eBook Chapters

11. 1 Introduction

Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the farmland for the purpose of providing favorable soil air environment for plant growth. Removal of water may take place form the surface or below the surface of the land. The practice of lowering ground water table below the root zone depth to improve the plant growth or to reduce the accumulation of salts in soil is also called as drainage.

Drainage system is broadly classified as surface and subsurface drainage. Removal of excess water over the land surface is known as surface drainage and that of removing water below the surface is known as subsurface drainage. The flow of water in the form of evaporation or evapotranspiration also play important role in improving drainage situation. It gives the idea of the time required to get the wetland workable though it is not called a type of drainage as because this is very slow process and cannot be controlled by the human activities. However, using of certain tree plants e. g. , Eucalytus, Poplar, Casurina or similar species in wet fields, which transpires at high rate and improves the drainage problem by lowering the shallow water table is the new idea known as bio-drainage.

12.1 Introduction

Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the farmland for the purpose of providing favorable soil air environment for plant growth. Removal of water may take place form the surface or below the surface of the land. The practice of lowering ground water table below the root zone depth to improve the plant growth or to reduce the accumulation of salts in soil is also called as drainage

Drainage system is broadly classified as surface & subsurface drainage. Removal of excess water over the land surface is known as surface drainage & that of removing water below the surface is known as subsurface drainage. The flow of water in the form of evaporation or evapotranspiration also play important role in improving drainage situation. It gives the idea of the time required to get the wetland workable though it is not called a type of drainage as because this is very slow process & cannot be controlled by the human activities. However, using of certain tree plants e.g., Eucalyptus, Poplar, Casurina or similar species in wet fields, which transpires at high rate and improves the drainage problem by lowering the shallow water table is the new idea known as bio-drainage.

12.1 Introduction

Among a variety of optical evanescent wave techniques, spectroscopies based on the resonant excitation of surface plasmons have matured into a widely accepted surface analytical method used in different fields. Liedberg et al¹ were the first who demonstrated the exploitation of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for chemical sensing. Since then the SPR sensing principle has received much attention. In this chapter we shall first describe the principle of this technique and then few sensors that have utilized this phenomenon.

Abstract

The state of Tamil Nadu has a low easterly gradient slope and there are number of rivers, big and small originate from the west flow towards east south easterly and confluence the Bay of Bengal. These were grouped into seventeen major and minor river basins, the Cauvery being the largest basin and the river is also a near perennial river. These river basins receive rainfall both from the southwest and northeast monsoons. The state has over 40,000 surface water bodies and number of major dams and reservoirs. Even then, since the rainfall of the north east monsoon, the major source of water source to these basins, occurs in short span of few days with high rainfall, neither adequate storage is there to store them nor the recharge possibility is available, thus all leading to flooding and wastage. The 40,000 and odd water bodies are heavily silted and polluted too. The paper provides an over view of all these, basin wise, and in addition, strongly advocates intra state river linkage and improvised irrigation management as the best option to save the state from its water deficiency.

5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS

This chapter is concerned with understanding the factors which influence the partition of ions between solid surfaces and aqueous solutions. There are many aspects of soil science such as some of those concerned with soil formation, transfer of nutrient ions from soil particles to plant roots, soil pollutant interaction and soil management which are critically dependent on what happens in the space of the order of 1 nm wide between solid and equilibrium solution. A broad survey of the development of ideas on soil-electrolyte interaction shows that there have been two main avenues of approach. One views the soil as an electrically charged surface with its adsorbed hydrated ions as one phase in equilibrium with solution, which is seen as the second phase. The other approach focuses on the electrical double layer extending from the charged solid surface out into the solution. In the latter approach the solid surface, the outer equilibrium solution and the make up of the transition zone between these two phases must all be involved in any detailed consideration of the micro structure of the system. For a full and proper understanding of soil-electrolyte interaction anything less than a detailed analysis of the micro-structure is likely to be inadequate and in this it must be remembered that the interaction between electrical double layers which overlap with one another is likely to be important.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It has been suggested that the relationship of surface chemistry to soil science is similar to that of biochemistry to biology. Certainly the fact that surfaces of soil particles are extensive and reactive leads to a dominance of surface chemistry in soil behaviour, but it is not an exclusive relationship, because many precipitation reactions, oxidation and reduction processes, and biological reactions take place more or less independently of the surface processes. Nevertheless it is difficult to understand soil properties fully without an appreciation of the nature and extent of the surfaces of the soil constituents, and this chapter is devoted to a discussion of this topic.

Good cataract outcome depends on pre-operative selection of patients, the skills and knowledge of the eye surgeon, the surgical technique, the surgical facilities and environment, the post-operative care and the optical correction provided.

Preoperative Procedures

Owners are advised to instill antibiotic eye drop such as Moxifloxacin @ two drops b.i.d. for 7 days and eye drop tropicamide @ two drops b.i.d. for 2 days before the cataract surgery for proper dilation of pupil. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory eye drops such as Flubriprofenis started t.i.d on the day before surgery. Further, tropicamide (1%) used as mydriatic agent is instilled 30 minutes before operation at the rate of two drops every 5 minutes in the eye to be operated. 0.5% povidone iodine drops are instilled on cornea prior to surgery.

There are some methods to control male reproductive behaviour for better breeding and managemental practices i.e. Vasectomy and Caudal epididymectomy, Penile surgeries, and castration etc. • Surgical and non surgical interventions in the male reproductive system are carried out for: • To make teaser bull • To make bull sterile • To prevent the transmission of venereal diseases • Population control or Breeding management • To rectify any ailment or deformity Teaser Bull • A male animal whose capability of spermatogenesis as well as libido is maintained but it is not able to impregnate a female. • For the preparation of teaser bull or Gomer bull, Male animal should be selected well before the start of breeding season. Bull should be young vigorous and fertile. It should be of moderate adult size with mild temperament. Heavy and large sized bull is tough to handle, needs more time for surgery, has chances of more hemorrhage, and may have more post surgical complications.

Surgery stands as first choice for the treatment of canine mammary tumours. The simplest surgical procedure in the mammary gland should be performed (MacEwen, 1989) in the absence of metastatic disease and inflammatory carcinoma. Nevertheless the controversy for performing simple or radical technique still goes unabated, as the published data are to clear to prove the practical value of radical surgery compared to simple mastectomy. Brodey et al. (1983) is reported that six categories of surgical excision of mammary tumours can be performed.

Genus : Eugenia 
Species : uniflora  L.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Eugenia uniflora, L. Is another important genera in family Myrtaceae which produces edible fruit. The fruit is known by several names like Pitanga, Surinam cherry, Cayenne cherry and Florida cherry. The word pitanga is derived from Tupi meaning ‘piter’ and ‘anga’, scent or odour. From its native home in Brazil the fruit was introduced in India at an early time probably by the Portuguese but is not cultivated commercially. The shiny deep green foliage is very attractive and the crushed leaves results in a pungent but agreeable odour which drives away the flies.

Introduction

Different dairy development programmes are working in various parts of the country. But the dairy development programmes which are confined only to the production activities can not give the best results unless they are supported by the marketing facilities and other infrastructure.

Need for Estimation of Milk Production Potential

Estimation about the milk production potential of any region is required for establishing milk processing plant and helps in making the planning and policy for developing marketing infrastructure in that area. In fact the marketed surplus depends on the marketing facility available in the region. If there are marketing facilities in the area like good cooperative societies are operating in the region, and good prices are offered to the milk producers which covers their cost of production and margins, the marketed surplus is bound to be higher than that of the regions where marketing facilities are not existing.

Three fundamental aspects—slope, stream order, and land use/land cover (LULC)—are critical in understanding landscape dynamics. These factors shape the physical and hydrological characteristics of an area and significantly impact ecological functions, land development planning, and conservation initiatives. Reliable analysis and detailed mapping of these parameters are crucial for the responsible management of land and water resources.
Operation and maintenance of soil conservation structures encompass a variety of activities designed to reduce soil erosion, sustain soil quality, and enhance water absorption. Structures such as terraces, check dams, and gully plugs must be consistently monitored and managed to ensure optimal performance over time. Essential tasks include frequent assessments, clearing of blockages or sediment build-up, and timely repairs to safeguard their structural integrity and operational efficiency.
Soil conservation refers to a collection of methods aimed at preserving soil from erosion and deterioration. At its core, soil conservation recognizes the soil as a living, dynamic system. One of its primary principles is the regular return of organic material to the soil, supporting its biological activity and overall health. Soil conservation can be compared to preventive maintenance on a car. Just like changing the oil, replacing filters, and inspecting spark plugs helps avoid costly engine damage, taking proactive steps to conserve soil now ensures its long-term productivity and health. Preventive measures in soil conservation help safeguard this essential resource for future use.
Soil conservation is a “combination” of practices used to protect the soil from degradation. At its core, it involves recognizing soil as a vibrant, living ecosystem.
The countless organisms residing in the soil contribute significantly to its fertility and structure. These organisms decompose organic materials, release essential nutrients, and create pathways for air and water movement—crucial for soil health

3.1 Introduction

There is now latest national thinking going on to conserve the known sources of energy such as firewood, cow dung, agricultural waste, kerosene, oil etc. i.e. by limiting their conventional uses and to propagate the use of non conventional energy especially in the rural area. The large scale indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels fully in the rural areas are not only providing to be inefficient but also inadequate to cope with the growing rural energy demand caused by growing population and growing consciousness among rural people for a better way of life. Planned input of energy are, therefore urgently require to protect the environment and to cope with raising rural energy demand. In order to assess the widening gap between the supply and demand of commercial energy and indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels in rural areas, there is a need for various types of statistical or quantified information to be collected and analyzed in an objective manner and presented suitability so as to serve as a sound basis for taking policy decision to make an optimum utilization of commercial energy in a balanced manner. This will require conducting of survey in areas to be covered.

The statistical data may be collected by complete enumeration or by a sample survey. The earlier method is very cumbersome, time consuming, cost ineffective and requires an intensive development of manpower, if domains of study is quite large. Complete enumeration and sample surveys presuppose the existence of a certain minimum of facilities such as funds, professional personnel for planning the survey methodology and supervision of field operations, sufficiently qualified enumerators, sampling frames, machine tabulation equipment, transport and communication facilities etc. These facilities or combinations there of do not always exist to the extent needed for a complete enumeration survey. As such, sample survey is preferred to complete enumeration for ethic type of studies giving due importance to sampling error.

In the integrated energy planning, there is an objective to find out the present consumption pattern of energy for different end uses, shortages being experienced and people’s reaction to using alternate sources of energy is also enumerated.

The survey methods determine – incident, distribution and the interrelation among sociological variable and psychological variable. The sociological variable s consists of age, education, income and attitude, behavior, motivation, belief and knowledge about the problem.

A survey of farming systems and agricultural-based livelihood enterprises is a research method used to gather information about the different ways farmers organize their agricultural activities and how these activities contribute to their livelihoods. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the diverse farming practices, resource management strategies, and income-generating activities within a specific region or community.
Objectives
Identify and classify farming systems: This involves understanding the different types of farming practices prevalent in the area, such as crop-livestock systems, mixed farming, specialized cropping, agroforestry, etc. Classification may be based on factors like scale, technology used, crops grown, livestock raised, and integration with other enterprises. Assess resource use and management: This includes examining how farmers utilize natural resources like land, water, soil, and biodiversity. It also covers xmanagement practices like irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and soil conservation.
Analyze livelihood strategies: The survey investigates how agriculture contributes to the overall livelihoods of farming households. This includes income from crop and livestock production, as well as off-farm income sources. Evaluate the economic viability of agricultural enterprises: This involves assessing the profitability and sustainability of different farming activities. It may include analyzing production costs, market access, and value addition opportunities.

Not all the scientific problems demand the detection and establishment of causal relationship among natural phenomenon. Many of the social research problems seek to study the status quo rather than the relation between two or more natural phenomenon. Few of the impact assessment studies (which are kind of causal relationship studies to an extent) also demand for knowing the status quo before and after implementation of interventions. Many other studies demand for benchmark assessment to make policy decisions. Under such circumstances, survey research is a useful research method.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

Sampling: Disease assessment activity within plots and fields.
Survey: To move over a specific place for some observation.
Surveillance: Repeated or sequential survey of some place/ locality for some observation to ascertain the changes /fluctuations in the objects of study.

Q. 1 Fore sight is also known as
(A) Positive sight            (B) Minus sight
(C) Intermediate sight     (D) Vertical sight

True/False

Q.1.    In many epidemiological studies with substantial follow up time, it is very often an interest to study the time taken for a particular event to occur.
Q.2.    The time taken for death or graft failure since transplant, time taken for relapse after treatment, time to death after treatment etc. are examples for survival time.

Plant diseases are a recurring threat. Everywhere they appear in a certain cycle. Chains of infection (pathogenesis) initiated by primary inoculums comes spontaneously at the end of the harvest season or at host death due to the production of various types of pathogenic reproductive organs/propagules. These propagules must find ways to bridge the gap between harvest times to ensure continuity of infection. Therefore, plant pathogen survival is a critical step in a successful pathogen disease cycle. Pathogen spread is another important phenomenon in plant disease recurrence and epidemiology. Effective spread/diffusion of virulent propagules is critical for initiation of chains of infection and further progression of the disease in time and space.

The availability of a plant pathogens in given area presupposes its ability to survive not only during its parasitic relations with hosts but also during those seasons in which the hosts are not growing. The latter part of continued existence of plant pathogens in which they remain in dormant condition to overcome the unfavourable condition of non availability of hosts is called “survival”. Pathogens may survive between crop seasons by means of specialized resting structures, by functioning as saprophyte in or on the soil or in diseased plant debris, or by living insome intimate association withlivingplants or otherorganism.

Modes of Survival: The modes of survival of plant pathogens are described below:

1. Parasitic Survival

Organisms, parasitic on perennial plants (fruits, plantation and forest trees) survive in or on their hosts actively or passively depending on the environmental conditions. Certain bacterial pathogens viz, X. campestris pv citri, X. campestris pv jugalandis, X. campestris pv. Pruni and Erwinia amylovora are known to be carried over perennially in holdover cankers or blighted twigs, which may produce bacterial ooze in favourable weather to fresh inoculums. Similarly several fungal plant pathogens like Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (anthracnose of mango), Oidium mangiferae (powdery mildew of mango), Podosphaera leucotricha (powdery mildew of apple), etc survive on infected organs of the plants. Along with cultivated crops, several undesirable plant (weeds, etc) both annual and perennial, grow independently in the nature. Such plants which belong to the same botanical family to which cultivated hosts belong , are known as collateral hosts. Some important examples include the survival of three Puccinia spp. causing wheat rusts in Indian subcontinent . These fungi survive in active sporulating stage on wild species of Triticum, Aegilops, Horedeum and Agropyron repens. Similarly, Rice tungro virus survive actively on Oryza spp., Echinocloa spp. and Leersia hexandra .

Definition

The availability of a plant pathogens in given area depends upon its ability to survive not only during its parasitic relations with hosts but also during those seasons in which the hosts are not growing. The latter part of continued existence of plant pathogens in which they remain in dormant condition to overcome the unfavourable condition of non availability of hosts is called “survival”. Pathogens may survive between crop seasons by means of specialized resting structures , by functioning as saprophyte in or on the soil or in diseased plant debris, or by living in some intimate association with living plants or other organism.

Weeds have specific characters which helps them to adapt to any stressful situation and successfully, compete with the crop. They have survival strategies which help them to overcome vagaries of nature like extreme cold, heat, drought, biotic stresses and soil abnormalities. Their most important characteristic is the ability to succeed in any adverse situation even in disturbed soils. The age old war between man and weeds makes it pertinent to understand the characteristics of weeds which make them better competitors in the field.

Abstract

This paper is the synthesis of researches of quaternary on the Chad lake basin, our field investigations, our previous palaeogeographic research underlined by the sédimentological analyses, ¹⁴C radiocarbon and thermoluninescence dating. The objective is to show that after the effects of geological fluctuation, paleoclimatic oscillations, the Chad lake basin experiences since historical times an increasingly drying up due to the combination of geographic factors such as its close position in the Sahara desert, centre of the climate dynamics and human activities. This situation frequently generates recurrent live conditions to which man has to face.

Introduction

Climate change represents a threat not only to the existence of individual species, but also to the genetic diversity hidden within them. The finding promises to complicate assessments of how climate change will affect biodiversity, as well as conservationists’ task in preserving it.

Climate change comes as an additional factor affecting a livestock sector that is already highly dynamic and facing many challenges. Important objectives of AnGR management include ensuring that AnGR are effectively deployed to meet these challenges (i.e. are well matched to the production environments in which they are kept) and that the genetic diversity needed to adapt production systems to future changes is maintained. Climate change is likely to create a number of problems in many areas of animal husbandry (housing, feeding, health care, etc.) and threaten the sustainability of many livestock production systems and their associated AnGR. At the same time, many of the specific challenges associated with climate change (high temperatures, disruptions to feed supplies, disease outbreaks, etc,) as well as the general unpredictability it brings to the future of the livestock sector, highlight the importance of retaining diverse genetic options for the future. The upper critical temperature of dairy cattle is lower than other livestock species (Wathes et al.,1983).

Abstract

Determining the optimum stocking rate for a grazing land is a key decision affecting the profitability and viability of a grazing system. Forage intake and subsequent performance is dependent on forage availability to the livestock on a daily basis.
Fixing stocking rate too low results in wastage of forage and loss in profit and too high results in lowered forage intake and livestock output thus results in diminished profits. Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres-sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the land and would modify the physical properties of soil and ecosystem. Due to the overuse of the grazing land, vegetation cover declines and thus reduces the soil organic matter content and soil infiltration capacity. On farm field experiments were conducted in three farmer’s fields at dryland tracts of Tirupur district for a period of two years from September, 2009 to March, 2011 with the objective to assess the carrying capacity of silvipastoral farming system. Treatments were five silvipastoral systems viz.,Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + fodder sorghum + Pillipesara and Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara. One unit of Mecheri sheep of five ewes (female) and one ram (male) and two buffaloes were maintained in each location. Observations on carrying capacity, annual forage yield, utilization rate, average daily intake and average fodder requirement of sheep and Length of grazing season were made. The experimental results revealed that, among the different silvipastoral systems, rotational grazing of 39 numbers of sheep per ha of silvipasture land with Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara system is found to be the best. This would imply relatively less pressure on land that would indicate sustaining the carrying capacity of grazing land without exerting pressure on natural resources.

India is very rich in biodiversity especially in animal genetic resources and animals have been part and parcel of agricultural heritage. There are about 30 well defined breeds of cattle found in different parts of the country. To name a few are Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej, Deoni, Tharparkar, Hariana, Ongle, Nagori, Amritmahal and Hallikar. The cattle breeds are classified into three types i.e. dairy, dual purpose and draft/drought animals. The number of the animals of majority of indigenous breeds has declined over the years. Further, their number is very low and majority of cattle population (80%) in India is non-descript. The introduction of systematic crossbreeding program of our native cattle with exotic breeds in seventies have further led to the depletion of prized germplasm of all the indigenous breeds under farm and field conditions. However, considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds. The associated herd progeny testing program has been going on at NDRI Karnal for the genetic improvement of Sahiwal cattle. All India Coordinated Research Project on Hariana and Ongole cattle has been undertaken at different centres by Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut. Lately, three more breeds namely Sahiwal, Gir and Kankarej have been included in the indigenous breed improvement program (IBP) and different centres have been identified as germplasm units and data recording units for different breeds under the program.

Sustainability Issues Regarding Major Marine Raw Materials Used in Aquaculture Diets

In 2018, more than 70% of the fish production is from fed aquaculture where f ish meals (FMs) and fish oils (FOs) are the main marine raw materials used in aquaculture diets or fish feed (Hua et al. 2019). They are derived or reduced products from the catch of small, pelagic, low-priced marine fish (forage fish) like Peruvian anchoveta that are rich in protein, micronutrient and lipid and are commonly termed as the ‘feed grade marine fishery’ (Bell and Waagbø, 2008; Bendiksen et al. 2011). The whole fish or any other f ish processing by-products are either cooked and then pressed to produce a liquid which on centrifuging produce the fish oil or are dried and crushed into powder-like material which is called as the fish meal (FAO, 2020). FM has the enough balance and concentration of essential amino acids and FO are rich in n-3 essential fatty acids especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). FM and FO are the main ingredients in aquaculture diets as they are relatively cheap, readily available, accepted and digested by the fish. The highest amount of these ingredients are often used in feeds for the high value aquatic organisms like carnivorous finfish (eg: Dicentrarchus labrax, Rachycendron canadum) (mostly marine), eels, salmonids, trouts, marine shrimps and freshwater crustaceans (see figure 1) etc. (Houlihan et al. 2001; Halver and Hardy, 2002; Miller et al. 2008) which are mainly imported by prosperous countries adding to good seafood trade value. All the intensive aquaculture production systems like recirculatory aquaculture systems, raceway aquaculture systems, aquaponics, cage culture, shrimp ponds etc are the major end users of the marine raw materials.

Abstract

Buffaloes are considered to be the principle milk producing livestock species in India and Surti is one of the well-defined buffalo breeds of India. The study on lactation curve and persistency is very much helpful to know the sustainability of the lactation. The present study is based on daily milk production records for 298 lactations from 130 buffaloes belonging to 15 sires. Lactation curve was prepared through Statistical Packages for Social Sciences programme. Two functions, i.e. gamma function and inverse polynomial functions were fitted to the daily milk yield records. Persistency was calculated through simple analysis in Microsoft Excel 2000 on the weekly records of the milk yield. Gamma function was found to be more effective as compared to inverse polynomial function with higher R2 value for all the four lactations, which indicated that gamma function can be effectively used to establish lactation curve and predict milk yield of animals on any day of lactation. The value of persistency ranged from 97.94% in fourth lactation to 98.56 % in first lactation, indicating Surti buffaloes as fairly persistent in milk production throughout the lactation.

In the study of rural development, there are three frameworks of analysis, viz. neo-classical, Marxian and systems approaches. While the latter two are holistic approaches, the neo-classical framework provides the underpinning of modern microfinance, with its focus on the decision making of individual economic agents towards (short-term) profit or utility maximisation. Neo-classical discussion and policy prescriptions in microfinance are directed towards creating the conditions for the operation of free rural financial markets. Institutional economists have further used the imperfect information paradigm to focus on transaction costs of credit delivery that serve to explain and justify high interest rates charged by village moneylenders (Tankha, 2002).

Introduction

The prosperity of Tamil Nadu depends on the development of rural areas. As per the 2001 Census, Tamil Nadu’s rural population was 36.2 million, amounting to 58% of the total population. Of these 90 percent are earning their livelihood through agriculture and allied activities. The agricultural situation in Tamil Nadu largely depends on the quantum of rainfall received during seasonal rainfall of South West and North East monsoon. North East monsoon which occurs around September to November is more crucial as South West monsoon which will give enormous rainfall to other Indian states is blocked by Western Ghats. So Tamil Nadu is receiving low rainfall and it also comes in three to five heavy showers during October and November. This limits the wet period (good condition for cultivation) to two to five weeks for the whole season. The wet period is further shortened by fast wind and soil type in some area. Thus, the success of the crop is largely determined by one’s capacity to exploit the short wet period. Even though the Tamil Nadu is relatively better position in tapping available ground water resources (92 percent of potential has been tapped), 82 percent of the well is owned by medium and large farmers who is only 10 per cent of total cultivators.

The past development efforts in India center around individual approach and these efforts did not bring about sustained development of people in the respective areas. In view of this, the development of the people could not be harnessed to the fullest potential. Realizing this lacuna, the group based development efforts have come up in a big way across the country in the recent years. The Government, private organizations and also the NGOs are giving due importance for the promotion and establishment of Self Help Groups (SHGs) for addressing all developmental issues. As on today, there are more than 3.37 million SHGs across the country, Tamil Nadu is one of the pioneering states in the formation and promotion of women SHGs and about 4.41 lakh SHGs are functioning in the state. Among the SHGs formed, some of the SHGs are functioning well and sustain for a longer period and others did not come up to the expectation and they did not sustain for longer period. Hence, it was considered opportune time to find out the sustainability level of the SHGs and isolate factors for variation since there was no research back up.
 
Therefore, the study was undertaken to analyse the sustainability of mixed enterprises  related SHGS in Tamil Nadu with an intention to find out the extent of sustainability at different levels.  The study was conducted in Dharmapuri District of Tamil Nadu. Five blocks namely Dharmapuri, Harur, Morappur, Nallampalli, and Pennagaram were selected from the district based on maximum number of SHGs.

Sustainability issues have infused sanity in utilizing interventions without much damage to the environment. The wisdom of the practitioners, who had over generations developed their own eco-friendly practices, is being appreciated. Recent researches have aimed at documenting, rationalizing, and blending the Indigenous Knowledge with the so called Scientific or Western knowledge so as to take care of the sustainability issues. Many researchers have contributed to this pool of knowledge by documenting many of the technologies, crop wise, area wise and operation wise and so on.

African agriculture is in crisis, and Africa’s farmland is losing its fertility at an alarming rate. Farmers grow the same crops in the same fields year. They don’t fertilize, and they don’t terrace their fields. When the soil wears out, the clear a new piece of land (wwww.npr.org). N. Kozana Diamini Luma, the Chairperson of the African Union Commission has emphasized that ‘the year 2014 – the year of Agriculture in Africa’ will be used as an opportunity to accelerate the drive for food security. The major thrust for that has to be on ensuring that the farmers make their profession on economic activity that generate wellbeing for all in a sustainable manner (1, 2).

Agriculture is the most significant part of economies of all African countries and can therefore contribute towards major priority for eradication of hunger and poverty. It also forms the strong base for rapid industrialization, employment and environmental management.
N. KozanaDiaminiLuma, the Chairperson of the African Union Commission has emphasized that ‘the year 2014 – the year of Agriculture in Africa’ will be used as an opportunity to accelerate the drive for food security. The major thrust for that has to be on ensuring that the farmers make their profession on economic activity that generate well-being for all in a sustainable manner (1, 2). Africa will have a population of 2 billion people by 2050, the majority women and youth. This prediction and the climate change problem summarize the scale of agricultural challenge for them. Currently more than half of all people living in Africa depend on agriculture for all or part of their livelihood. *Based on Key Note address by the author at the First International Agri Business Conference at Mauritius, Africa : 25 – 28 September 2008
EVER GREEN REVOLUTION OR ECO AGRI REVOLUTION FOR AFRICA
Nearly all agree that Africa needs technology for farming comparable to the Green Revolution of Asia. In 2006, two major philanthropic foundations namely Gates Foundations & Rockefeller foundations joined in a joint venture called Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). They emphasized the importance of introducing African small fodder farmers to modern agricultural science.However, this was rejected strongly by some calling it “naivete” about the causes of hunger and warned that this approach

In contrast to the traditional universities, agricultural universities have been entrusted with the Herculean task of technology dissemination at the grass root level such that the package of practices evolved by the agricultural scientists should reach out the end-users, viz. farmers , for adopting in the field, with consequent increment in the farm productivity and farmer’s income.

This unique mandate has been assigned to agricultural universities on the pattern of land grant colleges of the United States. Such vision and trust, envisaged by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his devout lieutenants, herald creation of state agricultural universities (SAUs) in the early 1960s. The key role played by SAUs in the first green revolution and agricultural human resources development have been regarded as the milestones in the history of India post-independence, that made the country self-sufficient in food production and, in turn, to self reliance in milk, vegetables, fruits and inland fish production.

In contrast to the traditional universities, agricultural universities have been entrusted with the Herculean task of technology dissemination at the grass root level such that the package of practices evolved by the agricultural scientists should reach out the end-users, viz. farmers , for adopting in the field, with consequent increment in the farm productivity and farmer’s income. This unique mandate has been assigned to agricultural universities on the pattern of land grant colleges of the United States. Such vision and trust, envisaged by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his devout lieutenants, herald creation of state agricultural universities (SAUs) in the early 1960s. The key role played by SAUs in the first green revolution and agricultural human resources development have been regarded as the milestones in the history of India post-independence, that made the country self-sufficient in food production and, in turn, to self reliance in milk, vegetables, fruits and inland fish production. Today, India has set fourth into commanding position as a global economic power, with primary and secondary sectors, viz. agriculture and industry, contributing modestly. At the current pace of the growth rate, I would not hesitate to predict that by the year 2020, we will accomplish the top lines both in terms of productivity and sustainability, by transforming hitherto deemed liability of population into a formidable asset of human resource capital.
Hunger-free World
Agriculture is a vital development tool for achieving the Millennium Development Goals that call for halving by 2015 the number of people, suffering from extreme poverty and hunger. We also note that more than 50% of the people in the world are small and resource-poor farmers and another 20% rural land less. The challenge is to transform this

1. Introduction

The agriculture sector in Asia and the Pacific plays a vital role in the rural economy, making significant contributions to both GDP and employment. This sector serves as a cornerstone for food production, economic growth and poverty reduction in the region. Understanding the importance of farming in the region’s rural economy, as well as the need for viable farming systems particularly for smallholder farms, is essential for sustainable development.

Importance of Farming in the Rural Economy

Farming has a substantial impact on the rural economy of Asia and the Pacific. It serves as a primary source of income and livelihood for rural populations, contributing significantly to the region’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The agricultural sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, and forestry, providing diverse opportunities for economic development.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), farming accounts for 29 percent of the region’s GDP (FAO, 2021). This demonstrates the significant economic value that agriculture brings to the region, making it a crucial sector for sustainable development. The revenue generated from agricultural activities supports not only farmers but also other stakeholders in the value chain, including agro-industries, distributors, and exporters.

Conservation Agriculture

The agronomic measures for water conservation helps to control the evapotranspiration loss from soil and plant surface, reduces the splash effect of raindrops, checks topsoil erosion and runoff losses, permits a better intake of rainwater by improving the better soil physical environment and thereby conserves higher soil moisture for better plant growth and yield.

1. Mulching : It protects the top soil from erosion loss by controlling runoff, facilitates rainwater absorption by soil, increases the consumptive use of water by crops and hence the water use efficiency, regulates the hydrothermal regime of soil, reduces the evaporation component of the evapotranspiration, prevents soil crusting and plant nutritional losses and keep down the weed infestation. Dry soil mulch as created by stirring the soil surface with the inter-culturing implements helps to minimize evaporation loss from soil surface. Use of cover mulches like black polythene sheets or organic residues or crop stubbles on soil surface will act as barrier to reduce the evaporation losses. Post-rainy season crops (rabi crops) which live primarily on soil stored moisture derive more benefit from mulching.
2. Anti-evaporants : These are used to reduce the evaporation from the soil surface. Straw, sawdust, paddy husk, wood bark etc are used to arrest the evaporation from soil surface. Hexadecanol, a long-chain alcohol, is also used to retard the evaporation from soil surface. This chemical is resistant to microbial activity and degradation and remains active in the soil for more than a year. The main limitation in soil surface mulching is high cost involvement.

Role of Agriculture in Livelihood Systems

For the developing countries like India, where a majority of families, in both the farm and non-farm sectors, derive their livelihoods from agriculture, sustainability of agriculture cannot be discussed or even defined in isolation of the issue of livelihoods. Livelihood is defined as adequate stock and flow of food and cash with an individual or a family to meet its basic needs. Livelihood security then means secured ownership of, or access to, resources and income-earning activities, including reserves and assets to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies. There are four principal ways of acquiring livelihoods by the rural households. First is the production-based livelihood. A large proportion of the small and marginal farmers gain livelihoods through production on small pieces of land. For these households, availability or access to inputs and improved methods of production are quite critical for their livelihoods. Second is the labour-based livelihood. Most of the small landholders and landless rural households derive livelihoods by selling their labour. For their livelihoods, demand for labour, wage rates and prices of food are the critical factors. Third is the exchange- or market- based livelihood. Those rural households which produce surplus food and non-food agricultural products or non-farm goods earn their livelihoods by selling these surpluses in the market. The marketing system for these products and relative prices of what they sell and what they buy, affect their livelihoods. The fourth set of livelihoods is transfer-based entitlements. The households without any income-earning asset or able-bodied person to work depend for their livelihoods on transfers from the government or other social organizations. Government’s social security and food assistance programmes are relevant for this group of rural households in fulfilling their livelihood requirements. The rural livelihood systems in the developing countries thus encompass a broad range of factors and depend on several macro sub- systems of the economy.

Introduction
Sustainable agriculture refers to farming practices that meet current food production needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It aims to balance environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity, ensuring that agricultural systems can be productive, resource-efficient, and resilient over time. The role of Information Technology (IT) in achieving these objectives has become increasingly crucial as it provides innovative solutions to optimize agricultural practices, minimize resource consumption, and improve overall productivity while safeguarding the environment. Through the integration of IT tools such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data analytics, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and cloud computing, sustainable agriculture can be advanced in ways that were previously unimaginable. These technologies facilitate precision farming, enhance resource management, monitor crop health, predict weather patterns, and provide farmers with the information to make data-driven decisions that foster sustainability.

Introduction

India, only occupies 3.29 million km² bounded geographical areas, which forms 2.4% of the world’s land acreage area; it support over 15% of the world’s population. The population of India as on 1 March 2016 stood at 1332 billion. Thus, India supports about 1/ 6th of world population, 1/50th of world’s land acreage and 1/25th of world’s water resources. The country as well has a livestock population of 500 million, which is about 20% of the world’s absolute livestock population. More than half of these are cattle, forming basic the backbone of Indian agriculture. The absolute accessible water assets of the country are adjourned as 1086 km³. Total bounded breadth of alone Eastern India occupies 28% of country’s absolute breadth of 328.73 m ha. The share of forest area to geographical area ranges from 33 to 54% for North Eastern hill states, in Assam. The per capita land availability decreased from 0.50 ha in 1981 to 0.33 ha in 2000 due to proportionate increase of land use for non-agriculture purpose and increasing population density. Rice, maize, wheat, rapeseeds, groundnut, pulses, sugarcane, potato, jute, jowar and bajra are the major crops grown in this region amongst which rice is the principle crop. India has a long history of agriculture since civilization. Then the agriculture was based on traditional practices and the local varieties were being grown without much care. Population densities usually didn’t pose much difficulty to supply food grains. Rice both under low/up land ecosystem is primarily grown under rainfed conditions having production constraints of entirely opposite in nature. Very low productivity under rainfed eco-system is mainly due to yield depressing factors caused by biotic stresses across the rice ecology, either resulted from excess or deficit water due to uneven and erratic distribution of annual rainfall. The cropping intensities in the states like Assam, Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP and West Bengal are 137.7, 137.8, 125.6, 154.6, 148.6 and 159.6 per cent, respectively. This indicated that a vast majority of lands remain fallow during dry (winter/rabi)season due to lack of proper technologies, which are under rainfed conditions, specifically lack of available moisture and or rainfall during this period. That is more than half of the arable land remains fallow during rainless period. Increasing cropping intensities in rainfed uplands is not easily achievable but there is great potential of intensification of cropping in rainfed lowland by utilizing natural resources and conserved residual moisture. Pulses like black gram, green gram, lentil, lathyrus, chick pea and oilseeds like linseed, groundnut, and rapeseed could not only increase the cropping intensities but also come forward to increase national productivity. Adoption of improved crop cultivars, cropping system, increasing cropping intensities, precision farming can hold good to get out of this situation where whole system is to be considered.

Agriculture has been the base of subsistence for human settlements on the planet earth. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), people in the developing world where the population increase is very rapid, may face hunger if the global food production does not increase by 50–60%. Contribution from developing countries and developed countries to world production in 1975 was about 38% and 62%, respectively. If yield increase is keeping pace with increasing population, mass hunger can escape. In the preindependence period, Indian agriculture was usually described as a gamble with monsoons and their failures resulted in widespread famine and misery. In the last few decades, Indian agriculture has made a remarkable progress even with increased population and decreased per capita availability of agricultural land. World population is projected to be over 8 billion by 2025 and nearly 10.5 billion by the end of next century. To maintain the status quo, food production needs to be doubled. Estimates by the FAO and WHO (1992) and the Hunger Project (1991) suggest that around 1 billion people in the world have diets that are ‘too poor to abstain the energy required for healthy growth of children and minimal activity of adults’. The causes are complex and it is not entirely the fault of overall availability of food. Modern agriculture begins on the research farm, where researchers have access to all types of inputs for crops at all the appropriate times. But, even the best performing farms cannot match the yields of researchers. For high productivity, farmers need to have access to the whole package – improved seeds, water, labour, capital or credit, fertilizers, pesticides and other developed technology. Many poorer farming households simply cannot adopt the whole package. Very often delivery systems are unable to supply them on time.

Sustainability in agriculture is the prime importance for maintains its productivity particularly for crops over time and space. Sustainable agriculture is a system of farming as well as a philosophy which has its roots in a set of values that reflects an awareness of both ecological and socialrealities. It includes design and management procedures that work with natural processes to conserve all resources for maintaining or improving farm profitability keeping least waste and environmental damage.

The influence of environment on Indian farming revealed that future agricultural growth and productivity will have to occur simultaneously with environmental sustainability. The environmental challenges (land degradation, groundwater depletion, water logging and excessive use of chemical inputs) are posing problems for the future of Indian agriculture. Organic farming included in the policies has emphasized the sustainability in agriculture. Various other approaches and policy instruments, however, will be required to address these problems. The shift from input-intensive to sustainable, particularly organic farming is a difficult task as it involves a number of policy measures dealing with a variety of issues ranging from the transfer of information and technology to the development of markets. Another difficult task, and perhaps more difficult, relates to marginal and small farmers – which comprise a substantial part of Indian agriculture. Although, the marginal and small farmers considered as organic by ‘default’, severe resource constraints makes the shift to the modern sense of organic farming prohibitive.

The Green Revolution started in the early 1960s that led to the attainment of self-sufficiency in food grain production. This has been considered as the greatest agricultural transformation in the history of humankind. The Green Revolution contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation.

The goal of sustainable agriculture is to meet society’s food and textile needs in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Practitioners of sustainable agriculture seek to integrate three main objectives into their work: a healthy environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every person involved in the food system—growers, food processors, distributors, retailers, consumers, and waste managers—can play a role in ensuring a sustainable agricultural system.

Introduction Large cardamom is an important cash crop cultivated in Sikkim. It is also cultivated in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and some parts of North-eastern state like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur. It is a low volume, high value non-perishable crop grown organicallyat different altitudes under the trees. The State produces about 4,970 tonnes annually from an area of 23,312 hectares (Spice board, 2021). Among the four districts of Sikkim, North and East Sikkim district contributes largest in terms of area and production of large cardamom (GoS, 2016). Off-late, climate change has become a major concern for the large cardamom growers as many researchers reported its contribution to the decline of its production. Sikkim, as Himalayan states, is endowed with varied agro-climate ranging from tropical in the South to alpine in the North. Shrestha et al. (2010) reported that warming in the Himalayas was between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade in the last three decades. Seetharam (2012) revealed that in Gangtok, there is a decreasing trend in maximum temperature while an increasing trend in minimum temperature. The study also depicted the decreasing trend of annual rainfall amount in the study area. In a recent study, Kumar et al. (2020) reported that the warming was more prominent in the last decades in Gangtok and Tadong station, better reflected in the minimum temperature with varied precipitation across the observed period from 1961 2017.

Sustainable aquaculture is crucial for meeting the increasing global demand for seafood while minimizing environmental impact and ensuring long-term viability. This chapter explores various sustainable aquaculture practices and approaches aimed at enhancing productivity, environmental stewardship, and socio-economic benefits. From integrated multitrophic aquaculture to recirculating aquaculture systems, this chapter examines innovative techniques and management strategies that promote sustainability across the aquaculture sector. Through case studies and best practices, the chapter highlights the importance of adopting holistic approaches to aquaculture that consider ecological, social, and economic dimensions.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms, has emerged as a critical component of global food production, contributing significantly to meeting the increasing demand for seafood. Over the past few decades, aquaculture has experienced exponential growth, fueled by advancements in technology, increasing consumer demand, and declining wild fish stocks. This expansion has positioned aquaculture as one of the fastest-growing food sectors worldwide, providing essential protein sources and livelihoods for millions of people (Ayyappan et al., 2006).

Biodiversity is a magnificent contribution of nature on our planet. The great variety of life forms on earth has catered for man’s needs over thousands of years. This diversity of living creatures which forms a support system has been used by each civilization for its growth and development. Those that used this “bounty of nature” carefully and sustainably survived. Those that overused or misused it disintegrated. The attempt to classify and categorize the variability existing in nature for over a century has led to an understanding of its organization into communities of plants and animals. This information has helped in utilizing the earth’s biological wealth for the benefit of humanity and has been integral to the process of development. This includes better health care, better crops and the use of these life forms a raw material for industrial growth which has led to a higher standard of living for the developed world. However, this has also produced the modern consumerist society, which has had a negative effect on the diversity of biological resources upon which it is based. The diversity of life on earth is so great that if we use it sustainably we can go on developing new products from biodiversity for many generations. This can only happen if we manage biodiversity as a precious resource and prevent the extinction of species.

The sustainable management of biodiversity is one of the most important challenges facing humanity. Biological diversity, abbreviated to biodiversity, refers to the variety of life forms at all levels of organization, from the molecular to the landscape level. These are the legacy of billions of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and increasingly, by the activities of humans. Losing biodiversity has eroded the basis for social and ecological resilience, which has resulted in reducing the capacity for adaptive responses in a rapidly changing world. However, human activities still continue to have a large impact on the environment and on biodiversity. Agricultural, urban and infrastructural developments and climate change has exacerbated biodiversity loss. As a result, ecosystem functions and services are affected with serious consequences. The Sustainable Development Goal should be devoted to “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”. It is high time to realize the linkages between the severity of global biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystems and the negative impact that this situation have resulted on food security, nutrition, access to water, health of the rural poor and people worldwide.