eChapters

Introduction

Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy.

Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered to be biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g., toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, or saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under this Convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered as a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition, known as the General Purpose Criterion)

Introduction
The major conditions described under this heading are as follows :
    1.    Snakebite 
    2.    Scorpion bite 
    3.    Black widow spider sting 
    4.    Toad poisoning

Snake Bite
Poisonous snakes mainly belong to three categories

Introduction

A toxin (Greek: ôïîéêüí, toxikon, lit. (poison) for use on arrows) is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low concentrations. Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins and are capable of causing disease on contact or absorption with body tissues by interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their severity, ranging from usually minor and acute (as in a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (as in botulinum toxin)

Introduction

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture and we have reached on such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

Introduction

The word mycotoxin is derived from myco, meaning mold and toxin, a poison. A great number of mold metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins. Thus mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites (i.e., metabolites not essential to the normal growth and reproduction of the fungus) which cause pathologic, physiologic, and/or biochemical lesions in other species (may include animals, plants, other microbes, etc.).

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production. But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds (Tribulis) in the farm premises.

Nitrate - Nitrite Poisoning
Sources
Accidental ingestion/grazing of Plants which are Nitrate accumulators 

Arsenic
General Information
    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As⁺³ and pentavalent As⁺⁵ oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source
    1.    Inorganic form is used in paints.
    2.    Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
    3.    Industrial effluents released into nearby water body
    4.    Insecticides (Arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
    5.    Herbicides (Sodium arsenite, lead arsenate)

Definitions

        Toxicology: Knowledge (or science) of poisons, including their chemical properties, identification, biological effects, and the treatment of conditions they cause.

        Poison: Any solid, liquid, or gas that, when introduced into or applied to the body, can interfere with the life processes of cells of the organism - by its own inherent chemical properties - without acting mechanically and regardless of temperature.

Analyzing feeds for nutrient content is essential for proper balancing of livestock rations. This is especially essential for those feeds that have undergone the fermentation process. Silage samples should be analysed for dry matter, protein fractions (degradable and undegradable protein, soluble protein, and heat damaged protein), ADF, NDF, mineral content and energy. In addition to these components, lactic, acetic, and butyric and propionic acids, pH, ammonia nitrogen, ethanol, and yeast and mold counts are also quantified.

Haylage or baleage or round bale silage, is a somewhat newer method of preserving forage. Haylage is simply forage that is baled at higher moisture content than dry hay and then stored in a sealed plastic wrap. Because of the high moisture level and air-tight environment, the forage ferments and is preserved by acid production during fermentation. The higher pH values associated with baleage are related to a slower fermentation process. During the respiration stage of the ensiling process the oxygen that is trapped in storage is rapidly consumed by aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria, which survive in the absence of oxygen, begin to grow and multiply in the fermentation stage and convert the plant sugars into organic acids- mainly lactic acid and acetic acid. With production of acids, the pH of the silage is reduced from an original level of 7.0 to a final ideal pH of 4–5. Typical large bale haylage has a pH of 4.5–5.5. Fermentation ceases when bacteria growth is stopped by the accumulation of acids. The haylage will then remain at a stable pH with no bacterial growth and can be preserved for a long time, providing there is no exposure to air. Harvesting forages with a long fiber usually results in a slow release of the plant nutrients necessary for the growth of acid producing bacteria. This generally results in less fermentation in the baleage than in chopped silage.

Storage of hay at higher moisture contents may lead to some heating due to the activity of aerobic micro-organisms and possibly some plant respiration. The warm, moist conditions in hay will provide the ideal environment for growth of spoilage bacteria, e.g. Bacilli and yeasts, moulds and fungi. These organisms utilize the energy and protein of the hay and can lead to a substantial increase in their respective populations. Their action leads to the following reaction:- 

Hay (plant sugars) + oxygen ® Carbon dioxide + water + heat
 
The resultant heating causes a reaction between the carbohydrates and proteins rendering both less digestible as temperatures continue to increase. The best opportunity to reduce hay-harvesting losses is by shortening curing time. A combination of mechanical conditioning, chemical conditioning and high-moisture baling help accomplish this goal (Collins, 1988; Mahanna, 1994).

Hay quality really means feed value. The ultimate test of hay quality is animal performance. Quality can be considered satisfactory when animals consuming the hay give the desired performance.
 
Characteristics of Good Quality Hay

    1.    Hay should be nutritious therefore prepared form plants cut at an appropriate stage of maturity when it has the maximum nutrients.
 
    2.    Good hay should be leafy. The leaves are generally richer in proteins, minerals and vitamins then other parts of the plant.

    3.    Hay should be green in colour. The green colour indicates the amount of carotene which is precursor of vitamin A. The green colour should be preserved by minimizing the bleaching, leaching arid fermentation losses.

Feeding of green and succulent fodder is of utmost importance to farm animals. Grazing fresh forage year round at the optimal stage of maturity would supply the highest quality and most palatable form of feed in any livestock operation. In most part of the world, green fodder is limited to a particular season only. Because of fluctuations in seasonal growth and plant maturity, excessive biomass in the spring, it is necessary to harvest and store forages to maximize both quality and productivity. One of the important form of conservation practiced on a wide scale is hay making. Hay making is an art in which the fodder is kept for future use in lean period. Since it contains large quantity of moisture it is to be dried properly to increase its keeping quality without reducing its nutritive value. The objective of hay making is to achieve a rapid moisture loss after cutting so that the forage can be romoved from the field with minimum losses from weathering and microbial degradation (Bareebam, 1992).

Forage preservation as silage is a key component of high input (zero-grazing) systems (Mannetje, 1999). It has allowed producers to intensify the productivity of the land and the productivity of the livestock. Large quantities of forage can be conserved in a short time, forage conservation is less weather dependent and thirdly, silage is well suited to mechanization. However, a major disadvantage associated with silage making is that the feeding value of the resultant forage is reduced relative to that of the original crop. Ensiling offers many advantages over haymaking.

Feeding silage is also an important part of the process. Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals. Silage is suitable for feeding 6-7 weeks after ensiling. Purposes of silage feeding are drought feeding, production increases, an aid to pasture or crop management, utilization of excess growth, balancing nutrients in the diet, and the storage of wet feed products. Silage is most likely to be profitable when used to increase productivity or balance nutrient content of the diet.
 
Feeding value of silage is defined as the product of the nutritive value and potential voluntary intake of the forage (Wheeler and Corbett, 1989).

Objective of the conservation of forage is to preserve as much as of the crop nutrient as possible. However, during ensilage loss of nutrients occurs. There are five sources of loss. Theses are:
 
    (a)    Field losses 
    (b)    Oxidation or respiration losses 
     (c)    Fermentation losses
    (d)    Effluent losses 
    (f)    Aerobic deterioration

It is recognized in developed countries that the production of silage of high quality cultivated forage can be a valuable component for the development of a high-performing and low-cost system of animal production, using a relatively low level of purchased concentrates. However, this appears inappropriate for smallholders in tropical countries, primarily due to lack or high cost, or both, of equipment for harvesting and conservation and production of cultivated forage being often limited due to lack of available land. Many agricultural, agro-industrial and fishery by-products have potential as animal feeds. Most farmers in developing countries rely for their food security on the cultivation of cereals, root crops and high-value crops such as fruits and vegetables, which understandably take priority in the allocation of land. Fruit, vegetables and root crops are increasingly integrated in the farming system and play a key role as staples in the human diet in most developing countries.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process involving interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. There are various factors that influence the fermentation process and ultimately the nutrient composition and quality of ensiled feed. These are as follows:

1. Plant Factors

Forage characteristics at the time of ensiling are the predominant factor which determines the final quality of silage. Factors such as type of forage to be ensiled, maturity, DM content and WSC content of that forage, all influence the ease of ensiling and ultimately the quality of silage that is produced.

Quality of silage is determined by nutrients content and intake potential of the silage. High quality silage is a stable feed, made from high quality pasture, which is preserved in the absence of oxygen by a high quality fermentation, to minimize any loss of feeding value. It is not possible to produce high quality silage from low quality pasture, no matter how good the fermentation is. The silage quality is generally used to indicate the success of fermentation and not to evaluate the feeding value of the silage. However, the fermentation quality and nutritional value of the silage are usually highly correlated because a poor fermentation can result in great loss of the digestible nutrients (Sutoh et al., 1970; Uchida and Sutoh, 1973). Therefore, both the quality of the ensiled pasture and the quality of the fermentation must be considered.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process that is affected by variety of factors. The primary goal of making silage is to maximize the preservation of original nutrients in the forage crop for feeding at a later date. Unfortunately, fermentation in the silo is a much uncontrolled process usually leading to less than optimal preservation of nutrients. In order to assist in the fermentation process, various silage additives have been used to improve the nutrient and energy recovery in silage, often with subsequent improvements in animal performance (Henderson, 1993; Bolsen et al., 1996; Muck and Kung, 1997; Kung and Muck, 1997; Muhlbach, 2000). Their main functions are to either increase nutritional value of silage or improve fermentation so that storage losses are reduced. The benefits obtained from silage additives depend upon their influence on the silage fermentation process. These benefits are usually measured by the reduction in fermentation losses and/or improvement in silage quality and feeding value.

Silage fermentation is a complex process involving biochemical changes by microbial populations and the ensiling environment. The chemistry and microbiology of silage fermentation are linked, but the microorganisms are the dominant factor in the fermentation process, and they have the main influence on the quality of the end product. Many species of microorganisms are involved in the fermentation process, and their relative importance varies according to the prevailing conditions. As these conditions change during the fermentation process, the microorganism population changes accordingly. Lactic acid bacteria and clostridia are two main categories of microbes responsible for biochemical changes in silage.

Successful preservation of high-moisture forage and other crops depends upon the controlling the activities of microbes, particularly bacteria. Ensiling generally controls microbial activity by a combination of an anaerobic environment and a natural fermentation of sugars by lactic acid bacteria on the crop. The silage microflora plays a key role in the successful outcome of the conservation process. Therefore, it is important to understand both the microorganisms that are present on the crop at ensiling and how ensiling preserves the crop, inhibiting detrimental microorganisms. The crop at ensiling contains both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms and a range of both bacteria and fungi that affect silage quality.

A silo is an airtight to semi-airtight structure designed for the purpose of preservation and storage of high moisture feeds as silage.
 
Role of the silo in silage making

Silo has only three functions in the ensiling process:
    1.    To provide a solid surface to permit compaction of the mass to eliminate air;
    2.    To protect the ensiled materials from air and water during the storage period;
    3.    Where desired, to aid in the removal of silage by providing a base for unloading equipment.

Ensiling is the term given for all physical and chemical changes that take place when forage with sufficient moisture content (60-65%) is stored in the absence of air for silage preservation. Silage fermentation is an exceptionally complex process involving biochemical interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. Successful silage production depends upon the promotion of the fermentation brought by beneficial bacteria. The process is based on spontaneous lactic acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions. The lactic acid bacteria ferment the water-soluble carbohydrates in the crop to lactic acid, and to a lesser extent to acetic acid. Due to the production of these acids, the pH of the ensiled material decreases and spoilage micro-organisms are inhibited. The ideal characteristics of material for silage preservation are: DM content above 20% and an adequate level of fermentable substrate (8-10 percent of DM) in the form of water soluble carbohydrate. The ensiling material should also ideally have a physical form that allows easy compaction in the silo. Materials such as maize stover, sorghum stover and grass can be ensiled successfully, while crop residues such as rice and wheat straw, with low water soluble content, do not fulfill these requirements, and therefore pre-treatments, such as fine chopping or use of additives, or both, may be necessary.

Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of forages or crop residues with high moisture content. The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forages by anaerobic fermentation in which soluble carbohydrates are converted into acids. Due to acid produced, pH of a well-ensiled product becomes so low that all life processes come to a halt and the material remain preserved so long as it remains in airtight storage. Soluble carbohydrate present in forage is converted to lactic acid which drops the pH to a level sufficient to inhibit any further biological activity in the ensiled forage mass (McDonald, 1991). Fresh forage crops, such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and Lucerne, can be preserved by ensiling. It is essential to have a good microbial fermentation process to produce high quality silage. Good silage is achieved by discouraging the activity of plant enzymes and undesirable micro-organisms and encouraging the dominance of lactic acid bacteria. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. Silage-making is a managemental tool that allows producers to match feed resources (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, etc.) with feed demand for a dairy herd.

Livestock production is an integral part of agriculture and plays a significant economic role in most developing countries. It contributes to poverty alleviation, food security and provides elements that are essential to the national economy. Livestock production accounts for 40% of the gross value of the agricultural production globally and this figure is likely to go up, as the demand of livestock products is increasing rapidly with the increase in income and urbanization (FAO, 2012). For poor farmers, animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable development and economic stability. Livestock provide a stable cash reserve independent of inflation and are an important source of traction. Livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of several million people. Quality and quantity of feed is essential for optimum animal productivity. Inadequacy of quality animal feed resources is most often the crucial factor for livestock production. The success of livestock is greatly dependent on continuous supply of good quality nutritious feed at competitive price. Poor nutrition of animals has been identified as the major constraints to animal production across the developing world (FAO, 2000). Feed is the major input cost in animal production system, accounting for 65-70% of the total rearing cost.

Garlic is recognized all over the world as a valuable condiment for food and medicine. It is a native of Western Asia and Mediterranean area where it is in cultivation for centuries. China, Korea, India, USA, Spain, Argentina and Egypt are the major garlic growing countries, China being the largest producer (Pandey, 2004). Europeans, especially the Italians and the Spanish used this spice regularly for 2000 years and more. Garlic is one of the important spicy bulbs grown commercially in India. The plant is cultivated in temperate and tropical climates. Important states producing garlic on commercial scale are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Demand of garlic is increasing day by day in domestic and export markets. Garlic and garlic products, especially dehydrated garlic and garlic powder are gaining considerable economic importance recent times.

Marjoram is native of Southern Europe. It grows in West Asia, South and North America, France, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, England and North Africa. It is an important kitchen herb and its dried leaves with or without flowering tops in small proportion constitute the spice of commerce. In India, the crop finds its cultivation only in small scale in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. France and Egypt are the main exporters of marjoram oil in the world.

Botany and chemical composition

Marjorana hortensis is an aromatic branched perennial, 30-60 cm high. Though a perennial, it is treated as an annual under cultivation. Main stem is woody with many softer branches. Leaves are round, soft, mat green and with a marvelous sweet smell. Flowers small, whitish or purplish in terminal clusters, seeds minute, oval and dark brown in colour.

Coriander is used by man since long as coriander seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. Further, Persia grew coriander 3,000 years ago and it added fragrance to Hanging Gardens of Babylon. In 3^rd century BC, Romans also found coriander seed as an excellent seasoning for popular foods.

Besides seeds, fresh leaves are being used for garnishing of food in many Latin American, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Indian dishes since long. Fresh coriander leaves are also known as Chinese Parsely. In India, coriander seed is used almost daily in scores of curries for flavouring and leaves for garnishing. Coriander is a native of Mediterranean region.

Myristica fragrans Houtt., the nutmeg tree is unique among spice plants as the donor of two distinct spices; nutmeg and mace.Native of Indonesia (Moluccas islands), nutmeg tree grows there abundantly and is now naturalised in West Indies, Srilanka, India, Phillipines, Tropical America and Pacific Islands. (Varghese, 2000). In India, the plant is grown in certain pockets of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, North East India and Andamans (Krishnamoorthy, 2000). It is also grown in a small scale in Srilanka, Trinidad, China, Tobago, Zanzibar and Mauritius.

Black pepper, christened as “King of spices” and “Black gold” is the most important and the most widely used spice in the world occupying a position that is supreme and unique. It was the lure of Indian pepper that brought the western world to Indian sub continent.

The black pepper of commerce is the dried mature fruit of the tropical perennial climbing plant Piper nigrum. Pepper originated in the tropical evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. The Malabar coast of India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Black pepper was essentially a minor forest produce in the past, people collected it from forests where it abundened. Domestication of pepper appears to be a much later event. The recorded history shows that Arabs, followed by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British traders took pepper to all over the world and spread its use and cultivation. Initially black pepper was taken from the Malabar coast to the Indonesian islands, then it spread to various Pacific islands, South East Asian countries and later to tropical Africa and America. Currently, pepper is grown in about 26 countries, major being India, Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia and Srilanka. In India, pepper is grown mainly in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and to a little extent in Goa, Orissa, Assam and Andaman group of islands. Kerala is the original home of pepper. This state accounts for 95% of country’s area and production.

The term ‘Spices and Condiments’ applies to such natural plant or vegetable products or mixtures thereof, used in whole or ground form, mainly for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to food. They are low volume high value crops which play a pivotal role in our national economy and provide a strong footing in the international market. According to the latest report of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), there are about 109 spices grown in different parts of the world. India grows about 52 of them. The list of those spices with botanical and English names which come under the purview of Spices, Board, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India is given in Table 1.

The adjustment and maintenance of soil pH at a value suitable for optimal crop production is the first step in soil management, because soil pH affects soil properties, nutrient availability and plant nutrition. In India, about 30M ha cultivated  land  suffer from high soil acidity (pH < 5.5). These soils are critically degraded and are of poor health producing crop yields, which are often less than 50% of that in normal soils. Due to this, farmers use much less fertilizers for crops (50 to 80 kg NPK ha^-1), since this is not profitable.

Soils become acidic due to natural  and artificial (anthropogenic) reasons. The natural reasons include their origin from acidic parent materials namely granite, rhyolite, pegmatite and dacite etc. and areas under high rainfall  (rainfall  exceeding evapotranspiration) removing  basic cations through leaching and erosion particularly in coarse textured soils with undulated, hilly and sloping topography. Under natural condition, accumulation of organic matter and its decomposition also releases organic acids into the soil system, turning soils  acidic. The anthropogenic factors    responsible for turning soils  acidic,  are (i) removal of basic cations through crop cultivation, (ii) continuous use of acid forming fertilizers and (iii) acid rain in industrial areas.

Acid soils occupy one fourth of the land in India. The formation and distribution of acid soils depend upon several factors like temperature, vegetation, parent material and hydrological conditions etc. For this reason, these soils have low pH, poor base saturation, high sexquioxide content, which affects the transformation and availability of plant nutrients.  Secondary and micronutrient deficiency as well as toxicity are major problems in cultivation of crops in acidic soils. These soils are generally deficient in Ca, Mg and S and adequate in Fe, Mn and Cu. Apart from the secondary nutrients, Zn, B and Mo deficiencies affect crop production. In lowlands, rice crop suffers from toxicity of Fe. Aluminum toxicity, common in highly acidic soils, also pose major problems in crop production. Management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils for agriculture is a national priority to achieve food sufficiency and sustainability.

The state of Odisha located in the Coromondal coast of India has a tropical monsoon climate characterized by high humidity, high rainfall (1497 mm) and short and medium winter. It is the 10^th largest and 11th most populous state accounting about 5% of the geographical area and 4% of the population of the country. The geographical area of the state is 15.57 m ha, out of which 0.62 m ha is arable land. Agriculture contributes 28% to  state domestic production and employs 64% of the work force.

Jharkhand state lies between 21º58’2" to 25º8’32" North latitude and 83º19’05"to 87º55’03" East longitude covering an area of about 7.97 m.ha. and accounts for  2.4 per cent of  the total geographical area (TGA) of the country. It is bound on the east by West Bengal, on the west by Chhattisgarh, on the north by Bihar and on the south by Odisha. Reliable information on the location, extent and quality of soil and land resources is the first requirement in planning for the sustainable management of land resources. The components of land i.e., soils, climate, water, nutrient and biota are organised into an eco-system, which provides a variety of services that are essential for the maintenance of the life support system and the productive capacity of the environment.

The north eastern hill region covers a large share of acid soils of India occupying 14.95 m ha which is a major constraint for sustainable crop production. Acid soil limits the availability of calcium and phosphorus in soil, lowers base saturation and reduces microbial activities in soil adversely affecting the crop growth and yield. About 95 % of the soils of this region, except Nagaland (about 70 %) are acidic in reaction. About 84, 77, 76, 60, 57 and 47 per cent soils of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim and Tripura, respectively have soil pH below 5.0 and are considered strongly acidic (Panda, 1998). The soils are highly degraded because of heavy rainfall and removal of top soils. Land slides are also contributing towards land degradation. About 16 % of the area is affected by water erosion (www.india stat.com). About 53.8, 28.2, 42.6, 53.9, 89.2, 60, 33 and 59.9 per cent  area are degraded in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, respectively. Including Assam, north-east constitutes 80 % of the total area under acid soils of the country. The land use pattern of north-east region is presented in table 1 and area, production, yield of foodgrains and fertilizer consumption are presented in Table 2.

Many farmer participatory field  experiments were designed and conducted in different states of India having large area under acid soils, with locally available soil ameliorants to study their effect on soil health and crop performance. This work was done during 2000 & 2005 under an ICAR network project on “Soil characterization and resource management of acid soil regions for increasing productivity”. The details of the field locations are presented in table 1.

Acid soils are found in India in about 93 million hectares ( Table 1) and they occur in the Himalayan region, the great Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, peninsular plateau and uplands and the coastal plains including island eco-systems under varying environmental conditions of landscape, geology, climate and vegetation. Conditions which are conducive for the formation of acid soils, such as high rainfall coupled with high temperature encouraging intense weathering and loss of alkali and alkaline earth metals with a simultaneous accumulation of iron and aluminium hydroxy compounds or the formation of free acidic substances in the humid forest foot hill regions, exist in some region or other in almost all the states in India.  A soil with pH less than 7.0 is deemed as an acid soil (Soil Survey Staff,1951). However, for characterization and classification, acid soils may be defined as those having pH less than 5.5 in 1:1 water extract (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).

Soil  is an interface of inorganic and organic componentsof the planet earth, which combines carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere with different mineral elements of the lithosphere through millions of microorganisms, intercepting energy from the sun and moisture from the hydrosphere and atmosphere. It is a source as well as sink to adsorb, desorb, fix or release mineral elements and gases, decompose organic residues, simultaneously and support the growth of plants. All these natural processes are accompanied by runoff, percolation and evapotranspiration processes of the hydrologic cycle. Thus, soil is a dynamic body that acquires properties in accordance with the forces, which act upon it. Many soil properties emanate from physical, chemical and biologically mediated reactions, where the factors like climate, vegetation, topography and time  influences the processes. Soil reaction is one of the most important chemical characteristics of the soil solution,which has both direct and indirect effects on plant nutrition.

Soil pH

Danish scientist Sorensen (1909) first used the term pH. The H+ concentration is usually small and is expressed in terms of pH, defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the H+ concentration, in moles per litre. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Soil acidity is the concentration of H+ in the soil solution. This is active acidity. Besides, there is a potential acidity, that includes the H+ adsorbed on the colloidal fraction of soil. The pH scale is derived from the dissociation constant of water, Kw:

Soil acidity is a major constraint for crop production. The production of acid in soils is a natural process, especially in the high rainfall areas. The removal of basic cations especially Ca and Mg, by leaching and erosion results in their replacement by acidic cations, H, Al and Fe on cation exchange sites and in the soil solution, which are in dynamic equilibrium with each other. Soils, that develop from weathered granite are likely to be more acidic than those developed from shale or limestone. Organic matter decay produces H+ in soils, which also contribute to soil acidity. Intensive cropping and use of hybrid & high yielding crop varieties remove large quantities of basic elements essential for their growth i.e. Ca, Mg and K & deplete the soils. Rate of acidification is also accelerated by  faulty fertilizer (especially Nitrogen) management practices.

INTRODUCTION

Traditional knowledge is the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, it is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language. Sometimes it is referred to as an oral tradition for it is practiced, sung, danced, painted, carved, chanted and performed down through millennia. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general. Appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge is growing. This knowledge is valuable not only to those who depend on it in their daily lives, but to modern industry and farming as well. Many widely used products, such as plant-based medicines, health products and cosmetics, are derived from traditional knowledge. Other such valuable products include agricultural and non-wood forest products as well as handicraft. Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to sustainable development.

Introduction

North East India constitutes the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim which reflects ecological and cultural contrasts between the hills and the plains. It is one of the most biodiversity regions in the world, with more than a hundred and fifty tribes forming a melting pot of variegated cultural mosaic of people and races constitute a vital component in this region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
 
More than 70% people of the region are engaged in agriculture while rice is the staple food crop (Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010). The farmers from different ethnic diversity of the region have developed their own systems of cultivation of various crops (Islam et al. 2004). These indigenous traditional knowledge systems are quite endemic to this region (Deka et al. 2006).

INTRODUCTION

Fish are one of the main exploitable resources of the aquatic ecosystems that provide a cheap source of protein which help solving the problem nutritional security particularly NE region of the country. The rapid development of fishing technology in India during the recent years has paved the way for increased production availability of new synthetic materials, evolution of new designs of fishing crafts and gears and avoidance of ignorant harmful fishing techniques etc. It is to be taken into account that any developmental activity adopted should also be base rooted in the objective of uplifting the economy of the fishing communities. This implies that the improvisation of the existing tools and techniques and introduction of new ones to enhance fishing efficiency need a careful study of the traditional infra-technologies. Further selection of fishing methods and gear are influenced by various factors such as physiographic of the water body, nature of fish stock, characteristics of the material from which gear are fabricated and standard of living. Therefore, variation in application of fishing devices can be observed in different type of water bodies, which have characteristic of their own due to unique nature of the water resources of the region.

INTRODUCTION

In the emerging global knowledge economy, a country’s ability to build and mobilize knowledge capital is equally important for sustainable development like the physical and financial capital (World Bank, 1997). The basic component of any country’s knowledge capital is its indigenous technical knowledge (ITK). ITK is the social capital of the local people, their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter or to achieve control of their own lives. It is the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around specific condition of men and women indigenous to a particular geographical area (Ghosh and Sahoo, 2011). It helps to increase the sustainability of development efforts because of its integration process with mutual learning and adaptation, which in turn contributes to the empowerment of local communities.

INTRODUCTION

The North Eastern Region of India comprises of eight states, viz., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram and Sikkim. These north eastern states are home to myriad tribals and several ethnic groups. Most of the people of the north-eastern region of India belong to the Mongolian race and the food habit of the region is fairly similar with that of South-East Asian countries. Fermented foods form an intrinsic part of the diet of these people. Fermentation has been an age long traditional practice of preserving various food products in the region. These fermented products are used as condiments in the preparation of various traditional sauces, strews and dishes (Saisithi, 1994).

INTRODUCTION

The medicinal values of plants are known since prehistoric times. Interestingly, 13000 BC old drawing on Lascaux caves in France suggests that humans were using plants for medicinal purposes. Ancient Egyptians chewed willow bark to relieve fever and headaches; and thousands of years later, scientists discovered that the bark contains salicylic acid- the active ingredient in aspirin. History reveals that in most of the countries natural products including plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of diseases both in human and veterinary medicines.
 
Plants as a source of medicine has been an ancient practice and is an important component of the health care system in India. The health management of people and domestic animals is based partially on the exploitation of natural resources, which needs proper documentation and research.