eChapters

1. Botanical Name : Mimosops elengi L.

2. Family : Sapotaceae

3. Common Name : Spanish cherry, Molshri, Bullet wood tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Maulsri (Hindi), Magizhamboo (Tamil), Ilanni (Malayalam), Bakul (Bengali), Bakuli (Marathi), Ranjal (Kannada), Barsoli (Gujarati), Maulsari (Nepali).

5. Description

Maulshri is a evergreen small tree of the Indian subcontinent. It provides a dense shade. The main stem is often short and divided into several large main branches. The tree provides food, medicine and a range of commodities for the local people. It is often cultivated in the tropics and subtropics, as an ornamental avenue tree and in gardens.

1. Botanical Name : Morinda pubescens

2. Family : Rubiaceae

3. Common Name : Indian Mulberry, Morinda tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Aal (Hindi), Dhaula, Aseti (Marathi), Mannanunai, Mannanatti, Nonu, Nuna (Tamil), Mannappavitta (Malayalam), Maddi (Telugu), Haladipavette, Maddi (Kannada), Achu, Pindra (Oriya) , Paphanah (Sanskrit).

5. Description

Aall or Indian mulberry (Morinda pubescens) is a species of flowering plant in the family Rubiaceae, It is an evergreen shrub or small tree growing . The fruits are small and edible. A scarlet colouring matter is procured from the roots and bark, and used for dying hand kerchiefs, turbans, etc. It is also used to assist more expensive dyes in giving a red colour to yarnand cloth. The red threrads used in carpet-making used entirely to be dyed with it. The tree formerly used to be much more commonly cultivated than it is now. Since the introduction of the cheap aniline dyes’s its cultivation decreased.

1. Botanical Name : Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

2. Family : Myricaceae

3. Common Name : Box myrtle

4. Name in Indian languages: Kainaryamy (Telugu), Nagatenga (Assami), Satsarila (Bengali), Kariphal (Gujarati), Kaiphal (Hindi), Kirishivani (Kannada), Maruta (Malayalam), Soh-phi (Khasi), Kaphal (Kumaoni), Kayaphala (Marathi), Krishnagarbha (Sanskrit), Masudam (Tamil).

5. Description

Myrica esculenta is grow extensively in hilly regions of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh , Nepal and Bhutan at elevations of 1000-2300 m. It is small to medium size evergreen tree. The stem bark is grayish dark in colour and rough. The fruits of this species are edible and used by the local population. The stem bark and wood is very good for fuel wood purpose.

1. Botanical Name : Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

2. Family : Palmae

3. Common Name : Wild Date Palm, Indian wild date, Sugar date palm

4. Name in Indian languages

Khajur (Hindi), Thangtup (Manipuri), Kharik, Kharjuri (Marathi), Inthupaanai (Tamil),: Niilanthent (Malayalam), Ita (Telugu), Ichalu, Kharjura (Kannada), Khejura (Bengali), Khorjurri (Oriya), Khaajuri (Assamese), Khajuri (Gujarati), Kharjuri (Sanskrit), Kandela, Taadii (Nepali).

5. Description

Wild date palm is native to India and southern portions of Pakistan. It is closely related Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm). It grows naturally and is cultivated around homesteads, farmland periphery and in marginal lands along the roadside and canals, even on fallow land. It can survive in disturbed areas, such as wastelands or seasonally inundated areas. It is a medium height tree of 9–10 m. The single-seeded fruit ripens to a purple-red colour, and is eaten fresh or processed. The leaf sap also used in various preparations. Fruits are rich source of carbohydrate, phenols, amino acids, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, dietary fibers, vitamins and minerals. Different parts of the plant have diverse medicinal properties such as antipyretic, cardiotonic, laxative, diuretic and antioxidant.

1. Botanical Name : Phyllanthus acidus (L) skeels.

2. Family : Phyllanthaceae

3. Common Name : Star Gooseberry

4. Name in Indian languages : Jangli Aonla (Hindi), Aria Nellikai (Tamil), Narakli (Oriya), Nora (Bengali), Kiru nelli(Kannada).

5. Description

Star gooseberry is a small tree of 4 to 8m height. The tree’s dense and bushy crown is composed of thickish, tough main branches. It tree grows well in the tropics up to an altitude of 1500 - 1800 metres. It prefers hot, humid tropical conditions with a short dry season. The fruits are yellow and used as fresh or processed. The plants grow well in dry areas but require moist site for initial establishment otherwise, plants are drought tolerant.

1. Botanical Name : Physalis minima Linn.

2. Family : Solanaceae

3. Common Name : Ground Cherry, Sun berry

4. Name in Indian languages

Rasbhari, Chirpati (Hindi), Chirboti, Ran-popti (Marathi), Kupanti (Tamil), Notinotta (Malayalam), Kupanti (Telugu), Gadde hannu (Kannada), Bantepariya (Bengali), Popti (Gujarati).

5. Description

Sunberry is an erect, much-branched, annual plant growing around 50cm tall. The edible fruit is sometimes gathered from the wild and used locally. This is a popular wild fruit to pick and eat. The taste of the ripe berry is sweet and distinctive. The berries are ripe when the husk turns brown and the berry inside takes on a yellowish cast. The plant also has a range of medicinal uses. Physalis minima is commonly found on the bunds of the fields, wastelands, around the houses, on roadsides, etc. where the soil is porous and rich in organic matter. It is an annual herbaceous plant having a very delicate stem and leaves.

1. Botanical Name : Prunus armeniaca Linn.

2. Family : Roasaceae

3. Common Name : Wild apricot

4. Name in Indian languages

Zardalu, Sarha, Chulli (Himachali), Chuari, Zardalu (Hindi), Gurdalu, Cherkush (Kashmiri), Chuaru, Chola, Kushmaru (Kumaoni); Chul (Laddakhi), Zardalu (Punjabi).

5. Description

Wild apricot is a common fruit of the hills in northern India, comprising the major parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The fruits are small but tasty.

6. Origin and distribution

This tree is indigenous to the Central Asia. It is widely distributed and is found in Europe, Western and Central Asia, Baluchistan, the north-west Himalayas and Western Tibet upto 2500 meters msl. It is found in the in mild-hills, ranging from 1,100 to 1,700 meters above the mean sea-level in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir. Most of the plants are seedlings, with varying flesh and kernel characters.

1. Botanical Name : Prunus nepalensis (Ser). Steud.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Wild peach, Sohiong

4. Name in Indian languages

Jangaliaru, Arupate (Nepali), Arupaty (Bengali), Sohiong (Khasi), Sajong (Assamese).

1. Botanical Name : Prunus undulata Buch.-Ham.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Dieng tyrkhung

4. Name in Indian languages

Dieng tyrkhung (Khasi).

5. Description

It is locally known as Dieng tyrkhung in Meghalaya and belongs to Rosaceae family. It is a rare species growing wild in Khasi and Jaintia Hills occurring in mountainous or hilly forests or river valleys. It is a small deciduous tree, upright and moderately branched. It can grow 5 - 16 metres tall. The fruits are harvested from the wild for local used as a food and source of materials. It thrives in a well-drained moisture-retentive loamy soil.

1. Botanical Name : Rhus semialata Murr

2. Family : Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name : Chinese Sumac, Chinese gall, Nutgall tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Tatri (Hindi), Heimaang (Manipuri), Bhaki amilo, Chuk Amilo, Dudhe Bhalaayo, Bhangil (Nepali), Sohmad/ Sohmluh (Khasi), Sohsama (Pnar).

5. Description

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree with an open, spreading crown. It usually grows up to 12 metres tall. The trunk can be 6-18cm in diameter. The plant has an extensive root system and spreads by means of suckers, often forming thickets. The tree has edible fruits. It has several having medicinal properties. It is good source of tannins and dye. Fruits are gathered from the wild and mainly used locally. Galls produced as a result of insect activity on the plant are widely used medicinally in East Asia.

1. Botanical Name : Rubus ellipticus Smith

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Himalayan Yellow Raspberry

4. Name in Indian languages

Jotelupoka (Assameese), Ache, Akki, Anchhu, Hinure (Himachali), Hinsalu, Anchhu (Hindi), Gouriphal, Hisara (Kashmiri), Esar, Hishalu, Jogiya hisalu (Kumaoni), Ainselu (Nepali), Akhi (Punjabi).

5. Description

It is one of the tastiest wild fruits of Himalayan hills. This plant grows in abundance throughout the mid hill region of Himalaya. The fruits are relished by all and are also offered for sale at many places. Rubus ellipticus is an evergreen shrub producing a cluster of stout, heavily armed, upright, biennial stems from a woody rootstock. It usually grows 100 - 300 cm tall, occasionally up to 450 cm. The stems only produce leaves, and do not flower, in their first year of growth, forming flowering branches in their second year and then dying after fruiting. The plant can rapidly form tall, dense thickets. The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a food and a medicine. The fruit is sold in local markets in the Himalayan states.

1. Botanical Name : Rubus niveus Thunb.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Mysore raspberry, Hill raspberry

4. Name in Indian languages

Huftoo, Kale hinure (Himachali), Kala hinsalu, Kali anchhi (Hindi), Kandiari, Kharmuch, Surgaqnch, Oche (Kashmiri), Kalawar, Kalahisalu (Kumaoni), Kaloaselu (Nepali), Gunacha, Kandiara (Punjabi), Gomulli, Mulli (Kannada), Dieng soh khawiong (Khasi), Heijampet (Manipuri), Gowriphal (Marathi).

5. Description

Mysore raspberry is a shrub growing to 1-2.5 m tall. The stems are whitish velvety at first, becoming smooth green to purple later. Leaves are compound with 5-11 leaflets. The leaflets are dark green above, densely pale grey to white velvety beneath. The flowers are five dark pink to red petals. The fruit is densely grey velvety, dark red at first, ripening to black. The fruits are commonly harvested from forest for local use as a food and is also used as a medicine. Mysore raspberry is grows wild throughout the temperate Himalayan region. This species is successfully introduced North America. It resembles the raspberry.

1. Botanical Name : Salvadora oleoides Decne

2. Family : Salvadoraceae

3. Common Name: Pilu

4. Name in Indian languages

Pilava pilu, Mityar, Mitijal, Mithivan, Pilu, Chootapilu, Bahapilu, Diar, Jhal, Godpilu (Hindi), Khakan, Pilava, Pilu, Mityal (Gujarati), Kalawa, Kohu, Karkol (Tamil).

5. Description

Peelu (Salvadora oleoides) is an evergreen shrub or tree with a dense crown of numerous, drooping branches. It is small to medium sized evergreen tree with dense foliage. It can grow 6 - 9 metres tall. The main trunk is quite often twisted or bent. It can be up to 2 metres in diameter. The tree is harvested from the wild for local use as a medicine and source of materials. Apart from edible fruits, other parts of the tree also have economic value. Leaves are very good feed for animals especially goats and camels while the twigs are used for cleaning the teeth. The other plant parts such as root bark and leaves etc have value in folk medicine. It is highly resistant against abiotic stresses such as drought and salinity.

1. Botanical Name : Semecarpus anacadium L.f.

2. Family : Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name : Marking Nut

4. Name in Indian languages

Bhilawan (Hindi), Bhillava (Marathi), Kavaka (Tamil), Ceenkkuru (Malayalam), Bhallatamu (Telugu), Gerannina mara (Kannada), Bhallataka (Bengali), Bonebhalia (Oriya), Amberi (Konkani), Bhala (Assamese), Bhilamu (Gujarati), Bhallatakah (Sanskrit), Bhalaayo (Nepali).

5. Description

Marking nut tree is a small to medium-sized tree that can reach a height of 25 metres, but is usually smaller. Possibly best known for its use in making a permanent marking ink. This multi-purpose tree also provides food, medicines, oil etc. It has high priority and applicability in indigenous system of medicine. It is often cultivated as an ornamental plant in the tropic.

1. Botanical Name : Zizyphus nummularia Burm. f.

2. Family : Rhamnaceae

3. Common Name : Jhar Ber

4. Name in Indian languages

Jhar ber, Bordi, Jharberi (Hindi), Bhubadari (Bengali), Mulluhannu (Kannada), Junglebor (Marathi), Bhu-kartaka (Sanskrit), Narielandai (Tamil), Nelaregu, (Telugu), Poast jharberi (Urdu).

5. Description

Jhar ber (Ziziphus nummularia) is a most commonly occurring branched thorny shrub species in the Indian desert with a height of 1-2 m. It occupies almost all the habitats including crop lands and grazing lands. It is found growing naturally on farm lands and spreads through root suckers and also by seeds. It forms an integral part of rain fed farming system in arid zones of Rajasthan. Underground suckers of jhar ber remain dormant during summer season but they sprout with monsoon rain and complete the life cycle including vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting by November-December. The bushes are headed back at ground level after the kharif cropping season is over.

Amaranthus is one of the main genera of large and taxonomically diverse group of leafy vegetables. Amaranthus is the cheapest dark green leafy vegetable because of low production costs and high yield. It is often described as poor man’s vegetable.

Origin and Distribution: The main vegetable type Amaranthus tricolor L. originated in South or South East Asia, particularly in India. Budhist monks and Muslim invaders took the crop to neighboring countries. Another vegetable type A. dubius shows diversity in Central America, Indonesia, India and in Africa. A lividus is a popular leafy vegetable in Southern and Central Europe. Amaranthus included 50 to 60 species.

It is a popular root crop having wide range of adaptability, grown in Japan, Koria, China, India and other European countries.

Origin and Distribution: Radish was an important food in Egypt during 2000 BC.  Fossils study reveals that, it was a food as early as 2700 BC. It spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. Variability of crop decreased from Europe to China and from there to Japan. Recent study indicates that East of Mediterranean, most probably China was the centre of origin of the crop. This means Europe and Asia are the probable places of origin.

9.1. Downy mildew of Opium poppy
Pathogen: Peronospora arborescens (Berk) de Bary

Geographical distribution and losses
This is one of the serious and widespread diseases of opium poppy. The disease was observed epiphytotic in Argentina, Germany, Iran, Hungary, Austria and India. The disease was first recorded in India in 1918 and with the introduction of susceptible varieties, the disease rapidly became serious due to favourable environment in its cultivation area in India. Downy mildew now occurs in most regions in India (Rajasthan, Madhya Padesh and Uttar Pradesh). Downy mildew caused 20-30% loss of yield of opium latex. The secondary infection of downy mildew was found to reduce 11-22% latex.

Symptoms
The infection spread upwards from lower leaves. The entire leaf surface is covered by downy mildew coating, which is composed of sporangiophores and sporangia of the pathogen (Fig 9.1). The stem, branches and even capsules are attacked resulting in the premature death of the plants. The infection start from the moment the seed germinate and persist during the whole period of growth (Yossi fovitch 1929). Khristov (1943) reported that the pathogen often cause abnormal development in opium poppy. The pathogen also causes hypertrophy and curvature of stem and flower stalks.

India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of 1.3 billion and is expected to reach 2 billion by 2050. Though the country transformed itself from a food deficit nation to surplus donor in agricultural commodities in a short span of 70 years, it also encountered several stumbling block along the way. In post independence era, the governments of the day adopted a multi-pronged strategy of population control, development of irrigational infrastructure, high yielding varieties of crops and agricultural development schemes that resulted in green revolution, white revolution, rainbow revolution. etc., which saddled the country in a comfortable position as far as food production is concerned. In the process, what went unnoticed was the hidden hunger resulting in malnourished population with different kinds of ailments. ‘Hidden hunger’ manifested due to an imbalanced diet, lacking in micronutrients–vitamins, minerals and other essential diet components. Serious among them, which plague the country even today are iron deficiency causing anaemia, Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) causinig blindness in children and increased risk of other illnesses and death. Anaemia and calcium deficiency among women and stuntend growth in children are the other diet related diseases. About 10% of population are also suffering due to over feeding or mal-noursihment. Economic burden and loss of human productivity due to lifestyle diseases is taking a toll in India during the last couple of decades.

At present, the world can very broadly be divided into two main categories. (i) Industrialized countries where food is plentiful and the diet is varied, and the most prevalent diet-related disorders are cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, obesity, diabetes and osteoporosis. (ii) Developing countries, where food is scarce and malnutrition is a major problem or where traditional foods and cultural practices are being replaced by western-style diets resulting in lifestyle diseases/disorder. India falls in the second category. Diversified food habit is one of the direct impacts of increasing disposable income in India. Global epidemiological studies with reference to food habits have shown that increase in lifestyle diseases are directly related to reduced consumption of fruits and vegetables and increased consumption of animal food (meat and animal fat).

The avocado (Persea americana Mill) belonging to the family Lauraceae, may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. It was then distributed into the West Indies and all other parts of the tropical and subtropical world. It reached India probably in 1892. Now it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala in India, to a limited extent.

Cultivars/Varieties: Fuerte, Hass, Lula, Pollck, Purple, Green.

Uses

Avocado is low in sugar content and rich in avocado butter, hence can be highly recommended as a high energy food for diabetics. The pulp of the fruit can be preserved by freezing, and can be used as sandwich filling or spread, in ice creams and milk shakes. Though the fruit is high in fat content, it is harmless unlike animal fat. The pulp has butter consistency, and looks very much like cow’s butter and bland in taste with a nutty flavour, without any offensive odour or smell. Its aroma resembles that of tender coconut.

Genus Annona belonging to the family Annonaceae, contains more than seventy species of woody shrubs and trees, all of which produce aggregate fleshy fruits. Of these only a few produce edible fruits of commercial importance. Of all, Annona squamosa L. is probably the most popular fruit. It is also known as ‘Sitaphal’ or ‘Shariffa’. These can withstand drought better than many other fruit trees. Other species of the genus Annona providing edible fruits are A. reticulata L., A. muricata L., and A. cherimola L.

Custard Apple (Annona squamosa Linn.)

The custard apple, Annona squamosa L., also known as sweet-sop or sugar apple, is almost entirely eaten as a dessert fruit. Its pulp may be mixed with milk to form milk shake or made into ice-cream. The pulp has a pleasant texture and flavour. Several products like -squash, nectar, pulp butter, syrup, jam can be made from the pulp.

Custard apple is native to tropical America (Mexico). It is cultivated in Australia, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, India, Israel, Myanmar, Mexico, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka, South Africa, West Indies, USA and Cuba. In India it is popular in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Asssam, Bihar and West Bengal.

Cultivars: The cultivars vary in their shape, size, colour and eating quality. Some of the cultivars are Balanagar, Sangareddy Local, Chittorgarh, Barbados, British Guinea, Mammoth, Red Sitaphal, Yellow Sitaphal, Custard Apple Selection-1, Custard Apple Selection -2. Arka Sahan is a hybrid developed by ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore.

Ficus carica L, one of the oldest plant species in China, is abound in Shandong, Xinjiang, Jiangsu province. Fig belongs to the family Moraceae and genus Ficus. It is native to Middle East region (West Asia), but now it is widely distributed in Asia and North America.

Cultivars/Varieties: Depending upon the nature of flowers and the method of pollination there are four distinct classes of fig- i) Common fig or Adriatic fig ii) Capri fig, iii) Smyrna fig and iv) San Pedro fig. Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown turkey, Celeste and Conadria are some important varieties of common fig.

Uses

Fig is consumed fresh or dried, preserved, candied or canned. Fresh figs are very delicious, wholesoms and nutritious and used as dessert or for making jam. Due to its highly perishable nature it is dried and marketed. The fruit fresh, or dried is valued for its laxative property. Dried and ground fig can be used as a substitute for coffee.

Grapes belongs to the family Vitaceae and genus Vitis. The region between Black and Caspian Sea is considered to be the origin of grapes. Its association with man is believed to be older than that of rice or wheat. Viticulture and wine-making started in Egypt at about 3000-4000 BC. It is presumed that it spread to India in 620 B.C. The medical treatises written by Charaka and Sushruta in the 1^st century AD reveal use of grapes for medicinal purpose. Viticulture in India started in early 1960 and today assumes an important position in horticulture crop in view of its area occupied, production, value addition and job creation in both rural and urban areas.

Popular Varieties of Grapes

Thomson Seedless and its clones viz.; Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman; Perlette, Banglore Blue (Isabella), Kishmish Chernyi (Sharad Seedless), Muscat Hamburg (Gulabi), Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Crimson Seedless and Manjri Naveen (A clonal selection from Centennial Seedless).

Uses

Grapes has several uses like table purpose, raisin, juice, wine making and canning, etc. It has several medicinal and curative properties. It is used in Ayurvedic preparations for making Kada or arishtam (herbal tonic or medicine). The grapes which are used as a fresh fruit are designated as table grapes. These are having attractive appearance, and good eating and shipping quality and long shelf-life. The grapes that can be dried are included in the Raisin grapes. Wine grapes which are primarily used to produce wine are known as wine grapes. In many parts of the world, grapes are grown for wine preparation. Grapes with high acid and low sugars contents are suitable for wine preparation.

Jamun, Syzygium cumini Skeels, belongs to the family Myrtaceae and genus Eugenia which comprises about 1000 species of evergreen trees and shrubs. Some of the old-world Eugenia spp., are now placed in the genus Syzygium. The genus Syzygium is a multipurpose genus with many important species.

The original home of jamun is considered to be India (Singh, 1969), while it is also found in Thailand, Philippines, Madagascar and other African countries. In India, jamun is mainly grown in eastern Himalaya, Kumaon, Gangatic plains, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Andamans. It grows well in marshy land and also in neglected wastelands.

Cultivars/Varieties: There are no improved variety of jamun for commercial cultivation. The most common type grown in north India is known as Raja jamun. This is a large-fruited type having oblong fruits of deep purple colour. A type having large- sized fruits is known as Paras in Gujarat. Another type found in Varanasi has no seed. A selection with desirable traits has been located by the CSA University of Agriculture and Technology at Faizabad. It has been named as Narendra Jamun 6.

Uses

Jamun fruits are deep purple to violet in colour and are, therefore, very attractive. The anthocyanin pigment is responsible for the colour. The products made from jamun are jellies, jams squash, beverage, wine vinegar and pickle. In Goa and the Philippines, jambolans are an important source of wine, somewhat like Port, and the distilled liquors, brandy and “jambava” have also been made from the fermented fruit. Jambolan vinegar, extensively made throughout India, is an attractive, clear purple, with a pleasant aroma and mild flavor.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a popular subtropical evergreen fruit tree. The Litchi (lychee) is the most renowned of a group of edible fruits of the soap berry family, Sapindaceae. It is botanically designated Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Nephelium litchi Cambess) and widely known as litchi and regionally as lichi, lichee, laichi, leechee or lychee. Litchi is a tropical fruit tree native to southern China. It is also commonly found in Madagascar, India (Muzaffarpur), Bangladesh, Pakistan, southern Taiwan, northern Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. Great source of Vitamin C and potassium, it also contains phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and protein. The fruit is liked by everybody because of its excellent quality, attractive red colour and characteristics pleasant flavor.

Varieties

The varieties grown under different states are as below.

Bihar: Shahi, Rose Scented, China, Kasba, Purbi, Early Bedana, Late Bedana

Uttar Pradesh: Rose Scented, Dehradun, Calcuttia

West Bengal: Bombay Green, Kalyani Selection

Punjab: Muzaffarpur, Dehradun, Seedless, Late Bedana

The papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae. It is an important fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It is the most important plant in the home gardens, and where green papaya is also used as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are eaten as dessert, which is available throughout the year.

Papaya is native to West Indies and Central America (Mexico). It is a common fruit in nearly all parts of tropical and sub-tropical world. It is abundantly grown in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, South America, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii, Kenya, Taiwan, Puerto Rica, Peru, USA, Philippines. It was introduced in India in 16^th Century. In India it is mainly cultivated in Kerala, Assam, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, Washingtan, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Co. 1 to Co. 7, Arka Surya, Arka Prabhat, Pusa Nanha, Pink Flesh Sweet, Pant 1, Sunrise Solo and Taiwan Red Lady, are the most popular varieties under cultivation in India.

The peach tree (Prunus persica L.) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sub genera by the corrugated seed shell. Among the temperate fruit’s peaches require relatively less chilling temperature. Now peach is a commercial crop in Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Europe, USA, China, India and Japan. In India, it grown in hills of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sun Red, Red, Nectarine, Kateroo, Flordasun, Florda gold, Sharbati, Maygold, Kanto-5, Stark Early Flame, Summerset, Early White Giant, Redglobe, Alexander, First Gold, Early Gold and Sweet Gold.

Uses

Peachs are grown both for dessert and processing purposes. It is also used for making wine. Peach fruit juice is a common drink. Peach kernel has high protein and its oil is used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The cake after extraction of oil can be used for various purposes. Peach flowers and leaves are anthelmintic and purgative.

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

Soursop, Annona muricata L., also called as Bullock’s heart, is a larger fruit than custard apple. The flesh is spinny and has a white fibrous flesh in which large black seeds are embedded. It is completely tropical in habitat. It resembles small jackfruit with spines on the surface. Soursop is native to the West Indies. It is very popular in Cuba and Mexico. It is found in India and many other parts of Polynesia.

Uses

Soursop is used for the preparation of sherbet and other refreshing drinks. In Indonesia, the tender fruit is used as a vegetable. Seeds have insecticidal properties and leaves contain an essential oil. Excellent jelly can be prepared from soursop fruit. Unripe fruit powder is prescribed for chronic dysentery. Buds and flowers are considered to be an excellent remedy for cough. Soursop is used as an astringent and also as a blood complement. It has the use as an antidysentric and vermifuge. A black dye is produced from the dye unripe fruit. Seed oil is used as an insecticide and for making agriculture implement. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. Genus Tamarindus is a monotypic taxon having only one species. Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, probably Sudan, where it grows wild and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and America. It is also found growing in Camaroon, Nigeria and Tanzania. Tamarind has a long gestation period of 10-20 years and long-life span of even 100 years.

Cultivars/Varieties: In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter. One in Thailand is known as ‘Makham waan’. Another one is known as ‘Manila Sweet’. No other improved or named varieties are available.

Uses

Tamarind pulp is an important condiment as a sour ingredient in the Indian cuisine. Pulp has an excellent keeping quality. Timber is used for making agricultural implements. The wood yields excellent charcoal and is used for making gunpowder. Starch is obtained from seeds and is used in the textile industry. Seeds can be fed to animal after roasting and removing the outer skin. Seed is also a good source of tanning. Oil is obtained from seeds and is used in paints and varnishes. Leaves and flowers are also edible. It is rich in medicinal properties. Fruits is considered as digestive, carminative and laxative. With the addition of water and sugar, tamarind yields a cool drink which is quite popular in Latin America.Today India is the largest producer of tamarind in the world.

Experimental unit : An experimental unit is the material to which is applied the treatment and on which the variable under study is measured. In an agricultural field experiment, the plot of land, not the individual plant, will be the experimental unit; in a feeding experiment of cows,the whole cow is the experimental unit; in human experiments in which the treatment affects the individual, the individual will be the experimental unit.

Treatment : The different procedures under comparison in an experiment are the different treatments, i.e in an agricultural experiment, the different varieties of a crop or the different manures will be the treatments. In a dietary or medical experiment, the different diets or medicines, etc. are the treatments.

One of the objectives of experiments in cultivators’ field is to test technology for adoption in a targeted area i.e. NARP Zone, or a district. In that case interaction between district x treatment within a zone or between blocks x treatment within a district should not be significant. If the targeted area is a district, an experiment in cultivators’ fields must occur in at least two blocks. Also, if the targeted area is a zone, an experiment should occur in at least two districts in order to estimate interaction.

Analysis of cultivators’ field experiment

The on-farm trials were conducted in 25 villages on kharif rice during 1992-93. The treatments viz. T1-Farmers’ practice with local variety, T2-Farmers’ practice with improved variety, T3-Farmers’ practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer and T4-Improved practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer. Farmers level of NPK fertilizer was 40:0:0 and local variety was Suzata while recommended NPK fertilizer was 80:40:20.

7.1 Introduction

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).

15.1 Computer Network

It is a group of computers and peripherals which are interconnected to share information and resources. A communication system that supports many users can be called a Network or we can say network is a communication system which interconnects many users who have something in common, either with respect to the type of data being sent or to the geographic areas that the users cover. There are three types of computer networks:

15.1.1 Local area network (LAN)

It is a small network (2 to 100 nodes) usually located within a single building or group of buildings belonging to an organization or an institute.

Weed

Weed in orchards reduce crop yields by competing for moisture, nutrients, light and space. They also harbour insect pests and diseases. When they become large they interfere with orchard operations. Some of weeds climb on the trees and shade the foliage. There are some weeds which are parasitic partially or completely on the host tree e.g. Striga and loranthes on mango.

Orchard

Establishment of orchard is a long term investment. It is require a proper planning, any mistake during the selection of site, planting distance, choice of crop/variety, quality of nursery stock etc. reflect greatly on the orchard performance and efficiency.

Planting System

Main objective of layout is maximum number of plant accommodated in per unit area without affecting the efficiency of production. If more than one fruit is included in the orchard plan, each kind should be grouped into individual block. Similarly fruit ripened in particular season should be grouped to facilitate convenience in watch and ward, harvest and post harvest handling. Some kind of fruit trees need pollinators/pollinisers for improving the fruit set.

Seedlings of several vegetables are first raised in well prepared nursery beds, followed by transplanting in the field. Raising of seedling in the nursery beds is economical as well as easier to take care of young, tender seedlings against pest and diseases. Further, raising of seedlings in nursery allow more time for land preparation.

Site and soil for nursery

In selecting a site for nursery beds, following points should be considered viz sunny situation, good drainage and irrigation facilities. Sandy loam soil with plenty of organic matter are ideal for starting nursery beds. In case of heavy soils it is desirable to add coarse sand to modify the soil condition. Before sowing seed it is essential to sterlize the beds by steam or formaldehyde or any other chemical to do away with problem of damping-off disease. Burning of leaves or straw in the beds is quite helpful in controlling certain soil borne diseases and pests.

Hedge

When shrub is planted on boundary for fencing, it is also called as hedge. In other word shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen is called a hedge. It may be ornamental or protective or both. Hedge also become an important feature of formal layout to serve various function as screening of the area out building, tennis court, vegetable garden, hardening of unwanted place etc. All the shrubs cannot be planted for making an ideal hedge due to different nature of growth.

Garden Walls : A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along its periphery. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside.

• Low brick or concrete or stone wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills.
• Alternatively walls from 1.8-5.0 m may also be erected depending upon the size of garden.
• One may grow creepers such as Ficus repens over the wall.

Flower Beds: The most essential criterion of a flower beds is display the flowers in the best way possible. It may be born in mind that flowers look best when massed in a bed. The flower beds are of special importance under condition of the plains of India since they can be kept planted throughout the year unlike those in England or other parts of Europe where nothing can be grown in the open between November-March. Annuals and herbaceous, perennial flowers, flowering plants are grown in flower beds to provide massing effect of different colours borders is continuous beds of more length than width containing plant of one kind only.

Canning: Canning is the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

History: The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning) and Saddington (1807) in England first described the method of canning. Peter Durand (1810) got first british patent on canning of food in tin container and William under wood introduced canning of fruit on a commercial scale in U.S.A.

Principle of canning: The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat.

Herbicide Mixtures

A mixture of two or more herbicides could be more effective for controlling different weed species. In horticultural and plantation crops, weed free situation is needed during the entire year over several years. In such situations, herbicides are to be rotated to take care of all the species of weeds. A mixture of herbicides, due to chemical reaction, may enhance or reduce the efûciency of one or more compounds. Hence, knowledge of herbicides interactions is essential for efûcient use of herbicides in weed control.

This theory belongs to the ‘market area’ or ‘profit maximisation’ approach and has focused on spatial variations in scales potential. August Losch was a German economist and he proposed his theory in 1939 in a book entitled Die taumliches Ordnung Derwirt’s Chaff.

He disregarded spatial variations in production costs by holding them constant, and instead depicted optimal location as occurring where the largest possible market area is monopolised – that is, where sales potential and total revenue potential are maximised. Losch sought to explain the size and shape of market areas within which a location would command the largest revenue.

The demographic transition theory is one of the most important population theories which is the best documented by the data and statistics of recent demographic history. In its original form, the demographic transition theory was put forward by W. S. Thompson (1929) and Frank W. Notestein (1945). These scholars based their statements and arguments on the trends in fertility and mortality, being experienced in Europe, North America and Australia.

The theory postulates a particular pattern of demographic change from a high fertility and high mortality to a low fertility and low mortality when a society progresses from a largely rural agrarian and illiterate society to a dominantly urban, industrial, literate and modern society. The three very clearly stated hypotheses involved in the process are:

1. The decline in mortality comes before the decline in fertility.
2. The fertility eventually declines to match mortality and
3. Socio - economic transformation of society takes place simultaneously with its demographic transformation.

In the present – day world, as would true of any point in time, different countries of the world are at different stages of the demographic transition. In the opinion of Trewartha, this is largely due to the dual nature of man. According to him, biologically, man is same everywhere and is engaged in the process of reproduction but culturally man differs from one part of the world to another. It is the cultural diversity of man that gives rise to varying fertility patterns in different areas resulting in different stages of demographic transition.

The demographic transition theory is characterized by conspicuous transition stages. The transition from high birth and death rates to low rates can be divided into stages. In the words of E.G. Dolan, “Demographic transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the death rate continues with a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a decline in birth rate”.

The growth pole theory was developed by French regional economist, Francois Perroux, in 1955. He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic development and with the process of structural change. Growth pole is a central location of economic activity. It is an urban location where economic activity ignites growth and better quality of life in the urban periphery.

He attempted to explain how modern process of economic growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations and large scale firms.

In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength, and by the nature of their operations.

Scale of operations, dominance and impulses have close relationship to innovate. This is the most important feature of Perroux’s theory and leads to the concepts of dynamic propulsive firm and leading propulsive industry. The dynamic propulsive firm is relatively large and belongs to a relatively fast growing sector. It has a high ability to innovate and intensity of its interrelation with other sectors of the economy is important enough for the induced effects to be transmitted to them.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Portulaca is an annual potherb, but may be perennial in the tropics. In many parts of the world, it is still regarded as a weed with nutritional potential. Its young stems and leaves are succulent and edible with a slightly acidic and salty taste. Stems are glabrous, f leshy, purplish-red to green, arising from a taproot, often prostrate, forming mats. It is described as a power food of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties. It contains more omega-3 fatty acids (300 to 400 mg/100 g of fresh leaves) than any other leafy vegetable plant. Succulent leaves and stem also contain dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium, as well as vitamins A, C and E and some amount of vitamin B and carotenoids. It has been recommended as a cholesterol lowering agent and as a therapy for arteriosclerosis. Generally, roots and leaves contain more iron and manganese than stems. Due to oxalic acid and nitrate content, excessive consumption of purslane is not recommended. The cultivated form of Purslane, i.e., Portulaca oleracea (garden or green purslane) and Portulaca sativa (yellow leaves, less hardy than the green purslane but possessing the same qualities), is hexaploid. Purslane is a succulent and well-branched herb, leaves are spirally arranged, f lowers are yellow, stamens 7-10, style with arms, fruit ovoid, capsule, seeds numerous, tiny and black in colour.

The important convincing appealing and easily understood method of presenting the statistical data is the use of diagrams and graphs. Diagram makes the comparison of the data but graphs makes the relationship among the data.

Objective: Aggregated figures for merchandise export in India for eight years are as follows

Measures of Central Tendency

The term ‘Mean” or ‘average’ is something, we have been familiar with from a very early age when we start analyzing our marks on report card. We add together all of our test results and then divide it by the sum of the total number of marks there are. We often call it the average. However, statistically it’s the Mean!

The Median is the ‘middle value’. When the totals of the list are odd, the me- dian is the middle entry in the list after sorting the list into increasing order. When the totals of the list are even, the median is equal to the sum of the two middle (after sorting the list into increasing order) numbers divided by two. Thus, remember to line up values, the middle number is the median!

The Mode in a list of numbers refers to the list of numbers that occur most frequently. A trick to remember this one is to remember that mode starts with the same first two letters that most does. Most frequently - Mode.

A relative measure of dispersion based on the quartile deviation is called the coefficient of quartile deviation. It is defined as

MEAN DEVIATION

The mean deviation is the first measure of dispersion that we will use that ac- tually uses each data value in its computation. It is the mean of the distances between each value and the mean. It gives us an idea of how spread out from the center the set of values is.

The mean deviation is based on all the observations, a property which is not possessed by the range and the quartile deviation. The formula of the mean de- viation gives a mathematical impression that is a better way of measuring the variation in the data. Any suitable average among the mean, median or mode can be used in its calculation but the value of the mean deviation is minimum if the deviations are taken from the median.