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Food extrusion technology is a popular means of preparing snacks and ready-to-prepare food items. It is a method of size enlargement in which tiny granular food or powdered particles are strengthened into bigger parts with various forms, texture, color, etc. Extrusion cooking or thermoplastic extrusion is a common extrusion technology considered to be a process of HTST (high temperature, short time). It allows the manufacturing of a wide range of food products with little or no alteration of the fundamental equipment and adequate process control. Extrusion cooking is used for starchy and protein substances to make nutritious foods. Generally, such products are rich in calories and incorporation of protein rich fish improves its nutritional value. Most of the cereal-based extruded snacks were primarily made from maize, wheat and rice. However, these cereals (e.g. rice) have comparatively low protein content (6 - 8 g/100 g db) and an elevated amino acid profile in glutamic and aspartic acid, whereas lysine is the restricting amino acid. Therefore, it is recommended that protein food ingredient (e.g. fish) be added to the extruded snack products to develop nutrient rich diets.

Fish is considered to be great sources of protein of high dietary importance with a balanced profile of essential amino acids and lipids containing omega-3 fatty acids, in particular essential fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), respectively. EPA and DHA are very essential to normal growth and development. To avoid or moderate coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune illnesses, these vital fatty acids are discovered. The benefits of fish-based extruded products will assist in providing a big population in the nation like India with nutritious and balanced diets.

Introduction

Fisheries and aquaculture are important source of food, nutrition and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food-production sector in the global aquaculture with production of 73.8 Million tonnes in 2014 (FAO, 2016) expanding into new directions, intensifying and diversifying. A persistent goal of global aquaculture is to maximize the efficiency of production to optimize profitability.

Infectious diseases pose of the most significant threats to successful aquaculture. Intensively cultured fish and shellfish are susceptible to infectious agents. The losses due to shrimp diseases in India is valued at Rs. 10, 221 million. Globally, the yield loss due to diseases in aquaculture is estimated to be $ 6 billion. A variety of antimicrobial and chemical treatments have been used for the control and treatment of bacterial diseases in aquaculture systems. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria due to application of antibiotics in aquaculture and the toxic nature of chemicals led to the search for alternatives for the control of infection. Here, we discuss the several alternatives to antibiotics that have been successfully used in aquaculture.

Bihar state is located in the Eastern part of the country and has a total geographical area of 94,763 Sq km which accounts for 2.85% of the country’s total land area. Out of the total geographical area, 57.12 lakh hectares is under cultivation, which accounts for 60.27% of the total geographical area. The Gross and net sown area in the state is 78.82 and 57.12 lakh ha, respectively and presently the cropping intensity is about 138%. Paddy, wheat, pulses, maize, potato and oilseeds are the major field crops of the state, while mango, litchi and banana are the major fruit crops. As the third-largest vegetable producer, the state accounts for eight percent of Indian vegetable basket. Among the livestock sector, cow and buffalo are the majorly dairy animals. Goatery and poultry are also practiced on a wide scale in the state. Agriculture and its allied sectors together account for about one third (33.00%) of the State’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This makes agriculture an important source of livelihood and a potential instrument for the attainment of inclusive, grassroots level and widespread developmental change.

Bihar State is characterized by its high population density, largely dependent on agriculture for livelihood. Its bountiful natural resources of fertile soil, abundant water and varied climatic conditions make Bihar an agriculturally high potential region. But, factors like fragmented and small landholdings, poor crop management practices, weaker market connectivity, lack of alternative sources of income, poor professional skills, absence of farm-level processing & value addition and poor investment possibilities in agriculture and allied sectors are resulting in widespread poverty among the rural masses of the state, which is more obvious among the scheduled tribe and scheduled caste population. There are around 1.47 crore landholdings in the State of which around 91.06 percent are marginal holdings of size less than 1 hectare (Agriculture Census, 2011). In addition to the above mentioned factors, lack of accessibility to productive resources and quality inputs, shortage of vocational skill development opportunities are the major contributory factors to the wide spread poverty in the state.

The extension/research work organization consisted of seven distinct steps namely,

Situation analysis

Identification of problems and setting up of objectives

Designing of interventions

Preparing plan of work & implementation of project interventions

Monitoring of implementation process

Impact assessment

Project reconsideration

Flowsheet

Based on various experimentations concerning live fish transportation, a flow sheet may be prepared as:

Evaluation of the health status of the fishes purchased from the market to be packed for transportation. Serrated operculum and spiny fins, if any (as in Anabas testudineus) is serrated as it damages the packing materials. The trimmed fishes are treated with antibiotics and left for a week for wound healing.

In the case of abroad transportation of fish, clearance to the fitness of fishes is made available from a veterinary doctor/inspector. A no-objection certificate is also obtained from the office of the Marine Products Export Organization.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

Determination of oxygen requirement of the fish in terms of per hour and per unit body weight is essential. In the case of air-breathing fishes to be packed (Like Channa punctatus, Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis), determination of aerial and aquatic oxygen requirement of the fishes is essential. The oxygen requirement of oxygen was estimated from the calculated values of intercept (=a) and slope (=b). For this calculation, a relationship of aW^b is applied.

Introduction

Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing meat and healthy meat. Goats also play a major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial and many people are taking up as a challenge to meet the demand and supply. Rank of India in goat population is 2^nd. Total goat population in the country is 148.88 million during 2019. Total goat has increased by 10.14% over previous livestock census (2012). About 27.8 % of the total is contributed by goats.

Introduction

Sheep is a multi-utility animal used for the production of wool, meat, skins and manure. They don’t require costly structures to house them. Sheep are sparing convertor of grass into meat and wool. The structure of their lips causes them to clean grains last to collect time and in this way convert waste feed into gainful items. Sheep eat different types of weed plant. This makes them phenomenal weed destroyer. They don’t damage plant like goats. They thrive well even under bad management practices. Unemployed youth can adopt sheep rearing as a source of gainful employment. Total sheep population in the country is 74.26 million during 2019. Total sheep has increased by 14.133% over previous livestock census (2012). About 13.8 % of the total livestock is contributed by sheep.

Done for both biotic and abiotic stresses.

Biotic stresses are disease and insect pests.

Abiotic stresses are drought, salt, flood, heat, cold, etc.

12.1. Variety release

Superior cultivars are to be purified by breeder and tested for genuiness in 7 generations.

Then, they are forwarded to MLT after RYT, RRYT, PYT and CYT in respective research station.

Based on results of the MLT, strain is forwarded to Adaptive Research Trials (ART).

3.1. GM or transgenic crop

Plant that has a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

GM crop contains a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of plant acquiring through pollination.

In 1994, Calgene’s delayed ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr) is first GM food crop.

3.1. Seed generation system

Seed multiplication is nothing but production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage.

5.1. Seed village

Compact area approach in which the whole village is involved in seed production.

Concept is a win-win model (Deepak Mullick)

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.

Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

2.1. Types of plant diseases

2.1.1. Types of infection

1. Localized diseases

4.1. Physical methods

Employed for reduction or elimination of primary inoculums that may be present in seed, soil or planting material.

1.1. Weeds

Plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental.

Weed invasion ranked second to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.

Major threat to both the productivity of land and water and integrity of natural ecosystems.

2.1. Based on life span

2.1.1. Annual weeds

1.1. Farm business management

Concerned with resource allocation.

Useful to impart knowledge and skill for optimizing the resource use and maximizing profit.

Classification of the farming systems based on following criteria

Available natural resources, include water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate especially altitude; landscape including slope; farm size, tenure and organization.

Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, include field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities.

6.1. Management of important farm resources

Factors of production are land, labour, machinery, equipments and buildings.

9.1. Risk

Situation in which one knows both possible future and probability outcomes.

4.1. Definition

Kohls and Uhl refer to expansion of firms by consolidating additional marketing functions and activities under a single management.

Establishment of wholesaling facilities by food retailers and setting up of another plant by a milk processor.

15.1. Minimum Support Price (MSP)

MSP are announced by GOI at beginning of sowing season for certain crops on basis of recommendations of CACP.

MSP is price fixed by GOI to protect producer - farmers against excessive fall in price during bumper production years.

Guarantee price for their produce from the Government.

Objectives are to support farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for PDS.

16.1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

Only global international organization dealing with rules of trade between nations.

Location: Geneva, Switzerland

Established: 1 January 1995

Created by: Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94)

Membership: 164 members representing 98% of world trade

Budget: 197 million Swiss Francs for 2018

Secretariat staff: 625

Head: Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General)

17.1. Fruit Products Order (FPO), 1995

Promulgated under Section 3 of Essential Commodities Act, 1955.

For regulating sanitary and hygienic conditions in manufacture of fruit, vegetable products.

Mandatory for all manufacturers of fruit, vegetable products to obtain a license under this order.

4.1. Information and Communication Technology

Refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications.

Similar to IT, but focuses on communication technologies.

Includes the Internet, wireless network, cell phones, and other communication medium.

7.1. Sriniketan Project (1914)

Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore in 1914 established a rural reconstruction institute at Sriniketan involving youth from a group of 8 villages.

Maintained a demonstration farm, a dairy and poultry unit, an outdoor clinic, a department of cottage industries and a village school.

Villages were expected to approach these agencies through village workers who lived in villages to obtain solution of their more pressing problems.

Scheme of land development and tree plantation were given due importance.

Experiment on paddy, sugarcane and cotton were undertaken.

9.1. Rural Sociology

Science of rural society.

Study of sociological life in rural setting to discover their conditions and tendencies and to formulate principles of progress.

A.R. Desai: Rural Sociology involves the study of human relationships in rural situations.

10.1. Social value

Ideas which help an individual to discriminate whether a particular object or behaviour is good or bad, desirable or undesirable.

Norms: Times rules which govern the action

Normative behavior: People are expected to behave in accordance with the values held by the individual.

S.C. Dood defined the value as “desiderata” i.e., anything desired or chosen by someone, sometime.

Value may be considered as attitude-related attribute that are projected upon people, objects and situations.

12.1. Women in Agriculture

Women are actively involved in various agricultural activities.

Principle

Standard solutions are the solutions of accurately known concentrations. There are two types of standard solutions viz., primary and secondary.

A known quantity of the substances is dissolved in a volumetric flask and the volume is made upto the mark. Standard solutions prepared in this way are known as primary standard. This method can be used for preparation of standard solutions of substances which satisfy the following conditions.

More often, if the reagent is not a primary standard, a secondary standard solution must be prepared. The chemical is dissolved and made up or diluted to the desired concentration and then it is standardized against a primary standard or against another reliably known secondary standard solution. Such solutions are called as secondary standard solutions.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

Principle

When water is ponded inside the concentric metallic rings driven into the soil, the rate of recession (fall) of the water level, or the rate of water withdrawn from a supply source used to maintain a constant head of water on the soil surface, gives the infiltration rate of the soil.

During infiltration of water into the soil, appreciable lateral movement of water may also occur. To avoid the error due to this lateral movement, two concentric rings are used. Equal heights of water are to be maintained in both the rings. The infiltration is measured in the inner ring only. The rate of water intake per unit area varies markedly with the size of the rings and the depth of the soil to which they are driven into. Infiltration rate studies are preceded by the profile, initial soil moisture and any other problems of the region in which the soil is located.

[Titrimetric/ Walkley and Black (1934) Method]

Introduction

The role of soil organic matter, in relation to soil fertility and physical conditions, are widely recognized. The organic matter is the source of plant nutrients which are released inassimilable forms during microbial degradation. A major proportion of N (95 – 99 % of the total), P (33 – 67 % of the total) and S (75 % of the total) in soils occur in organic combinations, which mineralize to release the nutrients in inorganic forms to be used by plants. Nevertheless, it serves as a reservoir of plant nutrients, in promoting water storage, and in regulating microbial activity.

The organic matter content of a soil varies from 0.344 % in very sandy arid soils to more than 86 % in Peats and Mucks. Soil organic matter contains 5 % N, and 0.5 % each of P and S, thereby, having a N:P:S ratio of 10:1:1. The organic matter content of a soil is estimated by the amount of organic carbon (C) present, as this element represents, on an average, 52 – 58 % of the organic matter, and the C:N ratio is 10 – 15. In the sub-soil, the average organic carbon amount is 36 – 44 % (40 %), and the C:N ratio is < 8. In order to find out the amount of humified organic material, the organic carbon content is multiplied by 1.724, which represents the ratio between the humus and the organic carbon (100/58) and is known as the ‘von Bemmlen factor ’.

The organic matter content of soils is estimated from the organic carbon, determined by using the ‘Titrimetric method / Walkley and Black method. The Titrimetric determination, also known as the ‘wet-digestion method’ involves a rapid titration procedure for the estimation of organic carbon content of soils.

[Alkaline Permanganate / Subbiah and Asija (1956) Method]

Introduction

Nitrogen (N) is found in the arable horizon of the soil, mostly in organic material. In the soil solution, organic N is gradually transformed into ammoniacal (NH₄ ⁺), nitrite (NO₂ ^–) and nitrate (NO₃ ^–) nitrogen by microbial processes. Organic-N is, in itself, of very little use to plants, as it can not be absorbed as such. It is, therefore, necessary to estimate the different forms of mineralized or available N. The NO₃ ^–_N and NO₂ ^–-N together, hardly, exceed 1 % of the total N in normal soil.

The available N in soil refers to a fraction of the total N which is converted into forms accessible to the plants. This constitutes, on an average, only 0.5-2.5 % (rarely 5 %) of the total N in a soil at any given time. Nitrogen is, generally, absorbed by plants as NO₃ ^–, under oxidized environment (upland condition), and as NH₄ ⁺, under reduced condition. NO₂ ^– is sometimes, detectable, but the amount is, generally, very small vis-a-vis NH₄ ⁺ or NO₃ ^– and, hence does not warrant its determination. The sum total of NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^–- N is smaller than the total N, which becomes available to plants and the difference being attributed to the mineralization of the organic N, during the crop growth cycle.