eChapters

Q.1 If two type ot factors, say (A & B) have to be studied in the same experiment where A requires larger plot size and B requires smaller plot size and structure of the experiment is that of plots within blocks and blocks within replication then such layout is known as split plot design.

Split-plot Design

In field experiments, sometimes a factor has to be applied to a large experimental unit. This is true when the different methods of ploughing or irrigation are to be compared. And in such cases it is possible to introduce a second factor, which does not require large plots, with a small number of levels into the same experiment, at a little extra cost. This is done by splitting the plots (called whole plots of the first factor into as many sub-plots as there are levels of the second factor.)

A split-plot design with an RBD for the first set of treatments (called “the whole-plot treatments”) is obtained by allotting the whole-plot treatments at random to the whole plots of a block and then randomizing the second set of treatments (called “the sub-plot treatments”) to the sub-plots within each whole plot.

This enables us to test for the main effects of the sub-plot treatments and the interaction of the whole-plot treatments and the sub-plot treatments more efficiently than the main effects of the whole-plot treatments in a split-plot design.

Introduction

The split-plot design is specifically suited for a two-factor experiment that has more treatments than can be accommodated by a RCBD. In a split-plot design,one of the factors is assigned to the main plot. The assigned factor is called the main-plot factor. The main plot is divied into subplots to which the second factor ,called the subplot factor, is assigned. Thus, each mainplot becomes a block for the subplot treatments (i.e the levels of the subplot factor). The split-plot design is profitably employed under the following situations.

1. An experimenter may have already possessed some knowledge about the main effect of a certain factor so that his interest lies in estimating the interaction effect of this factor with some other more important factor in whose main effect also he is equally interested. In either case he wants to estimate the latter two effects with greater precision for which he is prepared to sacrifice the precision in estimating the first mainfactor.
2. The second common type of situation when the split-plot design is automatically suggestive is the difficulties in the execution of other design. For instance, if ploughing is one of the factors of interest,then one cannot have different depths of ploughing in different plots scattered randomly apart. Similarly, if different levels of irrigation are chosen,then random distribution of these levels in an ordinary experiment may involve difficulties in the practical execution of such plans. This difficulty may,however, be offset partly by having strips of plots (in one unit of block,say), all treated alike ;receiving the same level of irrigation with different depths of ploughing; or different levels of irrigation with same depth of ploughing. Different levels of irrigation or different depths of ploughing can,however,be randomly distributed over such strips.
3. The third situation in which the experimenter may adopt a split-plot design is this. A particular factor (factors) under investigation exhibits large treatment differences which can be easily detected even in bigger plots,while a second factor (factors) requires comparatively smaller plots to detect smaller treatment differences with higher precision. Then the first factor will be tested in whole plots and the second factor whose treatment differences are small will be tested in small plots or subplots.

Split-plot design is particularly useful when certain biological treatments cannot conveniently be applied to small experimental units. This chapter explains how large experimental plots can be divided into smaller sub-plots to accommodate subsidiary treatments. Main-plot treatments are randomly allocated to larger units, while sub-plot treatments are independently allocated within them. The design allows researchers to study main effects, sub-plot effects, and interactions, although greater precision is generally obtained for sub-plot comparisons than for main-plot comparisons. Examples include wood preservation and nursery experiments involving sowing methods and seasons. The chapter also explains the two error terms required for appropriate analysis of split-plot experiments.

The split-split plot design is an extension of the split-plot design to accommodate a third factor .It is uniquely suited for a three –factor experiment where three different levels of precision are desired for the various effects. Each level of precision is assigned to the effects associated with each of the three factors. This design is characterized by two important features :

1. There are three plot sizes corresponding to the three factors, namely, the largest plot (main plot) for the main-plot factor, the intermediate plot (sub-plot) for the subplot factor, and the smallest plot (sub-sub plot ) for the sub-subplot factor.
2. There are three levels of precision, with the main-plot factor receiving the lowest degree of precision and the sub-subplot factor receiving the highest degree of precision.

The method of analysis is entirely analogous to that for the case of 2 factors. The analysis consists of 3 parts, between whole plots, between split plots within whole plots,between split-split plots within split plots, each part being put on the basis of a split-split plot in order that the parts may be combined into one complete analysis.

Spoilage may be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results into reduction of quality.

Spoilage is Mainly of Two Types

Abiotic Spoilage: Less potential for causing health hazards to consumers. Occurs due to

18.1. Introduction

Spoiled food is defined as the food that has been damaged or has undergone changes so as to render it undesirable/unacceptable/unfit for human consumption. Spoilage of processed products is mainly caused by the action of micro-organisms and due to the physical or chemical changes. The reasons for microbial spoilage include under- processing, inadequate cooling, contamination from leakage through can seams and pre-process spoilage. In under-processed cans (receiving low heat treatment) large number of micro-organisms is expected to be involved in spoilage.

18.2. Causes of food spoilage

Food spoilage or deterioration may be described as loss of weight, softening, souring, rotting, wilting, moulding or a combination of one or more forms. The major causes of food deterioration are: biotic and abiotic factors.

Introduction
The food that has been damaged or has undergone changes so as to render it undesirable/unacceptable/unfit for human consumption is termed as spoiled. Spoilage of processed products is mainly caused by the action of micro-organisms and due to the physical or chemical changes. The reasons for microbial spoilage include under processing, inadequate cooling, contamination from leakage through can seams and pre-process spoilage. In under-processed cans (receiving low heat treatment), large number of different types of micro-organisms are expected to be involved in spoilage.
Causes of Food Spoilage
Food spoilage or deterioration may be described as loss of weight, softening, souring, rotting, wilting, moulding or a combination of one or more forms. The major causes of food deterioration are: biotic and abiotic factors.
A. Biotic Factors
1) Microbial spoilage (yeast, mould, bacteria)
2) Enzyme action (activities of enzymes present in foods)
3) Insect and rodent damage (attack of insects, rodents and parasites)

Abstract
Climate change and the rapid progress of urbanization lead to abiotic stresses of frequent flooding events and pollution seriously threatening the sustainable development of modern cities. The construction of Sponge City can effectively alleviate these problems and improve a city’s resilience to environmental changes and coping with floods making them more sustainable. China was the first country to build Sponge Cities for urban flood control, rainwater harvest, ecological restoration of urban land, and water quality improvement. Many Indian cities also face the risk of flooding during monsoon and this risk is going to increase year after year in the whole nation. India is getting bruised both ways- lack of water & excess flood. So, India too needs a mission that mitigates flood risk and provides a pathway to water security. The most promising solution across the world at this time is the idea to adopt Sponge City construction. Incorporating the Sponge City idea under the area of smart city project would save countless lives and lead to the implementation of sustainable cities. The expense of making this a reality may cost some money, but these projects will provide enormous benefits. Sponge City design thus would act as a defence mechanism during rainstorms, supporting greater absorption and water retention. Thus, it leads as a pathway for sustainable Indian cities.
Keywords: Flood control, sponge city, resilience, urban flooding, climate change.

Smooth gourd or sponge gourd (2n =2x = 26, Luffa cylindrica Roem syn. aegyptiaca, family Cucurbitaceae, monoecious, cross-pollinated but genetically behaving like self-pollinated crop) is not a global crop and is a vegetable crop very much indigenous to India and the adjoining countries. As per estimates, the acreage of this crop in India is about 50,000 ha spread over almost all the states but on a limited scale. However, UP, Bihar and West Bengal are the main states growing sponge gourd.

Origin and Domestication

It is agreed that sponge gourd may have originated from Asian sub-tropical areas, particularly India and India itself should be the centre of domestication as well because global presence of this crop is negligible (Kalloo, 1993). NBPGR, New Delhi publications unanimously mention Indo-Chinese and Hindustani gene centres as primary centres/domestication/secondary centres for Luffa species and in their publications, Luffa aegyptiaca is more commonly used than Luffa cylindrica for sponge gourd (Pandey et al., 2019).

Spontaneous hyperglyceridemia is a metabolic condition characterized by abnormally high levels of glycerol and triglycerides in the bloodstream. This condition can occur in various animal species, including dogs, cats, horses, and ruminants, and is often linked to underlying metabolic or endocrine disorders. Left unmanaged, hyperglyceridemia can lead to severe health complications, including pancreatitis, hepatic lipidosis, and cardiovascular issues. Nutritional management is a cornerstone of treatment and prevention for this condition. Hyperglyceridemia results from an imbalance in the metabolism of triglycerides and glycerol. Normally, dietary fats are broken down into glycerol and free fatty acids, which are absorbed, processed in the liver, and utilized for energy or stored. Hyperglyceridemia arises when triglyceride production exceeds utilization or clearance from the bloodstream.
Causes and risk factors
1. Genetic predisposition: Breeds like Miniature Schnauzers, Shetland Sheepdogs, and Beagles are predisposed to hyperglyceridemia in dogs.
2. Obesity: Excess fat tissue increases triglyceride synthesis and decreases clearance.
3. Endocrine disorders: Conditions like diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and Cushing’s syndrome can impair lipid metabolism.

Spontaneous hypothermia in animals occurs when their body temperature drops below the normal range due to internal or environmental factors, without direct exposure to extreme cold. Unlike hypothermia caused by environmental factors, spontaneous hypothermia often results from metabolic, physiological, or pathological conditions that impair thermoregulation. It is more challenging to predict and manage as it can occur in a wide range of scenarios, including illness, trauma, or systemic dysfunction. Proper nutritional strategies play a critical role in both prevention and recovery.
Spontaneous hypothermia is a drop in core body temperature due to the body’s inability to generate, conserve, or regulate heat, independent of external temperature changes. Mechanism of action
The body maintains its temperature through a balance of heat production (via metabolism and muscular activity) and heat loss (via radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation). Spontaneous hypothermia occurs when:
1. Heat production fails: Conditions such as malnutrition or metabolic disorders limit the body’s ability to generate heat.
2. Heat loss increases: Trauma or vascular conditions can lead to excessive heat loss.
3. Thermoregulatory failure: Diseases affecting the nervous system or endocrine glands disrupt the mechanisms that regulate body temperature.

3.1. Introduction
Sports nutrition is one of the areas of nutrition that closely coordinates with human anatomy research and the science of sports. The application of nutrition science to a practical daily eating plan intended to optimise the performance of athletes in competitive events, speed up the healing and reconstruction process following intense physical activity, and supply the energy for physical activity is known as sports nutrition. It also seeks to promote wellness and general health. Nutrition is strongly connected to fitness, specifically whilst sports activities are involved. It is necessary to recognize the physiology of the workout on the way to recognizing the specific metabolic pathways that coexist in the course of sports activities practice (O’Donoghue, 2014). Three things are necessary for athletic success: genetic endowments, level of training, and nutrition. It is impossible to change one’s genetic makeup. The most efficient method for enhancing athletic performance is specialized exercise training, and any kind of workout regimen must include adequate nutrition. The dietary requirements of athletes and workout aficionados are different from those of physically inactive people due to variations in their calorie needs as well as macro- and micro- nutrient needs. To achieve peak athletic performance, it is crucial to investigate and evaluate the dietary requirements of athletes prior to, during, and following the contest (Cotugnae et al., 2005). Exercises that improve one’s heart health involve swimming, jogging, and climbing. Other exercises that improve one’s flexibility, power, and endurance of muscles involve stretching and hard training with resistance. For example, if someone decides to choose to lose excess fat and to do so, they would design a regular exercise routine that incorporates all of the above-mentioned elements, as well as choosing more nutritious foods in the diet to meet the higher demands to endeavors. Athletic performance requires sports-related abilities. These neuromotor skills, such as balancing, pace, power, durability, stamina, agility, and execution, are particular to sports.

Sprain : It is defined as a joint injury in which fibers of supporting ligaments of the joint are ruptured by direct or indirect trauma. Depending upon the degree of ligament rupture, sprain can be classified as follows: 

Any sprayer nozzle essentially breaks the liquid into small droplets and throws them. All nozzles in the field produce rangesof droplets of different size called spray spectrum. The hydraulic nozzles have wide range of size of droplets whereas the rotary nozzles have narrow range. Adroplet of 400 µm diameter is 1000 times bigger in volume than a droplet of 40 µm. The volume of spherical droplets can be worked out as 4/3 µr3. So if the droplet size of aspraying system could be reduced to half, then there will be 8 fold increases in the number of droplets and the coverage will also increase.

Introduction

Spray drying process has been used for decades to encapsulate food ingredients such as flavors, lipids, and carotenoids. During this drying process, the evaporation of solvent, that is most often water, is rapid and the entrapment of the interest compound occurs quasi-instantaneously. This required property imposes a strict screening of the encapsulating materials to be used in addition to an optimization of the operating conditions. Likewise, if the encapsulated compound is of hydrophobic nature, the stability of the feed emulsion before drying should also be considered.

Abstract

Spray drying is one of the most preferred methods of converting food and pharmaceutical solutions into powder form. Very high product throughput, hygienic and highly automated process and relatively benign thermal and dehydration stress on products associated with this process has made it ubiquitous in powder manufacture. Compared to freeze drying, spray drying is significantly less expensive both in terms of operation and capital costs. In this chapter, key features of spray drying such as underlying operational principle, types of spray nozzles used, the flow pattern of droplets/particles and drying medium within the drying chamber, the particle formation process of individual droplet are discussed in considerable detail. The modelling aspect of a single droplet subjected to spray drying environment has also been included. Finally, the most commonly considered characteristics of spray dried powders including morphology, crystalline/amorphous nature and solubility are highlighted and discussed.  The content presented in this chapter will be very useful for practising engineers, technologists, researchers as well as postgraduate and undergraduate students.

Spraying nozzle is a device for emitting spray liquid, breaking it up into small droplets and throwing the droplets away from the nozzle orifice. Different designs of nozzle are used to produce appropriate droplet size spectrum. In order to break the liquid into droplets energy is needed. The spray nozzles therefore are classified as:

Sprayer is an equipment in which the spray fluid is broken up into fine droplets and ejected under pressure. Actually, the function of the sprayer is to provide the spray fluid with some energy so that it can be broken into fine droplets through the nozzle and propelled to the target. The energy can be produced manually or with the help of any other source of power. There are a variety of sprayers.

Type of Sprayers: There are a variety of sprayers.

20.1. What?

Sprayer is equipment used for applying insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and in some cases fertilizers as foliar sprays to agricultural crops. Sprayers range in size from man-portable units (backpacks) to Self propelled units with boom mounts covering 60-150 feet length. Sprayers include the ones used for spraying liquid formulations, dusters for dusting dust formulations and granular applicators for delivering granules.

20.2. Principle of working

Sprayers work based on Bernoulli’s principle. Basically, the sprayers have a storage tank, a plunger, lance and a nozzle. When the plunger is pushed in, the air flows at a high velocity through the nozzle. The flow of air at high velocity creates a region of low pressure just above the lance. The higher atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of the liquid insecticide causing it to rise up the lance and the insecticide leaves out through the nozzle as a fine spray.

Sprayers are fitted with hollow cone nozzles for spraying pesticides and with flat fan nozzles for herbicides.

Majority of the pesticides are applied as sprays. The liquid formulations of pesticide either diluted or directly are applied in small drops to the crop by different types of sprayers. Generally the wettable powder, EC formulations are diluted suitably with water which is a common carrier of pesticides. However, in few cases oil is used as carrier of pesticides.

As the chill of winter fades away, and nature begins to bloom, it’s time to embrace the joys of spring with your furry friend by your side. While spring brings about a sense of renewal and excitement, it also brings some unique challenges for pet owners. Here are some essential tips to ensure your pet dog stays happy, healthy, and safe during the spring season:

1. Regular Grooming Sessions: Springtime means shedding season for many dogs, as they lose their winter coats to make way for lighter ones. Regular grooming sessions, including brushing and bathing, can help reduce shedding and prevent matting. Additionally, grooming helps in checking for any ticks, fleas, or skin irritations that may arise as the weather warms up.

2. Watch Out for Allergies: Just like humans, dogs can suffer from seasonal allergies too. Keep an eye out for signs such as excessive scratching, licking, or sneezing. Consult your veterinarian if you suspect your dog is experiencing allergies, as they can recommend appropriate treatment options or medication.

3. Protect Against Fleas and Ticks: Springtime brings a surge in flea and tick activity. Ensure your dog is up to date on flea and tick prevention medications recommended by your veterinarian. Regularly inspect your pet for any signs of these pests, especially after outdoor activities in grassy or wooded areas.

4. Stay Hydrated: Warmer weather means increased activity levels for both you and your dog. Make sure your pet has access to clean and fresh water at all times, especially during outdoor excursions. Dehydration can be a serious concern, so carry water and a portable bowl when going for walks or hikes.

Sprinkler irrigation is an advanced method of irrigation in which water is sprayed to air and allowed to fall on the ground similar to rainfall. The spraying of water occurs through nozzle connected to a network of pipes with water under pressure. The rate of application and area of coverage under a sprinkler is regulated by suitable selection of nozzle size and pressure in the system.

History of Sprinkler Irrigation

The sprinkler irrigation has started elsewhere in the world in the early part of twentieth century. Before 1920, sprinkler irrigation was limited to orchard, nurseries and intensive vegetable cultivation. The cost of sprinkler reduced considerably by the development of impact sprinkler and lightweight steel pipe with quick couplers in the 1930s. As a result, sprinkler irrigation began to spread in larger area and to the area of field crops. However, sprinkler irrigation developed mainly after the Second World War with the introduction of lightweight portable aluminum pipe.

Sprinkler irrigation has started in India from mid of 1950s. Due to requirement of high initial investment, the average Indian farmers cannot afford the system and therefore the area under sprinkler irrigation in India was 0.66mha (approx.) out of total irrigated area of 87.80mHa in 1995 (INCID). The sprinkler irrigation was first introduced in India in hilly regions such as Western Ghats in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in the North Eastern States especially by plantation owners for irrigating tea, coffee and cardamom crops. Since the cost of aluminum pipe is high, to replace it, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE)/PVC with suitable modification have been introduced in sprinkler system. However, the area under HDPE/PVC piping system is below 20% to the total area under sprinkler irrigation. The remaining area is cultivated under aluminum or steel based sets. The indigenous manufacturing of the system has started in India only 35-40 years ago and there are about fifty numbers of manufacturers till 1996 (INCID). The details of the cultivated area under sprinkler irrigation system in the world and in Indian States are given in Table 8.1 & 8.2 respectively.

Farmers Must Always Get Genuine Products

Since its start, the pesticide industry has supported crop productivity and our agricultural economy. It was crucial in bringing about the Green Revolution. By protecting plants from pests and diseases, pesticides let India’s high yielding types and hybrids reach their full potential for productivity. The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programme of the Government of India, state governments, and state agricultural institutes is not complete without the use of pesticides. Farmers will receive value-added solutions from the industry via on-farm demonstrations and on-the-spot knowledge-sharing. The emphasis is on creating plans using chemicals for plant protection and attending to the farmers’ urgent requirements.

Pesticides have a direct impact on agricultural economy and food security. The presence of spurious, fake, illegal or duplicate pesticides in the market result in losses of yield and farmers’ income. Over 30% of plant protection chemicals sold in India are not registered, fake, sub-standard, misbranded, counterfeit, unapproved and illegitimate pesticides, bio pesticides and bio-stimulants. They are developed by passing regulations and field trials.

There is a common practice of using the terms spurious, counterfeit, misbranded, illegal, sub-standard and others interchangeably and this often creates confusion among scientist, industrialist and extension officer. Spurious and counterfeit pesticides are the two major words used to describe all kind of anomalies in the pesticides. Hence, there is a need to have a clear understanding of these and differences between them.

SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a fundamental component in the domains of Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, serving as a powerful tool for managing, retrieving, and manipulating data stored in relational databases. In an era where data drives intelligent systems, SQL plays a crucial role in preparing and organizing datasets that form the backbone of machine learning models and AI applications. Its ability to efficiently handle large volumes of structured data makes it indispensable for data scientists, analysts, and engineers working in these fields. Originally developed in the 1970s at IBM by researchers Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce, SQL was designed to provide a standardized way to interact with relational databases. Over time,

SQL, or Structured Query Language, provides a powerful framework for querying, aggregating, and transforming financial data stored in relational databases, which is essential for constructing accurate and dynamic financial models. Unlike spreadsheet-based models, SQL enables automation, repeatability, and scalability, making it particularly useful when dealing with complex datasets or real-time financial information. The first step in financial modeling with SQL is understanding the structure of the database. Financial data is often stored across multiple tables, including transactions, accounts, customers, and market data. Effective financial modeling requires familiarity with relational database concepts such as primary keys, foreign keys, and normalization. By using SQL joins, analysts can merge these tables to create a unified dataset that captures all necessary information, such as revenues, expenses, and cash flows, which are essential for forecasting and valuation exercises. Data extraction in SQL

Financial modeling programs integrated with data analytics using SQL provide a strong foundation for managing, analyzing, and transforming financial data in a structured and scalable manner. SQL, or Structured Query Language, is essential in environments where large volumes of financial data are stored in relational databases, enabling analysts to build reliable and data-driven financial models. Its ability to efficiently query, aggregate, and manipulate data makes it a critical tool in modern financial analytics. The process begins with understanding the database architecture. Financial data is typically distributed across multiple tables such as transactions, accounts, customers, budgets, and market indicators. SQL enables the integration of these datasets through joins, allowing analysts to

This tumour may occur due to specific mutation in the p53 tumor suppressor gene. This is one of the most common epithelial tumor of dog. It is classified into well differentiated, moderately differentiated and poorly differentiated tumour.

Squash: It is a type of fruit beverage containing at list 25% fruit juice or pulp and 40-50% TSS commercially. It’s also containing about 1% citric acid and 350ppm sulphurdioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Generally it is diluted before serving. Mango, orange, pineapple, lemon, lime, guava, litchi etc are commercially used for squash making using KMS as preservative. The coloured fruit like jamun, passion fruit, peach, phalasa, plum, mulberry, strawberry and grapefruits are also used for making squash but due to bleaching effect KMS is not used as preservative. In such types of fruits sodium benzoate used as preservative.

Squashes and Pumpkin (Cucurbita, spp, 2n = 2x = 40) are the words quite often used interchangeably. However, the term squash is more commonly used for C. pepo which is consumed as an immature fruit. The term pumpkin is normally applied to the edible fruit of any species of Cucurbita utilized when ripe as a table vegetable or in pies.
 
Origin:  The genus Cucurbita is native to America.  The center of diversity is the tropics near the Mexico- Gauatamla border. The archaeology evidences indicate that these were widely cultivated in South Western United States, Mexico, and northern South America in Pre-Colombian times i.e. prior to 1492 A.D.

C. pepo : Summer squash : Some varieties belong to winter squash, pumpkin and marrows. It has bushy habit, peduncle hard, sharply angular, grooved, leaves broad, triangular in outline, usually with deep lobes little or no expansion of peduncle at fruit attachment. In North America it is commonly found.

C. mixta : Squash, cymlins, cushaws: It is used as summer and winter squash, leaves shallowly lobed, hard corky peduncle. This is also commonly found in North America.

1. OVERVIEW OF THE NATIONALAGRICULTURE SCENARIO - NATIONAL EXTENSION SYSTEMS, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

Like in many developing countries, Agriculture Sector being the backbone of the Sri Lankan economy, contributes significantly (11.3 per cent in the year 2007) to the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and the economic growth by 7.7 per cent (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2007). As to the situation in 2007, 80 per cent of country’s population of 20.01 million is rural and 31.3 per cent of the total Sri Lankan work force is employed in Agriculture sector. Nearly 14.6 per cent of the population still depends on the agriculture as the main livelihood. The country’s GDP has been growing at 6.8 per cent per annum (in 2007), though that of agriculture is growing at only 3.3 per cent.

Country as a whole is constituted by 25 administrative districts all of which is encompassed into nine provinces. Of these, nearly four fifths are predominantly agricultural districts with over 60 per cent of the total population living in them. Majority of the population in these districts constitutes the farming community and they, by and large, are the ones who keep the nation feeding. Apart from plantation agriculture which looks after large scale plantation level crops like tea, rubber, coconut along with other crops like cinnamon, pepper, coffee, cloves, nutmeg etc., grown extensively for the export market, almost all other food crops are grown by farmers, majority of who own land plots less than 2 hectares. On the one hand, this makes agriculture mainstay of a major sector of the population and on the other hand they are spread nearly everywhere in the country rather thinly on the ground.

We, the participants of ITAF2023 visited Sriracha fisheries research station under the guidance of Asst. Prof. Dr. Naphat Panthukumbol and Dr. Somrat Taweedet on 16/10/23 at 08:00am. The research station is under faculty of fisheries, Kasetsart university in Chonburi Province. The purpose of visit was to learn about the mussel aquaculture and Integrated Multi- Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA).

1) Mussel aquaculture

Cultured species was Perna viridis( Green mussel ). Almost all rafts were owned by fishermen and 10 rafts were under the management of sriracha fisheries research station. The cost of production was 100 baht /acre. Simple method of culture is practiced by installing rafts before breeding season and allowing the natural spawn to attach. The harvesting size of mussel is 8 cm. Observed growth rate is 1cm/ month. Other maintenance includes repairing of ropes ,buoys etc. during off-season. Farmers face many constraints like plankton bloom, waste water discharge, predation by sting ray,parasitism during summer months.

Ramya (2012) studied stability of 12 hybrids in three environments. The researcher selected the 12 hybrids based on the standard heterosis. The hybrids are: P₂ × P₅, P₁ × P₅, P₃ × P₅, P₂ × P₇, P₂ × P₃ and P₁ × P₂. Among the twelve hybrids, the cross combinations viz., P₂ × P₅, P₂ × P₇ and P₂ × P₃ showed non-significant reciprocal effects for most of the traits including fruit yield per plant. The direct hybrid P₁ × P₂ showed less than 40 per cent standard heterosis for fruit yield per plant. It also exhibited low standard heterosis for number of fruits per plant. Eight hybrids viz., P₂ × P₅, P₅ × P₁, P₃ × P₅, P₂ × P₇, P₁ × P₅, P₂ × P₃, P₂ × P₁, P₅ × P₃, based on standard heterosis (>40 per cent) and their parents viz., P₁, P₂, P₃, P₅, P₇ were selected and grown in three different locations for finding their stable performance. Several authors have suggested different types of models to identify the stable genotypes. The model most commonly preferred by breeders is Eberhart and Russell (1966) model which was used in the present investigation. Various stability parameters were worked out on the available data and the results were discussed below.

Among the ten traits studied, days to first flowering, fruit weight and fruit girth showed non-significant genotype × environment interaction. Hence, the remaining seven traits were taken for further analysis. ANOVA across environment revealed highly significant mean sum of square for genotypes, indicating the presence of wide genotypic variability among the genotypes involved in the study for all the characters studied. High significant differences were observed for environments for the traits viz., number of branches per plant, fruit length and fruit yield per plant, indicating the divergence among the growing environments and differential response of genotypes to the various environments. The main factors contributing to the divergence of the environments might be temperature differences during crop season, intensity and duration of sun shine hours. Therefore, the genotypes must be tested over an extensive range of environments for proper assessment of stability of genotypes (Salesh Kumar Jindal et al.,2008).

In developing countries, the most important challenges is to increase food productivity for the continuously growing population from limited land area. To great extent, this challenges has been met with good amount of success in cereals but not in case of pulses. Pulses from an indispensable component of Indian agricultural too. Further, it is an excellent source of protein to the growing population who are mostly vegetarians. The high level of lysine in the protein makes them ideal supplement to cereals. Moreover, they are endowed with nitrogen fixation, and thus improve the soil fertility.

India is one of the major pulse growing countries in the world with a total area of 23.31 million hectares, with a total production of 14.50 million tones (Source: FAO, 2011). The area, under pulses has decreased particularly during the last decades as a consequence of intensive diffusion of techniques in green revolution on the high yielding varieties of cereals. This is mainly due to the low yield potential of legumes even under high input conditions.

Among the various pulses, blackgram/urd bean known scientifically as Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper, former known as Phaseolus mungo (L.) belonging to the tribe Paseolea of family Papilionaceae is of immense importance. It is the most widely grown and highly esteemed grain legume. In India it occupies 2.9 million hectares with an annual production of 1.24 million tones (Source: FAO, 2011).

In Asia this crop is widely cultivated in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh both in kharif and rabi seasons. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Bihar. Tamilnadu is placed eleventh and tenth in area and production respectively (FAO, 2011).

A successfully developed new cultivar should have stable performance and broad adaptation over a range of environments, seasons and locations, in addition to high yield potential. Evaluating performance stability and range of adaptations is becoming increasingly important in breeding programs. Since stability and adaptability are important selection criteria in breeding programs, in depth research on stability is needed for a better estimate of crop performance and adaptability (Lin and Binns, 1988).

Having realized the importance of genotype × environment, several biometrical models have been developed to analyse the stability of genotypes. Such models have been discussed, critically reviewed comprehensively by Knight (1970), Freeman (1973), Hill (1975), Brain (1986) and Gautam et al. (1986).

However, the various methods proposed for the statistical analysis of genotype × environment are based on one of following approaches (Jain, 1982). In the first the variance interactions are estimated by equating the observed mean squares in the analysis of variance to their expectations on the random model. The second approach called phenotypic approach by Hill (1975) used the technique of partitioning the genotype _× environment component of variability into its linear and non-linear portions of assessing the stability of genotypes over a range of environments. This approach which is very widely adopted in plant breeding, came to be known as “Joint regression analysis”.

Many workers contributed for the development of this approach, notably Finlay and Wilkinson (1963), Eberhart and Russell (1966), Freeman and Perkins (1971) and Shukla (1972). The third approach called genotypic approach which also suggested by Hill (1975) is based on fitting of general models in which it specify, the contribution of genetic, environmental and genotype × environment to the generation means and variance. The contributions for he development of this approach were from Bucio (1966), Bucio and Hill (1966), Bucio et al. (1969), Perkins and Jinks (1968), Breese (1969), Hill and Perkins (1969) and Perkins (1970). Linear regression and joint regression models were more commonly used due to their simplicity and reliability in biological experiments. In general, these approaches fall conveniently into two parts.

Stability and adaptability studies have been carried out for upland or hill rice varieties also. Amirthadevarathinam (1987) observed significant genotype × environment and reported that both linear and non-linear components were equally important for assessing stability of yield and four yield components in four environments. Both TKM 6 and Poongar were high yielding with adaptability and stability in addition to being especially suitable for unfavourable environments. Kuruvaikalangium was the best performer for all characters except grains per panicle for which PM 1023 was the best.

Dineshkumar (1987) evaluated sixteen early maturing genotypes for their stability in four major agroclimatic zones of the Karnataka state. No genotype was found stable as they observed more of unpredictable variance (pooled deviation) than predictable (genotype × environment linear).

Ganesh and Soundarapandian (1987) observed that stability of number of ear bearing tillers was a major contributor for yield stability Shivaprakash (1987) reported similar results.

Studies by Sinha and Biswas (1987) on yield and yield components of twenty photo insensitive rice cultivars revealed IR-36 and IET-4094 as high yielder with unit ‘bi’ and least ‘S² d_i’ and hence they were recommended to be suitable for general cultivation for all the environments under study. Similarly IET-2881, which had high mean yield with high ‘bi’ was found suitable for high yielding environments.

Genotypes × Season interaction is of major importance to the plant breeder in developing stable high yielding varieties of crop plants. When new varieties are tested over a series of seasons, the relative ranking of the varieties for any given attribute is rarely the same at each season. This increases the difficulty of identifying superior stable genotypes. Comstock and Moll (1963) have shown statistically the effect of large genotype × environment interaction is reducing the progress from selection.

In order to minimize the genotype × season interaction, stratification of the seasons can be practiced. The implification in stratification is that suitable selections could be made for the infavourable and favourable seasons encountered within the sampling units proposed. Stratification of environments has been practicised for a long time to identify suitable selection that could be made for the narrower range of environments encountered within the sampling units proposed. However, even with this refinement of technique, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region and within environments encountered at the same location in different years, frequently remain too large (Allard and Bradshaw, 1964). Little is known about the environmental factors contributing to such interactions. Sprague (1966) suggested that even if such information are available, the possibility of materially reducing genotype × environment interaction in field experiments would remain questionable.

On line with Allard and Bradshaw’s (1964) statement, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region with different seasons at the same location in different years, may remain too large. As far as sesame is concerned, practically nothing is known about the factors contributing to such genotype × season interactions. Hence, the progress in breeding a stable variety of sesame has been slow. Since sesame in India is grown essentially as rainfed crop, fluctuations in yield levels closely follow changes in the environment and seasons. Breeding for multiseasonal variety for may small regions within a state is being considered necessary. There is widespread awareness of achieving stability of production as well as improvement in yield of sesame under low and high-in-put conditions as well as for different seasons.

A successfully developed new cultivar should have stable performance and broad adaptation over a range of environments, seasons and locations, in addition to high yielding potential. Evaluating performance stability and range of adaptation is become increasingly important in breeding programmes. Since, stability and adaptability are important selection criteria in breeding programmes, in depth research on stability is needed for a better estimate of crop performance and adaptability.

Genotype × season interaction is of major performance to the plant breeder in developing stable but high yielding varieties of crop plants. When new varieties are tested over a series of seasons, the relative ranking of the varieties for any given attribute is rarely the same at each season. This increases the difficulty of identifying superior stable genotypes. Comstock and Moll (1963) have shown statistically the effect of large genotype × environment interaction in reducing the progress from selection.

In order to minimize the genotype × season interaction, stratification of the seasons can be practiced. The implication in stratification is that suitable selections could be made for unfavourable and favourable seasons encountered within the sampling units proposed. Stratification of the environments has been practiced for a long time to identify suitable selection that could be made for the narrower range of environments encountered within the sampling units proposed. However, even with this refinement of technique, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region with environments encountered at the same location in different years, frequently remain too large (Allard and Bradshaw, 1964). Little is known about the environmental factors contributing to such interactions. Sprague (1966) suggested that even if such information were available, the possibility of materially reducing the genotype × environment interaction in field experiments would remain questionable.

Phenotype is the product of genotype and environment. In presence of genotype x environment interaction (differential performance of genotypes over the environments), phenotype is the product of genotype, environment and genotype x environment interaction. A stable genotype is one which interacts less with the environment or shows a minimum of g x e interaction. When g x e interaction is significant, one must investigate the specific types of g x e interactions such as genotype x location, genotype x year and genotype x location x year interactions by growing selected genotypes over multiple locations and years. Normally, the genotypes are evaluated for three years. A typical analysis of variance for g x e interaction is given in Table 7.1 (Allard, 1960).

Introduction
Phospholipids naturally form liposomes when placed in water. These liposomes consist of one or more phospholipid bilayers that enclose an aqueous interior. The liposomes offer multiple benefits due to their enhanced permeability and retention mechanism [1]. Liposomes have the potential to enhance the pharmacokinetic properties of encapsulated drugs [2], increase their circulation times, and allow passive targeting and accumulation in areas of inflammation and tumors. Liposomes help diminish the overall toxicity caused by unencapsulated drugs [3]. They surge a drug’s solubility and offer a sustained [4], controlled release of the encapsulated drug.
Stability studies and shelf-life determination are indispensable for maintaining the integrity and efficacy of liposome-based products. The key factors influencing liposome stability include temperature, pH, lipid composition, and the use of stabilizing agents. These elements must be carefully managed to ensure that liposomal formulations remain effective throughout their intended shelf life [5]. Research indicates that adding tetraether lipids to liposomes can significantly improve their stability in challenging conditions such as low pH, elevated temperatures, and autoclaving, thereby extending their shelf life [6]. The addition of antioxidants such as vitamin C has proven effective in surging the stability and antioxidant properties of liposomes, thereby extending their shelf life across various environmental conditions [7]. Studies have exhibited those liposomal formulations showed superior chemical, physical, and microbiological stability compared to traditional formulations such as ointments, emulsions, and gels. This superior stability makes liposomes a highly auspicious alternative for maintaining product integrity over extended periods

Generally microorganisms are so small and colourless in their natural state that it becomes difficult to observe them clearly under microscope. Stains and dyes, which are colouring agents, are used by biologist for better understanding of the morphological and anatomical structures of the organisms under study. Stains are prepared with great care and specification to get satisfactory result, while dyes are not as exacting in their characteristics.

Dyes are of two types, natural and synthetic. The natural dyes are used for histological purposes, whereas the synthetic dyes for bacterial stain. Usually dyes which are derivatives of cyclic compound benzene of benzole, are prepared from one or more substances found in coal-tar, and so are called coal-tar dyes. Chemically dyes are organic compounds containing both chromophore and auxochrome groups linked to benzene rings. Chromophore group provides the compounds the property of colour and thus benzene containing chromophores are called chromogens. It has no affinity to combine with fibres or tissue and as such not called dye. For being a dye, compound should contain an auxillary group which provides the compounds the properties of electrolytic dissociation.

The dyes may be acidic, basic or neutral. The acidic dyes are eosin, acid fuchsine and picric acid whereas the basic dyes are safranin, methylene blue, crystal violet etc. The acidic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a negative electrical charge. They are salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc. The basic dyes ionize to give the dye portion of molecule a positive electrical charge and are salts of chlorides, sulphates or acetates.

Gomori’s Method for Iron
The major deposits of iron in mammals are in the red blood cells as hemoglobin and in the phagocytes of the reticulo-endothelia system as ferritin and haemosiderin. It is essential mineral and an important component of proteins, involved in oxygen transport, oxygen storage in muscle tissues and oxidation of nutrients in the mitochondria. Enzymes of the electron transport chain, cytochromeoxidase, ferredoxin, myeloperoxidase, catalase and the cytochrome P450 enzyme also requires iron as co-factors.
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin or absolute alcohol and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with water 5 minutes.
4) Hydrochloric acid-Potassium ferrocyanide solution for 30 minutes.
5) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
6) Counter stain in nuclear fast red solution for 5 minutes.
7) Rinse in distilled water.
8) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute ethanol (one minute each).
9) Clearing in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each

Background
Staining is a crucial step in the microscopic examination of fine needle aspirates (FNAs) from canine mammary tumors. It enhances the visibility of cellular structures, making it easier to diagnose the tumor type. The cryopreservation of unfixed, air-dried smears of FNA can safely be used for staining up to 33 months, including immunostaining for epithelial and mesenchymal cell markers like cytokeratin and vimentin (Furusawa et al., 2023).
Common Staining Techniques
1. Romanowsky Stains: Romanowsky stains are a group of related stains, Dimitri Romanowsky in 1891. It used a mixture of Eosin (an acidic dye) and methylene blue (a basic dye). The original method has since been modified to include additional derivatives of methylene blue, such as azure B, leading to more distinct staining effects (Marshall, 1986). It is widely used in hematology, cytology, and microbiology for staining blood smears, bone marrow smears, and other cell types. These stains are significant for identifying and differentiating cellular components like nuclei, cytoplasm, and intracellular structures in various types of cells.
• May-Grunwald-Giemsa stain: A modification of the Romanowsky stain, combined with Giemsa for its ability to differentiate between cell types and structures. It stains nuclei blue and cytoplasm pink. Giemsa stain utilizes the azure dye to stain the azurophilic cellular components purple.

Background
Leishman stain (named after W. B. Leishman, a British surgeon) is one of the Romanowsky- type stains. It is a differential stain used to stain the different components of the cells variably. The Leishman stain is one of the best for routine blood staining and can be used for FNAC smear staining. It stains the peripheral blood smear when examining blood film under the microscope (Figure 20).
Leishman stain combines Azure B (blue) and Eosin Y (orange) dyes. Azure B has an affinity for DNA and acidic groups in cell nuclei, while Eosin Y has an affinity to basic groupings in cytoplasm. The staining results show crisp blue nuclei while the cytoplasm takes a purple hue.
Procedure for Leishman Staining
Sample Preparation
• Obtain a thin blood smear or FNAC sample.
• Air-dry the smear thoroughly.
• Flood the slide with methanol for 3-5 minutes for fixation
• Air dry the smear.

Background
Staining of milk somatic cells is the oldest method of enumerating cell types in milk by direct microscopic examination. Various stains, namely propidium iodide, methylene blue and hematoxylin-eosin stains, are used.
The total milk cell (TMC) pellet obtained above was resuspended gently in 500 μl of PBS 1X (Sigma, MA, USA). Place 20 μl of cell suspension on a clean glass slide (BioGenex, CA, USA) and let it dry at room temperature.
Materials and reagents required
1. Positively-charged glass slides
2. Glass coverslips
3. Hot plate
4. Fixatives – Methanol or ethanol
5. Hematoxyline and Eosin stain
6. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)
7. Distill water
8. Ethanol for dehydration
9. Xylene
10. Mounting medium (like DBX)

The whole brain or its slices could be stained for differentiation of the areas of gray and white matter for better understanding of macroscopic neuroanatomy. Various researchers have developed the methods of staining of either the whole brain or its slices. The review of all these methods is being detailed below. These would definitely help the teachers and students to teach and grasp the macroscopic details of central nervous system viz. nuclei, laminae, fascicule, capsule and other structures with little or no magnification.
Staining of Whole Brain and Sections from its Slices (Hewitt, 1959)
Fixation of whole brain in either 70% alcohol or 10% formaldehyde without removal of membranes and blood vessels.
Protocol
1. The collected whole brain is immersed in ten volumes of staining fluid.
2. The staining fluid can be resaturated, when ever it becomes paler and clearer in colour, then it can be used in smaller volume in proportion to the volume of brain for the next staining.
3. Complete staining is assessed by uniform red colouration of the brain. A cats’ brain requires at least 1 month and the human brain not less than 6 months. The time required is governed by size of the brain. The brain stem is cut of about 5 mm thickness to examine the completion of the staining.
4. The stained brain is immersed in ten volumes of 70% alcohol for differentiation.

Van-Gieson Stain for Collagen Fibers
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinize sections and hydrate to water through descending grades of alcohol.
2) Remove mercury crystals if tissue fixed in Zenker’s or Helly’s fluid.
3) Stain in iron haemotoxylin solution for 2 to 3 minutes.
4) Wash in running water for 10-15 minutes.
5) Rinse in distilled water.
6) Counter stain in Van Gieson’ssolution for 2-3 minutes.
7) Two to three dips in 96% alcohol.
8) Dehydrate through absolute alcohol and clear in xylene.
9) Mount with D.P.X mountant.
Observations:
Red : Collagen fibers
Yellow : Muscles, RBC and cornified epithelium
Blue : Nuclei

Stakeholder is an individual or group that has an interest in any decision or activity of an organization. A stakeholder is a member of groups without whose support the organizationwould cease to exist. Stakeholders are important to every project. Stakeholders are very important because they can have a positive or negative influence on the project with their decisions. A stakeholder is either an individual, group or organization who is impacted by the outcome of a project.