eChapters

The stone fruit crops namely peach, Prunus persica, plum, Prunus domestica, apricot, Prunus armeniaca, almond, Prunus dulcis and walnut, Juglans regia are grown in wide range of climatic conditions ranging from subtropical to temperate regions. Peach and plum are also cultivated in mid and low hills in addition to temperate regions. Peach is the major stone fruit crop followed by plum, apricot and cherry. Walnut and almond on the other hand are major nut crops. A number of insect pests (~80) infest stone and nut fruits in various stages of the tree growth and development and cause direct and indirect loss out. Only few pests are of economic concern, the details of which are given hereunder

Peach leaf curling aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.), Aphididae: Hemiptera

It is a polyphagous pest reported infesting 175 plant species of 115 genera of 49 families. It is a regular and key pest of stone fruits viz. peach, nectarine, plum, apricot and almond and

32 – 33. Agronomic practices for fodder production: Feeding green forages to animal is economic and better for animal health and production. To get green forage throughout the year, it is necessary to sow the crop at proper time and also to harvest it at a proper stage. According to season, following agronomical practices may be followed:
(a) Rabi crops: Berseem, Lucerne, Oat, Mustard, Sugarcane tops
(b) Zaid crops: Chari, Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Guar.
(c) Kharif crops: Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Sudan grass, Napier, Para grass.
Berseem and Lucerne (legumes) are best forages for milk production. Berseem is called as king and Lucerne as queen of the fodder crops. Maize, Sorghum, Oat (non – legumes) at flowering stage are good forages. Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, Para grass and other green grasses are palatable, but poorer in nutritive value than legumes and many non – leguminous forages. Straws and
stovers are poor quality roughages. Average voluntary intake of legumes is 2.0 kg; Non legumes and other grasses have 2.25 kg; while of straws, stovers is only 1.5 kg Dry Matter / 100 kg body weight.

1. Introduction

 Mushrooms have been part of man’s diet for centuries (Rajarathnam and Shashirekha, 2003). Mushrooms grow on wide range of agro-residues, biodegrade and biotransform them into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1988a; 1988b; 1990; Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1988; Zakia Bano et al., 1993; Rajarathnam et al., 1998). Their post-harvest life is very ephemeral at room temperature (Rajarathnam et al., 1983) due to delicate flavor (Rajarathnam et al., 1990) and high moisture content, with a range of chemical constituents (Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1986; 1982; 1988; Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990; Rajarathnam et al., 1983; 1992). Since, they contain large quantities of water and therefore suffer considerable weight loss during transportation and storage, causes serious economic losses, due to reductions in weight and quality (Gray, 1970). When the supply of water, organic substances and minerals are cut off at harvest, the fresh mushroom enters a deterioration or perishable phase. Cap opening and stem elongation are the usual symptoms of senescence constituting visible evidence of deterioration. At room temperature, the shelf-life of mushrooms cannot be for more than 24 h (Rajarathnam et al., 1983). During this period, there are considerable changes in color, texture and taste. In addition, water is continuously being lost as a result of transpiration and respiration. Additional loss occurs from surface cracks and bruises that develop during growth and handling (Salunkhe et al, 1991). Fresh mushrooms are white or light buff, with no dark marks on either the cap or stem. The veil is closed and the gills are not visible. The upper surface of the caps should be strongly convex and stems should be plump rather than elongated. Mushrooms are grown on compost, usually in mushroom houses where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. Eventually after harvest, the mushrooms can never be able to withstand any increase in temperature and decrease in relative humidity. Mushrooms are commercially preferred at the immature stage characterized by closed caps, invisible lamellae, round stipe and light color. Agaricus development is classified into various stages (Table 1). Thus, the concept of physiology of fresh mushrooms being very complicated, bears a great impact on the delicate problem of extending the storage life. The various means and methods studied and adopted by various researchers to aim at extended storage life of fresh produce, underlined by its physical, chemical and biochemical properties and also development of value added products are critically evaluated.

Storage is one of the most important aspects of post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables. The main objective of storage is to extend storage life of fruits and vegetables and increase their period of availability. A substantial quantity of fruits go waste in India due to lack of proper storage facilities. Storage of fruits and vegetables is practiced for various reasons. Proper post harvest handling of fresh horticultural produce helps in extending  period of availability of wide range of  fruits and vegetables round the year, prevention of seasonal market gluts, orderly marketing, better return to grower and  preservation of  nutritional qualities. The   long  term  storage  of  fruits  and  vegetables is expensive and requires high level of technical  knowledge of crop. However, an orderly marketing reduces storage period considerably. 

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. Losses of horticultural produce are a major problem in the postharvest chain. The diseases which develop on harvested parts of the plants like seeds, fruits and also on vegetables are the postharvested diseases. The amount or extent of damage depends mainly on the pathogen(s) involved, on the condition of the products and the condition of storage. Major tips to avoid postharvest losses include Tips to avoid postharvest losses include assessing maturity, to check your water quality, to check water temperature, avoid injury, keep the produce cool and proper storage.

“Storage” means the phase of the postharvest system during which the products are kept in such a way as to guarantee food security other than during periods of agricultural production at the marketing level, to balance the supply and demand of agricultural products, thereby stabilizing market prices. Grain, which includes dry kitchen ingredients such as flour, rice, millet, couscous, cornmeal, and so on, can be stored in rigid sealed containers to prevent moisture contamination or insect or rodent infestation. For kitchen use, glass containers are the most traditional method. Maturity indices are the sign or indication the readiness of the commodity for harvest. It is the basis for determining harvest date. Postharvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing.

11.1. Storage fungi

Store fungi include all species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.

Aspergillus flavus, A. candidus, A. niger, A. parasiticus, A. repens, A. rubber, A. versicolor, etc. Penicillia etc

Penicillia are more prevalent in cooler climate.

7.1. Storage

• Helpful in checking market glut, providing wide selection of fruits, vegetables and flowers to consumer through most part of year i.e. especially during off season.

• Helps in orderly marketing and increases profit to producers/farmers.

• Done to maintain freshness, quality, reduce spoilage and extend their usefulness.

• Huge post-harvest losses due to lack of proper storage facilities.

• Basic principle of storage - to reduce rate of physiological processes like respiration, transpiration, ripening and other biochemical changes.

• Proper storage aims to control disease infection and preserve best quality for consumers.

• Chemical used to extend the shelf life and quality of produce

Introduction
• The main objective of food preservation is to avoid food spoilage • So, the underlying principle behind all the meat preservation technique is providing adverse conditions for the growth and survival of the harmful microbials and such adverse conditions may be provided in the from of heat, cold, high level of salt, increasing acidity or removal of water/ oxygen
• Meat can be preserved by many techniques such as drying, heating, low temperature, curing, addition of chemicals or by application of irradiation and high pressure
• Addition of chemical i.e. chemical preservation which is accomplished by smoking is generally done after salting and pickling of meat
Physical changes in stored raw meat
1. Shrinkage
2. Sweating
3. Bloom loss

Storage : It can be defined as keeping the commodity fresh or processed in safe condition with minimum of deteriorative changes for later use.

Reasons of Deterioration During Storage

3.1 Introduction

Water used for irrigation can be stored mainly in three sources i.e. soil reservoir, surface reservoir or groundwater reservoir. Accordingly the storage system can be defined as soil reservoir storage system, surface reservoir storage system or groundwater storage system. Each of these storage systems has its own merit and demerit. Some of the storage systems though economical but are not helpful to store the irrigation water for longer periods. On the other hand, some other storage systems are very costly, but the irrigation water can be stored there for a longer period. However, before adopting a particular storage system, economics of the system need to be calculated. The cost of installation of the system and the water stored in the storage system and its use as supplemental irrigation to the crops to increase the production in terms of monetary benefit need to be assessed and then the economics of the system should be computed. The storage system that gives maximum benefit-cost ratio and net present value should be adopted for storage of irrigation water. The different types of storage systems are discussed below.

Abstract

Pulses constitute an important component of the diet and are a major source of protein in vegetarian diet. India has largest area under pulse cultivation and produces a variety of pulses. A large portion of this produce gets spoiled due to insect and fungal attack. A variety of insecticides and fungicides are used for the control of pest during storage. There is an increasing trend towards the reduction in the use of pesticides in storage due to strong demand from consumers to choose food with no pesticide residue, development of insect resistance to pesticides and the impact of pesticides’ use on environment. All these have posed a challenge to refine the existing management procedures of storage and commodity to find the optimal solution. Controlled/ Modified Atmosphere storage offers an alternative to the use of pesticides extends storage life and maintains product quality. The Controlled/Modified Atmosphere is created by altering the composition of the atmosphere in terms of CO2, O2, and N2 concentration. High CO2 produce undesirable conditions for insects and microbes and thus control their activity.

13.1. Storage pests

13.1.1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S. granarius

1. Host range: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, paddy.

1. INTRODUCTION

To over come the problem of glut of perishables and to regulate the market, storage of such commodities is a 'common' practice. Storage of fruits and vegetables also makes available these commodities in the off-season. Needless to say, storage is a powerful tool in the prevention of postharvest losses and to give remunerative prices to the farmers. The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most important factors determining storage life of horticultural produce. The natural means like ice, cold water, night temperature have been used for long time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these are still common. However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores. All these aspects are discribed in this chapter.

Onion bulbs remain vulnerable to moisture loss, sprouting, rotting and microbial deterioration during extended storage. Traditional structures frequently provide inadequate ventilation and expose produce to fluctuating temperature and humidity. This chapter examines scientific curing and storage technologies, including improved ventilated structures, zero-energy cool chambers, forced-air systems and controlled or modified atmospheres. Renewable-energy and solar-powered facilities are considered for small and marginal farmers. The chapter also discusses value addition through dehydration, powdering, flaking, pickling, paste production and other processed products. Improved storage enables gradual market release and price stabilization, while value addition reduces waste, creates diversified products, enhances shelf life and generates additional income for growers and processors.

Introduction

India is bestowed with huge production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, millets, sugarcane along with meat production, milk production, fish production and poultry. Despite such a huge production in India, owing to perishable nature of these produce around 25-30 per cent of the produce is being lost as post harvest loss. The one important reason for this may be the production of the crops are season specific and during the peak season the production is more while demand for consumption is less. It may be possible to cut down losses to great extent, if these produces may be transported from the produce states to those who are not producing due to agro-climatic reasons. So for making transportation of the perishable a successful venture in decreasing post harvest loss, there must be proper storage facilities both at producing site as well as marketing place. The aim of the storages must be to keep the produce in saleable condition during entire storage periods. Some products are stored for short period whereas fresh fruits, vegetables require cold storage. Foods before keeping into the storage room need some pre-storage treatments for better results.

Proper marketing of perishable commodities such as fruit and vegetables often requires some storage to balance day-to-day fluctuation between harvest and sale or for long term storage. Storage of horticulture produce is attempeted with a view to extend period of availability. Storage controls shelf life of produce by controlling rate of respiration, transpiration, ripening and biochemical changes all of which are responsible for shelf decomposition/deterioration of produce. Further, different types of storage have different attributes in minimizing microbial infection and thus add to better storability of produce.

In the past several insect pests had entered India and are causing economically perceptible damage to native crops. The Government of India, in line with the International Standards on Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM), notified ‘Plant Quarantine Order, 2003’ to reduce the risk of introduction of exotic insect pests in India. The storage insect pests of quarantine concern for India have been listed in Table 9.1.

Abstract

The history of the development of the tea plantation industry in the Darjeeling district dates back to the early fifties of the nineteenth century when the English entrepreneurs took lease of extensive land on the mountain slopes of the Darjeeling Himalaya and started tea plantations. During the formative years of the introduction of the plantation industry the region was sparsely populated so, laborers from various parts of India and her neighboring countries were encouraged to settle in the fringe areas of the Tea gardens. Over the last 160 years many changes have taken place in their lifestyle. The main purpose of this paper is to reconstruct the history of Darjeeling tea and to explore the life of people in the Darjeeling region and also to learn how the local populace adjusted themselves with the given environment with the changing scenario of the area.

Synonyms : Infectious adenitis, Equine distemper
It is  an acute infectious disease of equines characterized by catarrhal inflammation of the upper respiratory tract with suppuration and abscessation of the associated lymph node.
 
Etiology :  Strepococcus  equi subspecies equi is a Gm+ cocci that produces a -b haemolysin characterized by clear haemolysis surrounding colonies growing on blood agar. It is a biovar or genovar of S. zooepidemicus. Equines are very much susceptible and different genetic clones occur geographically. S. equi varies in virulence which is related to M protein and hyaluronic capsule produced. S. equi variant without capsule causes mild disease.

Introduction

Aquaculture has been recognised as an important livelihood creating employment opportunities in the remote rural villages and urban areas. Further, it makes crucial contribution to global economic security and growth and generates income both directly and indirectly through support services. Over the past six decades, the prospects of ornamental fish have been emerging as a lucrative commercial aqua-venture. The global ornamental fish trade is the fastest growing sector and a multimillion dollar business which provides avenues for overseas earnings. The developing countries play a crucial role in production of ornamental fishes as more that 60% of the production comes from the households of the developing countries (FAO, 2006). The estimated worth of international ornamental fish trade at retail price is US$ 8 billion and the entire sector including aquarium tanks, accessories, medicines, feeds, plants, etc is worth of US$ 20 billion. India’s share in global export market is negligible as it is mainly dominated by the wild caught species mainly from the northeastern states of India and Western Ghats and estimated at Rs. 5.5. crores in 2009-10 (MPEDA, 2011).

SYNOPSIS

Urban and rural agriculture are different entities in terms of stakeholder involvement and enabling environment for farming but they are dialectically interlinked in providing food and nutrition security of any country. Urban agriculture is more suitable on the production of nutritious crops, while rural agriculture’s first priority is to produce more food from staple. Attaining nutrition security is more complex than it is previously thought. However, while existing systems of production should continue at field levels by developing more nutritionally rich cropping patterns, its integration with farmers’ farming systems remains more important.

Introduction

Enterprise management involves a combination of tools, strategies, and processes that work together to form a cohesive plan and framework supporting overall operations. The key is ensuring that these elements are interconnected, which enables the smooth flow of information and minimizes redundancies.

Core business functions such as human resources and supply chain management often operate in isolation. However, this separation can slow down business operations, create unnecessary obstacles, and lead to loss of revenue or customers.

By viewing each business area as interconnected, these silos can be eliminated, leading to more efficient operations. For instance, a well-functioning human resources team can hire the right talent, which, in turn, strengthens marketing and sales efforts. As sales grow, revenue increases, enabling further improvements in logistics operations.

Introduction

Livestock plays an important role in the sustainable livelihood of poor people of rain-fed agro-ecosystem, because of inherent risk involved in the crop farming due to uncertainty of rainfall and occurrence of recurrent droughts. They provide income and increased economic stability, and often the most important “cash crops” in small-scale mixed farming systems. Livestock sector in India is highly livelihood intensive and most rural households own livestock of one species or the other and earn supplementary incomes from them. Livestock holding is less iniquitous than land holding and income from livestock is more equitably distributed. The sector contributes 25.6 per cent of the value of output at current prices of total value of output in agriculture, fishing & forestry sector and in GDP, it was 4.11% in 2012-13 (19^th livestock census, 2012) therefore, development of the livestock sector is the critical pathway to rural prosperity

As per the 19^th livestock census, the total livestock population consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horses & Ponies, Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak in the country is 512.05 million numbers in 2012. The total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 299.9 million numbers in 2012 which shows a decline of 1.57% over previous census. In percentage basis distribution of livestock were: 37.28% were cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats and 2.01% pigs. The corresponding figures as per the 18th Livestock Census were 37.58%, 19.89%, 13.50%, 26.53% and 2.10%. The number of milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes has increased from 111.09 million to 118.59 million, an increase of 6.75%. The number of animals in milk in cows and buffaloes has increased from 77.04 million to 80.52 million showing a growth of 4.51%. The Female Cattle (Cows) Population has increased by 6.52% over the previous census (2007) and the total number of female cattle in 2012 is 122.9 million numbers. The Female Buffalo population has increased by 7.99% over the previous census and the total number of female buffalo is 92.5 million numbers in 2012. The buffalo population has increased from 105.3 million to 108.7 million showing a growth of 3.19%. The total sheep in the country is 65.06 million numbers in 2012, declined by about 9.07% over census 2007. The Goat population has declined by 3.82% over the previous census and the total Goat in the country is 135.17 million numbers in 2012. The total poultry population in the country has increased by 12.39% over the previous census and the total poultry in the country is 729.2 million numbers in 2012. The total number of animals in milk in the country is 116.77 Million numbers.

Introduction

Strategy is a critical aspect of any organization, as it helps to align resources, capabilities, and competencies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization.

Strategic Management Process: The strategic management process com prises four essential stages: analysis, formulation, implementation, and evaluation. Each stage plays a crucial role in attaining desired outcomes and maintaining the organization's competitiveness.

Analysis Stage: During the analysis stage, the organization thoroughly examines its internal and external environments. The internal analysis assesses the organization's strengths and weaknesses, while the external analysis explores the opportunities and threats present in the market.

Formulation Stage: The formulation stage involves developing strategies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. This stage involves selecting the most appropriate strategy based on the results of the analysis.

Abstract

Parasitic diseases are of great economic importance in livestock farming and are major obstacle in the health and productivity of animals. These may be due to endo-parasites that live inside the body or ecto-parasites such as ticks, mites, flies, fleas, midges, etc., which attack the body surface. Among ecto-parasites, ticks and mites are very important and harmful blood sucking external parasites of mammals. Blood sucking by large numbers of ticks causes reduction in body weight and anemia among domestic animals, while their bites also reduce the quality of hides. More than 250 species of mites can cause problems for humans and domestic animals because of their being vector for zoonotic diseases. Their attack may lead to problems of temporary irritation of the skin due to bites, persistent dermatitis due to mites invading skin or hair follicles, mite-induced allergies, transmission of pathogenic microbial agents, intermediate host of tapeworms, invading respiratory passages, ear canals and internal organs, fear of mites called acarophobia The economic or medical importance of the Acari increases with their ability to be vector for viruses, rickettsiae, spirochaetes, phytoplasmas, mycoplasmas and protozoa, or to harbor and transport nematodes, bacteria and fungi pathogens that affect plants, domestic and wild animals and humans. Ectoparasites were not considered serious problem till the introduction of exotic animals or exotic semen in India as the indigenous breeds were considered resistant to parasites and the damages occurred by them were totally ignored. Much awareness was not there about the diseases caused by ectoparasites like anaplasmosis therefore dairy producers had to bear losses both, in milk production and proper animal growth. Ectoparasites may be causing death of animals in certain cases. Losses in dairy, poultry, goatry and other livestock farming can be considerably reduced through strategic management of parasites. This needs timely detection, identification and development of effective control measures. 10-30% production losses are estimated by parasitic infestation. If profitability is the goal in livestock entrepreneurship then target has to be the animal health, productivity and quality produce through strategic management and awareness campaign on economic importance of parasites.

Strategies To Improve The Productivity Of Drylands

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuasion by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing. Malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Better functioning of FPO is possible through ensuring sustainability and promoting high growth activities. It can be achieved through working with specific planning. A brief road map for better functioning of FPO/FPC has been discussed here.

7.1. Factors for high growth of Farmer Producer Companies

The reason for high growth of FPC as perceived by ASA (2009) are energetic management team and the board of directors, cooperation from banking institutions which provided hassle free loans to the PC for working capital, and a clearly identified business opportunity that gives a high return on investment. A tentative assessment suggests that there are multifarious benefits for member in the form of timely and easily availability of fertilizers, seeds and other agriculture inputs at a reasonable rate; bulk selling of agriculture produce for better price; extension services received by the farmers which the PC had arranged with the agriculture department or from other service providers; receiving of cash dividends from the FPC (Mondal, 2010).

Introduction

Most of the technological advances in the recent past in Indian Horticulture have been done for favourable agro-climatic regions. However, the vast and diverse land-scape of hot desert, arid, semi-arid and tribal area is not yet receiving logical thought for resource based horticultural development (Samadia and Haldhar, 2017). Although, the semi-arid regions of the country have now became potential hub for aonla, bael, ber, pomegranate, jamun, guava, fig and custard apple. There has been a steady increase in area and production of these fruits particularly under aonla, ber, custard apple and pomegranate in the country as a result of identification and development of suitable varieties and production technologies. The average productivity of these fruits in India is, however, low as compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low yielding varieties, poor orchard management and inadequate technological up-gradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, the continuing decline in the availability of cultivable land, rising energy and land costs together with the increased demand of fruit and fruit products, have given thrust to the concept of high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. High density planting gives earlier production and return per unit area, shortens juvenility, eco-friendly, provides efficient land use and better use of resources like light, water and fertilizers, efficient pesticides application, besides, in this system the harvesting becomes easy(Mishra and Goswami, 2016). Among the factors such as cultivar, rootstock, quality of planting material and cultivation practices contribute to high yield of fruit trees, however, the number of trees^-1 is the most important factor which brings about radical increase in fruit production. Therefore, high density planting has great potential for increasing productivity in fruit crops (Mishra et al., 2003). The success of this technology in most of the fruit crops is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth and maximize light interception as the trees begin to bear fruit. The main aim of HDP is to achieve the twin requisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth without impairing the plant health and fruit quality. The underlying principle of HDP is to make the best use of vertical and horizontal space per unit time and to harness maximum possible return per unit of inputs and natural resources.

With the advent of hybrid technology, it is natural to assess its potential benefits at the national level. To meet the domestic requirement of pigeonpea, about 50.000–60,000 metric tons of pigeonpea is imported annually from Myanmar and Africa. In this communication, an attempt has been made to look into the possibility if we can meet the entire domestic needs of pigeonpea through the adoption of hybrid technology. It is a big question but the goal is not impossible. The estimates shown in Table 18 show that if only 2% of total pigeonpea area can be brought under hybrids, the target can be met with ease. This will require seed production in only 700-800 hectares.

Increasing evidences over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are occurring across various regions of the globe in the form of increased occurrence of extreme weather events. The significant cause to this sustained increase in climate variability, known as climate change has been a resultant of increased level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The reason for this increase is mainly ascribed to enhanced human activities such as industrialization, uncontrolled burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants and changed land use patterns and practices. Most significantly, the concentrations of GHGs like CO₂ has already crossed the 400 ppm mark, while other potential contributors like methane and nitrous oxide also show significant rise. As a result of the heat absorbing capacity of these gases, there has been a considerable rise in global mean temperatures, more so in the recent decade and more. The increase in mean air temperatures of the globe was 0.76⁰C during the past 100 years. This rate of increase has been higher during the past two decades and the recent period recorded the warmest years in sequence, the latest being the 2017. The impacts of the climate change are visible across all regions of the globe, in the form of increased occurrence of extreme weather events like severe droughts, floods, storms, heat waves, cold waves, high wind regimes etc. Besides the physical risks to life and increased discomfort, these events directly influence the quantity and quality of agricultural production adversely. They increase the production risks and threaten the food security of nations. Agriculture is one of the main sectors that is likely to be impacted by climate change and in a country like India, the consequences can be harsh with projections of decline in yields of major food crops due to warmer temperatures and increased drought risk in the coming decades. Thus risk characterization and risk management are critical issues in agricultural productivity management. The risks are higher in rainfed areas which are mainly dependent on the quantum and distribution of rainfall during the monsoon season of June to September over major part of the country. As against the national average of 40% of the total cropped area being irrigated, 60% of the total cropped area is still rainfed and is strongly dependent on uncertainties of monsoon. This shows that the dependency of Indian agriculture on climate is very large and as such the Indian agriculture is called a gamble in monsoon.

The agroclimatic conditions of Indian Himalayan region are suitable for growing temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond, walnut, pecan nut, kiwi, strawberry, hazelnuts, pistachio nuts and other small fruits. The region is extended over the states of Jammu and Kashmir (J & K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.)  and Uttaranchal (U.A.) in the north-western Himalayan region and Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, hilly areas of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and West Bengal in the north -eastern Himalayan region. Other areas are ooty, Kodai Kanal and Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. Mount Abu in Rajasthan and hilly areas of Punjab. Although, temperate fruit growing areas in India do not fall in the temperate zone, yet the prevailing temperate climatic conditions due to high altitude and nearness to snow covered Himalayas has made the temperate fruit cultivation possible.

Abstract

Crop cultivation is a complex process and involves a set of activities like land preparation, planting, pest control, irrigation, nutrient management, harvesting, marketing, etc. Entire cycle of crop production requires multitude of information by the farmers. Despite many efforts over the years to disseminate and transfer agriculture knowledge to the stakeholders, large amounts of expertise and knowledge are still out of reach to most of them. Agriculture knowledge may be contained in the corporate database, or it may reside undocumented inside the brain of the researchers or even stored in locations unknown to the majority of the people in the organization. Large sections of the farming community, particularly the rural folk, do not have access to the huge knowledge base acquired by agricultural universities, extension-centers and businesses. In this respect the main challenge is to find this knowledge and apply it to the decision making process involved in agriculture development.

Meaning of Market Energy Strategy

Market Entry Strategy

When an organization has made a decision to enter an overseas market, there are a variety of options open to it. These options vary with cost, risk and the degree of control which can be exercised over them. The simplest form of entry strategy is exporting using either a direct or indirect method such as an agent, in the case of the former, or counter trade, in the case of the latter. More complex forms include truly global operations which may involve joint ventures, or export processing zones. Having decided on the form of export strategy, decisions have to be made on the specific channels. Many agricultural products of a row or commodity nature use agents, distributors or involve Government, whereas processed materials, whilst not excluding these, rely more heavily on more sophisticated forms of access.

Abstract

The control of micronutrient deficiency is a realizable goal, notwithstanding the magnitude of the task, challenges and constraints that need to be resolved. Since wheat products particularly maida and atta form the major raw material in widely consumed food items like chapati, bread and biscuit. Fortification of flour as followed in many other countries could be an important strategy to help realize this goal. The technology of flour fortification is effective and cost affordable. Effective flour fortification program would require collaboration between scientific community, governmental and non-governmental agencies, and industry and consumer groups.

Introduction

There are a number of chemicals in the environment, some natural other man-made, some toxic other non-toxic. These are toxic chemicals, whether natural or man-made, which has created problems for the environment and biota on the earth. Of these toxic chemicals, heavy metals are extremely hazardous. Metals are present naturally in the earth’s crust at various levels. However, increasingly widespread heavy metal pollution resulting from anthropogenic activities has caused serious environmental problems and is posing threat to both wild life and human population (Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988). Natural sources include weathering of mineral and metal ions from rocks, displacement of certain contaminants from groundwater or subsurface layers of soil, atmospheric deposition from volcanic activity, and transport of dust. The anthropogenic sources include deposition of industrial effluents, application of sewage sludge, deposition of air-borne industrial wastes, military operations, mining, landfill operations, use of agricultural chemicals, gas exhausts and energy and fuel production (McIntyre, 2003).

Since ancient times, agriculture is an outdoor or open field production of crops. Open field production is climate and weather dependent. In fact, growth and development of crops under a particular set of climate parameters defines geographical location, productivity and production period of different crops. The magnitude of impact of climate and weather on agricultural productivity and quality of produce is appreciated by farmers and the scientific community, including horticulturists. Abiotic and biotic factors govern crop production potential and quality of products. Among the major constraints in production of horticultural crops are temperature (hot or cold), sunlight duration and quality, water deficiencies or excesses, atmospheric moisture (relative humidity), weeds, deficiency of nutrients, heavy winds, carbon dioxide and host of diseases and insect pests. There are ecological optima for obtaining production potential of each of the crops. Deviation from these conditions results in yield losses partially and sometimes totally. However, near optimal climatic conditions could be created by controlling the climate with the help of greenhouse using

The article is the Inaugural address delivered by Dr. R.S. Paroda at Indian Society for Protected Cultivation (ISPC-registered in March 2012), New Delhi on 21 March 2013 in a seminar ‘‘Advances on Protected Cultivation’’ at NASC, Complex, Pusa, New Delhi different protected structures/methods/devices and such cultivation under controlled environmental conditions is termed as as protected cultivation.

Introduction

The share of Agriculture sector in GDP is declining over the years. This is because, of the a large gap in the latest known technology and technology being used by the farmers. Our human resources are not being utilized properly because our people in the villages are ignorant about many scientific innovations.

In Andhra Pradesh, more than 70.00 per cent of the population is dependent on agriculture but its contribution to the state GDP is only 30.00 per cent. It is felt that this low contribution to the GDP by the Agricultural sector is due to uneconomic returns

Indian agriculture is passing through a phase of reforms, owing to its shifting emphasis towards diversification, intensification, commercialization and sustainability, which has posed newer challenges before the extension functionaries. Understanding and appreciating the information needs of different clients (farmers, farm women, labourers, youth, etc) and providing quality extension service is central to its success, which needs quality manpower at different levels. Among extension services training need resources is a key input for human recourses development and contributes substantially to face the challenges by all concerned. Farmer led extension approach gives farmers the opportunity to share their experience and practices through a method demo with fellow farmers in the area. It was noticed that farmers who are successful in their farming venture have established credibility among their peers. These very same farmers are just waiting to be tapped to act as extensionist.

Abstract

‘Made in India’ is no more a sign of poor quality. However, in the field of food grain exports, India is still lacking the required determination. The Indian food grains get rejected in the International market because of its out-dated post harvest technology (PHT). The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal national agency for the procurement, storage, processing and transporting of food grains, and their further distribution through the Public Distribution System (PDS). The government fixes the procurement price as well as the distribution price of the food grains, and the FCI has to accept it. The government compensates the resulting loss through subsidy. The government, through FCI, must encourage cultivation and marketing of premium quality food grains, by offering suitable incentives to farmers. The cost of marketing, storage and transporting of food grains can be considerably reduced with simultaneous improvement in quality of the end product, if the prevailing bag handling is replaced by bulk handling, storage, and transportation. However this needs closer coordination between various departments of the Ministry of Food and Ministry of Railways. The President of India revealed his vision to make India a developed country by the year 2020. To achieve this, the current post harvest losses to the tune of 10 percent must be reduced to 2 percent. This is possible if the government takes bold political decision supported by equally firm and time-bound necessary

Minimizing waste in agricultural and food production is increasingly recognized as a critical pathway toward environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and food security. Strategies such as waste prevention, material reuse, and resource recycling form the backbone of sustainable waste management in the agri-food chain—from production and processing to distribution and consumption. Globally, agriculture is under pressure to reduce its environmental footprint, with waste generation being a primary concern. Implementing integrated waste management practices across the agri-food sector enhances resource efficiency, improves soil health, creates value-added opportunities, and supports circular economy objectives. In the Indian context, where significant post-harvest losses and agro-industrial residues persist, such strategies are essential for advancing rural development, ecological sustainability, and economic resilience.

Minimization Strategies
Waste reduction starts at the production level with optimized crop planning and judicious input use. Precision agriculture tools—such as GIS mapping, soil health diagnostics, and sensor-based irrigation—enable efficient resource management and reduce chemical overuse. Practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and integrated pest management (IPM) further enhance productivity while minimizing environmental harm. Post-harvest losses, which can exceed 30% in India's fruit and vegetable sectors, are addressed through improved cold chain infrastructure, timely logistics, advanced packaging, and localized value addition. Digital interventions—such as price forecasting apps and e-market platforms—empower farmers to make informed decisions and reduce overproduction and spoilage.

INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide gas is fundamental to sustaining life on earth for two reasons (i) it is a source of C for photosynthesis, and (ii) it acts like blanket in atmosphere that keeps the earth warm. Molecular CO₂ absorbs short wave solar radiations and release them as long wave infra red radiations. An atmospheric concentration of 300 ppm is adequate to support life on earth. CO₂ accounts for about half of the greenhouse effect. The natural concentration of green house gases (GHGs) has been essential to life on earth, creating the average temperature of 15ºC. Without the naturally occurring green house effect, the average temperature would be minus 18ºC. CO₂ concentration has now reached 400 ppm. If present trends continue then CO₂ levels would reach 600 ppm in 2100 and 1300 ppm in 2200 and level off at 1800 ppm in the year 2400 (Harvey and Danney, 2000). With increasing CO₂ concentration the amount of solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere would increase and make earth warmer. The higher atmospheric temperature can affect global hydrological cycle and alter the distribution and productivity of terrestrial biota. This can have devastating consequences for human life as each 10C increase in temperature, vegetation zones may change dramatically, moving toward the poles by 200-300 km. Further, each 1ºC of global warming will also increase water evaporation, leading to about 2% greater mean global precipitation.

Introduction

Energy conservation is the practice of using less energy to lower costs and reduce environmental impact.

A majority percentage of energy used in buildings is still from non - renewable and fossil fuel resources. Lighting and Appliances are affecting energy demand in domestic sector.

Reasons for increased energy demand

• Increase in electrical appliance ownership

• Increasing income level and reliable access

• Rise of Lighting and appliance loads

Abstract

Rice is the staple and principle food of about half the human race and is often the main source of calories. Navara is a unique rice cultivar indigenous to Kerala, gifted with extra short growth duration. It is mainly used for the preparation of Navara kizhi, which is an effective remedy for rheumatic complaints, neuro muscular disorders and body rejuvenation. It is traditionally given as a supplementary diet to the under-weight and also consumed as a replenishing drink called ‘Karkadaka kanji’ during the monsoon season along with certain other herbal medicines.Despite the Navara is known for its special medicinal attributes to the producers, consumers and other actors of the value chain, there is a declining trend of Navara rice cultivation noticed (2000 acres to less than 50 acres) in the state (The Hindu, November 28, 2010), which entails the loss of biological and cultural diversity associated with this unique rice.The study attempted to identify and analyze the actors involved in the value chain of Navaraon the conservation perspective. The primary data required to analyze actors in the value chain were collected from the farmers, input suppliers, processors, retailers and consumers of Palakkad, through key informant method, focused group discussion, and structured interview schedules and analysed through Value chain mapping tool and SWOT analysis. The secondary data regarding the rice and its properties were collected from websites and publications. The study revealed that the cultivation of Navarashould be purely organic to preserve its medicinal value. The cultural practices except ploughing, such as weeding, manuring, harvesting etc. are done manually. Application of chemical fertilizers will increase the vegetative growth of Navaraand subject to lodging of plants and at the same it also affects the quality of rice.

Introduction

Castor (Ricinnus communis L.) is an important non-edible oilseed crop and occupies an important place in the country’s vegetable oil economy. The crop is mostly confined to Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Although other states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh cultivate castor, their contribution to either area or production is limited. Presently, castor is grown over an area of 8.7 lakh hectares with a production of 11.7 lakh tonnes and productivity of 1352 kg/ha in the country (2008-09). Castor oil finds application in manufacture of a wide range of ever expanding industrial products such as nylon fibres, jet-engine lubricants, hydraulic fluids, soaps, varnishes, paints, medicines and a host of similar other products. Castor cake is used as manure and also as nematicide. Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh put together contribute to 68.5% of the total castor area and 80% of the total castor production in the country. The crop has been cultivated under resource-rich irrigated conditions in Gujarat with very high productivity (1963 kg/ha), while in Andhra Pradesh, the crop has been cultivated under rainfed and poor resource management conditions, with very low productivity (509kg/ha).

Introduction

Cassava is an important tuber crop in India grown in 2.7 lakh hectare area with a production of 71 lakh tonnes. The average yield of tapioca is 22 tonnes per hectare. Cassava is a richest source of starch (25 to 35%) mainly processed for starch and sago. Cassava is an industrial crop of Tamil Nadu occupies 32.97% of the area and 45.98% of the production in India. (Edison et al 2006). In Tamil Nadu major traditional tapioca growing districts are Salem, Namakkal, Erode, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri and Kaniyakumari mostly as rainfed. Among the districts Salem District stands first in area (27000 ha) and with the production of 10.475 lakh MT(Anonymous, 2006).

13.1 Introduction

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have become an increasingly important topic worldwide due to their effects on global warming and climate change. The effects of GHG emissions on the ecological and socioeconomic vulnerability have already been noticed and will continue to grow regionally and globally in the years to come (IPCC 2007). Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons, perflourocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are the important GHGs that are monitored by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 2008). Global GHG emissions due to human activities (anthropogenic) have grown since the beginning of the industrial revolution with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004 (IPCC, 2007).

The Agriculture sector is by far the largest employer amongst all the major sectors employing roughly half of available workforce. At the same time, agriculture is the smallest sectoral contributor to the GDP. It is ironical that the most important requirement of human being, which is the bulk of agriculture farm produce, is largely considered to be an unrewarding sector in the nation.

Though the Indian agriculture has made significant strides in the course of the last 50 years of planned development, still the farmers today are facing the consequences of host of challenges, namely dependence of monsoon, declining size of land holdings, degradation of soil & water resources, declining investment of public sectors on agriculture. So farmers are increasingly getting indebted and temptation to sell their farm land  for non-farm purposes is growing. Over 45 per cent of farmers want to quit farming says a survey conducted by National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).

Agricultural land is still a great source of income. But the practice of unsustainable methods and improper resource management leading to successive crop failures that make agriculture non- profitable and highly  risky.  So, the interest of youth in agriculture has been declining. While most developing countries are still experiencing high population growth rates, the youth are migrating in significant numbers to urban areas. The younger generation does not consider farming as a profession and they treat it as traditional activities of their family. The farm youth think that the farming system is not capable to provide a life, therefore they are diverting from agriculture to other profession.

In conventional agriculture, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides etc. are applied at a uniform rate throughout the crop field. Precision Farming emphasizes on the infield variability which is first recognized, located, quantified and recorded, then managed by applying farm inputs  in specific amounts at specific time and at specific locations.

The factors affecting sustainability of agriculture under small farm production system in coastal ecosystem of Odisha was studied to ascertain the status of ecological factors and suggest means and ways to improve the situation. The response of the sample farmers and the findings of the study together led to suggest the following measures for up-gradation of ecosystem of the coastal area leading to sustainability of agriculture. Like other states, Odisha is also facing with problems of sustainability of agriculture. Our sample districts namely Puri, Khurda, Ganjam and Balasore which are situated in coastal eco-system of the state has different problems concerning to natural resources like soil, water, forest and animal wealth, etc.

The suggestions to improve the sustainability status of agriculture have been viewed from two important angles. One is adoption of technological measures to preserve natural resources and other is the policy and extension approach to educate people about the necessity of taking such measures for sustainability of agriculture and improve upon.

The world is changing rapidly and education is facing new challenges as we move into the 21st century. For Extensionist, this means new approaches to teaching and learning are needed. Futurist John Naisbitt (1994) predicts that as structured employment opportunities decline, entrepreneurial skills will become necessary for the rural youth to compete. Additionally, acquiring skills and attitudes necessary for the youth can be achieved through youth entrepreneurship programs (Cox, 1998)

There is a challenge to convert ideas into policy and then into action to put in programmes aimed at helping the future farmers of the world.  According to UN report , Youth as a target group is not a major policy priority of most governments in developing countries. This review illustrates that youth are only occasionally visible in policy related documents.  Hazelman  (2008) emphasized based on lessons from case studies made by FAO in Asia and the Pacific,  highlighted  the importance of having a clear national policy relating to rural youth; building and utilizing youth networks and partnerships at the national, regional and international levels; organizing youth into youth-led organizations that are active and have strong leadership together with competent and committed advisors, with projects and activities that address youth and community needs; and giving priority and attention to education and training opportunities for continued learning and human-capacity building.