passes ventrally and laterally across the aorta (left trunk) and vena cava (right trunk) to join the coeliacomesenteric autonomic plexus on and around the coeliac and cranial mesenteric arteries.

The venous drainage of the fore limb of ox is conducted by two independent routes, the superficial and deep routes, in the fore limb. The major vein of the superficial route is the cephalic vein and that of the deep route is the axillary vein. The venous drainage of the fore limb begins at the digits and is carried by branches of both the routes intermingling or confluent with each other up to the level of elbow joint. From the elbow upwards the journey of the two paths is completely independent of each other. The superficial veins join the cephalic vein while the deep veins join the axillary vein to open into the cranial vena cava.

Superficial veins

The superficial veins begin in the form of distal deep and distal superficial palmer arch just above the fetlock joint. These venous arches are formed by the union of axial and abaxial digital veins. From these venous arches extend the dorsal metacarpal vein ascending first through the interdigital space and then winding around the large metacarpal bone. In this course it anastomoses with the branches of radial vein on the dorsomedial aspect of the carpometacarpal region and passes further upward as accessory cephalic vein.

Horse

The brachial plexus in horse is formed by ventral branches of the last three thoracic and first two thoracic spinal nerves similar to that in ox. The disposition and distribution of nerve branches extending from the plexus is almost similar to that of the ox except the following two.

The radial nerve after reaching the musculospiral groove gives out a cutaneous branch that passes through the lateral head of triceps and is distributed to the skin on the lateral aspect of forearm.

The main trunk of the radial nerve after crossing the carpus descends along the medial aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer medial metacarpal nerve and further down on the medial digit as palmer medial digital nerve.

The ulnar nerve descends the carpus and after reaching the metacarpal region joins the lateral branch of the median nerve, descends first along the lateral aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer lateral metacarpal nerve and then along the lateral (abaxial) aspect of the lateral digit as palmer lateral digital nerve.

Horse

The tensor fasciae latae is less extensive.

The superficial gluteus exists separately. It is ‘V’ shaped. It originates from the lateral angle of ilium (tuber coxae) and gluteal fascia and is inserted to the third trochanter. The middle gluteus is the largest of the three gluteal muscles and is very extensive. It originates from the aponeurosis of the longissimus dorsi, extends as far forwards up to first lumbar vertebra and is inserted in three heads, to the trochanter major, the crest ventral to trochanter major and the trochanteric ridge. The deep gluteus is smaller than the middle gluteus and is inserted to the convexity of the trochanter major.

The biceps femoris has an additional insertion to the femur on the rough surface near the trochanter tertius.

The semitendinosus arises from the transverse processes of the first two or three coccygeal vertebrae. The semimembranosus is larger and arises from the sacrosciatic ligament also.

The sartorius does not arise from the shaft of the ilium. The gracilis is not so extensively fused to its fellow at the origin.

The obturator internus has an iliac part- the pisiformis. Its tendon passes through the lesser sciatic foramen and hence does not unite with that of the obturator externus.

Articularis genu is absent

The venous drainage of hind limb begins from two digital venous plexuses, one for each digit, situated in the corium of the foot. From each of these plexuses extend three digital veins namely the dorsal common digital vein, the medial digital vein and the lateral digital vein. The digital veins in their upward course converge and form the metatarsal veins which in their turn continue upward in the leg region as tibial and popliteal veins and then in the thigh region as femoral vein which finally joins the external iliac vein as the chief vein of the hind limb.

Digital veins

The dorsal common digital vein arises from the corresponding digital plexus in the form of proper digital vein.The two proper digital veins ascend along the medial face of the corresponding digit and unite at about the middle of the interdigital space below the metatarso-phalangeal articulation (fetlock joint) and form the dorsal common digital vein. The later, thus formed, ascends through the interdigital space, crosses vertically the metatarso-phalangeal articulation and after reaching the distal extremity of the metatarsal bone continues upward as dorsal metatarsal vein.

The medial digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus ascends along the caudomedial aspect of the medial digit in company with the satellite artery, shares a branch each from the dorsal common digital and lateral digital veins, ascends the medial face of the fetlock joint and is then continued up as the medial plantar metatarsal vein.

The lateral digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus of the lateral digit passes upward in the interdigital space, communicates a branch to the dorsal common digital and medial digital veins and then ascends the lateral face of the fetlock joint and then is continued up as the lateral plantar metatarsal vein.

A series of efforts have been made to initiate the work on post-harvest grain technology in India. H.M. Lefroy, the 1^st Imperial Entomologist appointed by the British Government in India in 1905 had given a tentative list of storage insects in 1906. This list of storage insects was further supplemented by T.B. Fletcher in 1914. The problems of grain storage were discussed at Pusa, Bihar at the Entomological meetings held during the years 1917, 1919 and 1923.

The Department of Food was established in 1942 by the Government of India. The executive wing of the Food Department was responsible for the purchase, movement, transport and distribution of food grains. Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) at Mysore was established in 1950 with a mandate to train personnel and evolve technology relating to food processing and preservation. The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up on 2^nd March, 1957 under Agricultural Produce (Warehousing and Development) Act 1956. On 1^st January, 1965 Food Corporation of India was established.

In 1958, the Department of Food started a centre at Hapur known as Grain Storage Research and Training Centre with the main objective to train the personnel of State Government engaged in food procurement, storage and distribution. This centre was upgraded during 1968-1973 with the technical and financial assistance of UNDP and this centre was redesignated as Indian Grain Storage Institute (IGSI). Two field stations at Ludhiana and Bapatla (later shifted to Hyderabad in March 1979) were established in 1968-69. Subsequently, three stations of IGSI at Jabalpur (October, 1980), Udaipur (February, 1981) and Jorhat (May, 1981) were also established. The overall objective was to minimize losses of food grains by development of modernized grain storage practices for the farmers, traders, cooperatives and large storage of food grains in the country and also to evolve the methodology to be adopted by the Save Grain Compaign which has its headquarters in the Department of Food.

Agricultural crops are being affected by a wide range of organisms such as insects, mites, fungi, bacteria etc. Another important and unseen enemy is known as plant parasitic nematodes. The study on nematodes is known as Nematology.

Nematology is an important branch of biological science, which deals with a complex, diverse group of round worms known as Nematodes that occur worldwide in essentially all environments. Nematodes are also known as eelworms in Europe, nemas in the United States and round worms by zoologists. Many species are important parasites of plants and animals, whereas others are beneficial to agriculture and the environment. Nematodes that are parasites of man and animals are called helminths and the study is known as Helminthology. The name nematode was derived from Greek words nema (thread) and oides (resembling). This book focuses primarily on plant parasitic nematodes, their morphology, anatomy, nematological techniques, taxonomy, classification based on their feeding habits, symptom of damage to crops, interaction with other microorganisms, biology of important nematodes viz., Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchulus and Radopholus and nematode pests of important crops and their management.

Annual crop losses due to these obligate parasites have been estimated to be about $78 billion worldwide and $8 billion for U.S. growers. The estimated annual crop loss in Tamil Nadu is around Rs. 200 crores.

The soil in a hectare of agroecosystem typically contains billions of plant parasitic as well as beneficial nematodes. The damage to plants caused by nematodes is often overlooked because the associated symptoms, including slow growth, stunting and yellowing can also be attributed to nutritional and water related disorders.

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

I. Above ground feeders

a) Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud nematode : Aphelenchoides

Stem and buld nematode : Ditylenchus

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp., Ditylenchus spp., Bursaphelenchus cocophilus and B. xylophilus. Nematodes suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits, lesions on roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting. Symptoms of nematode diseases can be classified as

Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes
Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

Objectives

• Better understand the law of independent assortment.

History

The law was proposed by Gregor Johann Mendel with the other laws together called as ‘Mendelian laws of inheritance’, in 1866. He used pea plant as a model organism, and studied 7 characters.

Principle

The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as “Inheritance Law”, states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Independent assortment for two genes can be explained by assuming that the two genes are located in two different chromosomes. The two alleles of a gene will be located in the two homologues of the concerned chromosome. Independent separation of these two pairs of chromosomes at anaphase I of meiosis will lead to the independent segregation of the genes located in them. Thus any allele of one gene is equally likely to combine with any allele of the other gene and pass into the same gamete. Independent segregation of two genes produces four different types of gametes in equal proportion. A random union among these gametes gives rise to sixteen possible zygotes. These zygotes yield a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio, which is known as the typical dihybrid ratio. When two pairs of independent alleles enter into F₁ combination, both of them have their independent dominant effect. These alleles segregate when gametes are formed but the assortment occurs independently at random and quite freely.

Bulk population breeding developed by the Swede H. Nilsson Ehle in 1908 and later on supported and practiced by H. V. Harlan in barley breeding in 1940s is a breeding strategy in crop improvement in which natural selection is allowed to play its full role where the F2 generation is planted in a plot large enough to accommodate several hundreds of plants. Planting density and cultural practices are usually the normal ones followed for commercial crop planting. At maturity, the plot is harvested in bulk and the seeds are used to plant a similar plot in the next season. This process is repeated till at least F5 where the plants are space planted to allow individual plant evaluation for effective selection. During period of bulk propagation natural selection plays a key role in shifting gene frequencies in the bulk population. This role is of crucial importance as bulk handling is continued over a number of generations. Bulk population handling can be aided by artificial selection at any time during the period of bulk propagation. Aggressive and highly competitive but undesirable plants may be physically rogued out of the population to avoid increasing the frequency of undesirable genes. For example, determinate bush types of beans do not compete well against indeterminate, vine types. And if the breeder is interested only in determinate types, artificial selection against the indeterminate types is certainly called for. There is also good reason to apply artificial selection against seed colour, pubescence, awns or other characters that are undesirable in the variety to be developed but may be more or less neutral in survival. Bulk population handling often provides opportunities to make use of artificial aids to selection. For example, bulk harvesting when only part of plants are mature is an effective and inexpensive way to select for earliness. If particular sizes of seeds are required, screens or mechanical devices provide a rapid way of eliminating inferior types. Naturally occurring or artificially induced disease or insect infestation, of course, provide opportunities to rogue susceptible individuals from the bulk plot. In F6, the plants selected in F5 are progeny rowed and superior progenies are selected from where again few plants can be selected and seed bulked within a selected row. Depending upon seed requirement for yield trial in the following years, even the seed from selected entire row can be bulked. The follow up yield evaluation trials are as given in case of pedigree selection. This method is operationally best suited for seed crops such as small grains, beans and soybean and is almost totally unsuited for fruit crops and for most vegetable crops.