eChapters

Tulip cut flower is first among the bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is a member of Liliaceae family, commonly grown from bulbs. The name tulip is derived from the Persian word “toliban” meaning “turban”, which is an appropriate term to describe the flower shape of certain tulips. The mother bulb dies and is replaced by several daughter bulbs, each of which is an annual unit of growth borne in the axils of the mother bulb scale. Tulips are basically grown for three purposes i.e. bulb production, forcing as cut flower and potted plant and for landscaping (Singh, 2006). The world tulip flower industry is dominated by the Netherlands. Another important tulip producing country is France.

Lisianthus is among top ten cut flower crop of the world. In short duration of 20-30 years it become top ranking flower crop of world due to its beautiful flowers which bears beauty of different top ranking old commercial flower crops with variation in flower colours, shape, size with long vase life. It looks like tulips as they began to open and as poppies when fully opened, gaps between the petals appears like daisy, ruffled petals resemble carnations and the most important one is the flower buds and opened double type lisianthus resemble rose buds and open flower respectively and there is no doubt that this is a primary reason for consumer acceptance. Double flowered lisianthus are more demanded in U.S. as cut flower about 80% of lisianthus market whereas, single flowered are more dominant in Japanese and European markets. In Japan over 129 million cut stems were sold in 2001 placing it on number one position in Europe, over 122 million cut stems were sold in 2001 and placing it in top ten ranking and in the United States over 14 million cut stems were sold in 2002, it is not only popular as a cut flower but also as a bedding plant and a pot plant in market (Grueber et al., 1985, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Roh and Lawson, 1987, Tjia and Sheehan, 1984, Tija and Sheehan 1986, Skrzypczak et al., 1993 and Harbaugh, 2007), a plant bears 20-30 flowers per plant (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Lilium is a popular genus of ornamental bulbous plants, belonging to family Liliaceae. Lilium is originated from a Greek word “li” meaning whiteness. It is an herbaceous perennial plant having scaly bulb. Despite the range of forms and their popularity as garden plants, there are two main groups of commercial importance as cut flowers i.e. Asiatic and Oriental Hybrids. They are the result of interspecific hybridization. However, intraspecific and interspecific hybridization face the hurdles like interspecific incompatibility, embryo abortion, degeneration of ovule, poor seed set and pollen sterility. There are several breeding methods and techniques which have been used to overcome these hurdles.

Kangaroo Paws (Anigozanthos spp.) belongs to family Haemodoraceae. It is commonly known as Sword-like or Iris-like. The word Anigozanthos was coined by French botanist Jacques de La Billardiere. This is derived from Greek words “anoigo” meaning to “expand or unequal” and “anthos” meaning “flower or irregular corolla”. It can be used as cut flower, pot plant, landscape plants or dry flower (Gui et al., 2005). The kangaroo paws is gaining popularity among gardeners, horticulturists, nursery man also in world market due to its beautiful, unique, colourful pattern of flowers and also being perennial in nature.

Heliconia belongs to family Heliconiaceae is popular as ornamental plants and cut flowers because of their brilliant colours and exotic appearance. The genus name “Heliconia” is derived from “Helicon”, a mountain in southern Greece regarded by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses, thus suggesting the relationship between these plants and the bananas, genus Musa (Berry and Kress, 1991). Unique features of the Heliconiaceae are (1) medium to large erect herbs rising from underground rhizomes; (2) each erect shoot is composed of a stem and leaves, whereas the stem is made up of an axis covered by overlapping sheathing leaf bases, technically called a pseudostem; (3) inverted flowers and (4) the presence of a single staminode. Heliconia has long been popular horticulturally because of their showy inflorescences. It was so attractive that early explorers of the tropics returned to Europe with several species that became prized green house specimens. Heliconia, grown in nearly all of the tropical regions of the world, including Africa and Asia. In India, heliconia is grown in North-East region and Kerala.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. Gladiolus is a Latin word, the diminutive of “gladius” meaning sword, sometimes called as sword lily. The plant is herbaceous perennial and semi-hardy. It is commonly grown from rounded, symmetrical corm, which is enveloped in several layers of brownish, fibrous tunics. The cultivated gladiolus is a complex assemblage of cultivars originating from complex ancestry of natural selection or hybridization involving several species. Modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least twelve species (Raghava, 2000). It is an important commercial cut flower in both domestic and international markets.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a member of the family Caryophyllaceae. Dianthus word was first coined by Theophrastus from Greek word “dios” meaning divine and “anthos” meaning flower. It is a half hardy, perennial plant, propagated commercially by terminal cuttings. It is being produced as a cut flower in the world. Carnation cut flower trade contributed about 15% of the world flower market. Till now, new carnation varieties have been produced mainly through conventional breeding method. The breeding procedure typically consists of hybridization, self-pollination and selection (Holly and Baker, 1992). The breeding programme did not get enough momentum due to heterozygosity, limited gene pool and inadequate knowledge of genetic make up. However genetic engineering and molecular breeding have opened the way to achieve novel colour and good vase life of flowers.

Antirrhinum is a genus commonly known as snapdragon belongs to family Scrophulariaceae. Snapdragon is one of the flowering plant present with vast genetic diversity in India. The term Antirrhinum is derived from the Greek word “anti” means like and “rhin” means a nose, referring to the snout like shape of the flower. The cultivated Antirrhinum majus is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. The common name snapdragon, originates from the flowers reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the mouth of the flower to snap open like a dragon’s mouth. Flowers are borne on terminal long spikes of many colours except blue and with numerous shades. It is one of the excellent cut flowers which have long lasting qualities. These are also used as garden plants, bedding plants, in rockeries or herbaceous borders and as potted plants. Plants can be grown for cut flowers in an open field or under protection depending on the climate. The leaves and flowers are antiphlogistic, bitter, resolvent and stimulant (Chiej, 1984).

Anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum Linden) belongs to the complex family Araceae, is a slow growing perennial that requires shady, humid conditions as found in tropical forests. The name anthurium is derived from Greek word “anthos” meaning flower and “oura” tail referring to the spadix. Thus, anthurium is also known as “tail flower” (Tajuddin and Prakash 1996). Anthuriums are gaining popularity due to higher returns per unit area and their beautiful and attractive long lasting flowers. Anthurium ranks ninth in the global flower trade and commands a respectable price both for its cut flower and whole plant. Commercial production has focused on two major species viz. A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. A. andraeanum is grown mostly for cut flower production, the main production areas being Hawaii, The Netherlands, and some other tropical and subtropical countries. A. scherzerianum is sold as a flowering potted plant, with main production areas located in Europe. In India, the anthurium cut flower industry is still in its infancy. At present anthuriums are mostly grown in some small gardens and nurseries. The important states cultivating anthuriums are Assam, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Coorg) and Mizoram where the favourable climate exists (Agasimani et al., 2011).

Alstroemeria belongs to the family Alstromeriaceae. Alstroemeria flowers third in terms of popularity and foreign exchange earnings in Kenya after roses and statice. Alstroemeria is named after a Swedish botanist “Baron Klas von Alstroemer”. The popularity of this flower is still growing in the global perspective. It is one of the quickest growing flowers with varying colours like purple, lavender, salmon, red, pink, white, orange, yellow and bicolour. It is grown for cut flowers but is also popular as a potted plant. It is grown in the higher ranges of the Western Ghats, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka in India.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights safeguard creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control their use. Protected IP rights like other property can be a matter of trade, which can be owned, sold or bought. These are intangible and non exhausted consumption. The term “intellectual property” denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise and not the intellectual work itself (Chadha, 2013). Intellectual property rights are essentially territorial in nature so, where registration is necessary, for patents, registered designs and trademarks, these will not exist in other countries unless registration has been sought and obtained there.

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid crops are derived from an established and well-proven breeding method used in ornamental sectors. The development of hybrid crops has been one of the major factors behind a dramatic increase in global crop yields. Hybrid is produced by crossing between two genetically dissimilar parents. Pollen from male parent called pollen parent will pollinate, fertilize and set seeds in female called seed parent to produce F1 hybrid seeds. For production of a hybrid, crossing between two parents is important, the crossing process will results in heterosis or hybrid vigour. Heterosis is defined as the increase in size or vigour of a hybrid over its parent. This boost in performance, combining the best yield, quality and agronomic characters from each parent, is the result of hybrid breeding.

MOLECULAR BREEDING

Molecular breeding is the application of molecular biology tools, often in plant breeding.

Genetic markers

Genetic marker is defined as a gene whose phenotypic expression is usually easily discerned, used to identify an individual or a cell that carries it, or as a probe to mark a nucleus, chromosomes or locus (King and Stansfield, 1990). Three broad classes of genetic markers are morphological markers, biochemical markers and DNA or molecular markers.
 
(1) Morphological markers

Morphological markers are based on the visually assessable traits viz., morphological and agronomic traits. However, they are limited in number.

MUTATION BREEDING

Mutation refers to sudden heritable change in phenotype of an organism or permanent change in the number, kind and sequence of nucleotides in genetic material, while individuals showing these changes are known as mutants. Mutation was first discovered by Wright in 1791 in male lamb which had short legs. Hugo de vries coined the term mutation. In crop improvement the breeders are always look for wide range of variability and stabilization of desirable traits. Mutation breeding is very useful in inducing new variability, which is an essential requirement of any plant breeding programme. The modern day cultivars are the resultants of various breeding techniques like selection, hybridization, tissue culture and mutagenesis including some biotechnological tools. Novelty in commercial traits like colour, size, shape, length, post harvest life of flowers etc. are always valued and preferred by consumers. Mutation breeding by exposing planting material with irradiation has play vital role in inducing novelty in a number of flower crops.

INTRODUCTION

Various procedures which are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are known as breeding methods. The breeding approaches that are more commonly used for genetic improvement of crop plants are called conventional breeding methods. Following conventional breeding methods were followed in improvement of crops.
    (A)    Plant introduction
    (B)    Pureline selection
    (C)    Mass selection
    (D)    Progeny selection
    (E)    Synthetic and composite breeding
    (F)    Pedigree method
    (G)    Bulk method
    (H)    Backcross method
    (I)    Heterosis breeding
    (J)    Clonal selection

WORLD HISTORY

Work on ornamental crops was first initiated in Krelage Nursery founded by Ernst Heinrich Krelage for bulbs, lilium and dahlias in 1811. During 1895, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute was established for ornamental crops. The first yellow corn Golden Bnatam was listed in Burpee’s Catalogue in 1902. In 1909 Primadonna F1 hybrid variety of begonia was released by the Benary Seed Company in Germany and in the same year Atlee established seed farms at Floradale in California, Erfurt in Germany Anglia in UK and Kashmir valley in India for annual garden flowers. Luther Burbank did excellent breeding works on ornamental trees, flowers and fruits in 1926.

X    :    Times; power; multiplied by.

Xenobiotic    :    Compound foreign to biological systems. Often refers to humanmade compounds that are resistant or recalcitrant to biodegradation and decomposition.

W    :    Watt.

W&D    :    Warm and dry.

W/A    :    Weakness atrophy.
    
W/C    :    Wheelchair.
    
W/E    :    Wound of entry.
    
W/U    :    Workup. 

V    :    Volt.

V domain    :    The variable region of the polypeptide chains of an immunoglobulin or T-cell receptor is composed of a single N-terminal V domain. Paired V domains form the antigen-binding sites of immunoglobulins and T-cell receptors.

U    :    Units.

U&L    :    Upper and lower.

U&MNP    :    Ulnar and median nerve palsy.

U/O    :    Under observation for.
  
U/WB    :    Unit of whole blood.

UA    :    Umbilical artery; uric acid; urinalysis.
   
UC    :    Ulcerative colitis; unchanged; unconscious. 

T    :    Thymine

T    :    TH1 cells are a subset of CD4 T cells that are characterized by the cytokines they produce. They are mainly involved in activating macrophages, and are sometimes called inflammatory CD4 T cells. OR TH2 cells are a subset of CD4 T cells that are characterized by the cytokines they produce. They are mainly involved in stimulating B cells to produce antibody, and are often called helper CD4 T cells. OR The term TH3 cell has been used to describe unique cells that produce mainly transforming growth factor-â in response to antigen; they develop predominantly in the mucosal immune response to antigens that are presented orally. OR See regulatory T cells.

S    :    Second.

S    :    Sedimentation coefficient. OR Svedberg unit.

S phase    :    The period during the cell cycle when the chromosome is replicated.

S7P    :    Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate.

R    :    Gas constant.

R factors  R plasmids      :    Plasmids bearing one or more drug resistant genes.

R group    :    Shorthand for the side chain of an amino acid. 

Q    :    Ubiquinone (coq).

Q    :    Every.

Q fever      :    An acute zoonotic disease caused by the rickettsia Coxiella burnetii.

P    :    Phosphate.

p    :    Pico (10^-12).

P&S    :    Permanent and stationary.

PO    :    Per oral; by mouth (see also IV; IP;).

PA    :    Postero-anterior; pulmonary artery.
   
PAC    :    P1-derived artificial chromosome.

O    :    Pint.

O antigen      :    A polysaccharide antigen extending from the outer membrane of some gram-negative bacterial cell walls; it is part of the lipopolysaccharide.

O&E    :    Observation and examination.

Oa    :    Open access.

N    :    Avogadro’s number.

N    :    Nano (10^-9m).

N&M    :    Nerves and muscles.
   
N&T    :    Nose and throat.

N&V    :    Nausea and vomiting.
    
NA    :    Nucleic acid.

M    :    Milli (10^-3l).

M    :    Molar (mol/L).

M    :    Microorganisms - small organisms which require a microscope to be seen. M represents the SS in the mixed liquor and is part of the F/M ratio. 

K    :    Kilo (10³g).

K    :    Potassium.

KA    :    Ketoacidosis.

Karlvon Baer    :    Person who‚ in 1828‚ published on the developmental stages in mammalian eggs and showed that an undifferentiated‚ single-celled egg grows into a many-celled embryo.

K    :    Kilo (10³g).
 
K    :    Potassium.

KA    :    Ketoacidosis.

Karlvon Baer    :    Person who‚ in 1828‚ published on the developmental stages in mammalian eggs and showed that an undifferentiated‚ single-celled egg grows into a many-celled embryo.

J    :    Joule.

J    :    Joining segment.

J chain      :    A polypeptide present in polymeric IgM and IgA that links the subunits together.
    
J gene segments, joining gene segments     :    The J gene segments, or joining gene segments, are found some distance 5' to the C genes in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci. A V and in the case of IgH chains, tcrâ chains and tcrä chains, a D gene segment must also rearrange to a J gene segment to form a complete V-region exon.

I&D    :    Incision and drainage.     
I&E    :    Internal and external.     
I&O    :    Intake and output.     
I.P. (IP)    :    Intraperitoneal .    
I.V. (IV)    :    Intravenous.

H    :    Hour.

H    :    Planck’s constant.

H antigens, histocompatibility antigens   :    H antigens or histocompatibility antigens, are known as major histocompatibility antigens when they encode molecules that present foreign peptides to T cells and as minor H antigens when they present polymorphic self peptides to T cells. See also histocompatibility.

G    :    Gibbs free energy OR Guanine.

G proteins    :    G proteins are intracellular proteins that bind GTP and convert it to GDP in the process of cell signal transduction. There are two kinds of G protein, the heterotrimeric (α,β, γ) receptor-associated G proteins, and the small G proteins, such as Ras and Raf, that act downstream of many transmembrane signaling events.

F    :    Faraday constant. OR Food - represents BOD in the F/M ratio. Expressed in pounds.

F factor    :    The fertility factor, a plasmid that carries the genes for bacterial conjugation and makes its E. coli host cell the gene donor during conjugation. OR A large bacterial plasmid, known as the sex-factor plasmid because it permits mating between F+ and F- bacteria. 

E    :    Reduction potential.    
Early induced responses    :    The early induced responses or early nonadaptive responses are a series of host defense responses that are triggered by infectious agents early in infection. They are distinct from innate immunity because there is an inductive phase, and from adaptive immunity in that they do not operate by clonal selection of rare antigen-specific lymphocytes.

D gene segments, diversity gene segments     :    D gene segments, or diversity gene segments, are short DNA sequences that join the V and J gene segments in rearranged immunoglobulin heavy-chain genes and in T-cell receptor â and ä chain genes. See gene segments.    
D loop    :    An extended loop of single-stranded DNA displaced from a duplex structure by an oligonucleotide.

C    :    Cytosine.
C domains    :    The constant regions of the polypeptide chains of immunoglobulin molecules are made up of one or more constant domains or C domains of similar structure; each immunoglobulin chain also has a single variable or V domain.

B    :    Born.     
B cell, also known as a B lymphocyte      :    One of the major types of cells in the immune system. B cells can differentiate to form memory cells or antibody-forming cells. OR A type of lymphocyte derived from bone marrow stem cells that matures into an immunologically competent cell under the influence of the bursa of Fabricius in the chicken and bone marrow in nonavian species. Following interaction with antigen, it becomes a plasma cell, which synthesizes and secretes antibody molecules involved in humoral immunity.

(+)sense RNA (plus-sense RNA)     :    A virus with a single-stranded RNA genome of the same polarity (‘sense’) as mrna.

Synonyms : Johne’s disease, Chronic  specific enteritis of cattle, Chronic bacillary dysentery
 
Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease), an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), has been recognized as a major disease of ruminants for over a century. It is primarily a disease of domestic and wild ruminants and causes heavy economic losses  in cattle, sheep and goat industry. It is spreading insidiously among animal population worldwide.  Recently it has been shown  that  the disease is not restricted to ruminants only and the host range is expanding to cause disease in other species including Crohn’s disease in humans. In India, the  disease has been occurring  since early 1930s in cattle, sheep and goats in almost every state. The disease in ruminants is clinically characterized by chronic intermittent profuse diarrhea, weight loss, emaciation and finally death.

Synonyms :  Splenic fever, wool sorter’s disease, Tarka
It is an  infectious disease of livestock and worldwide in distribution. This is a zoonotic disease. It is also  known as splenic fever because of enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly).

Etiology : It is caused by a rod shaped bacteria of 4-8 µm X 1-1.2 µm known as Bacillus anthracis. It is non-motile, capsulated, aerobic, spore bearing and Gm+  in nature. The organisms  remain in chains. It was the first pathogenic bacterium to be observed under the microscope, the first communicable disease to be transmitted by inoculation of infected blood, the first bacillus to be isolated in pure culture and shown to possess spores and the first bacterium used for  preparation of an attenuated vaccine.

Synonyms : Infectious adenitis, Equine distemper
It is  an acute infectious disease of equines characterized by catarrhal inflammation of the upper respiratory tract with suppuration and abscessation of the associated lymph node.
 
Etiology :  Strepococcus  equi subspecies equi is a Gm+ cocci that produces a -b haemolysin characterized by clear haemolysis surrounding colonies growing on blood agar. It is a biovar or genovar of S. zooepidemicus. Equines are very much susceptible and different genetic clones occur geographically. S. equi varies in virulence which is related to M protein and hyaluronic capsule produced. S. equi variant without capsule causes mild disease.

Synonyms :  Weil’s disease, Stuttgart disease, Infectious jaundice, Haemoglobinuria, Rice field worker’s disease, Swine handler’s disease, Sugarcane worker’s disease, Canine typhus

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter’s disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil’s disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.  Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs.  Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus.  Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Synonyms : Pasteurellosis, shipping fever, Stockyardis disease, Stockyardis pneumonia, Barbone disease

Hemorrhagic septicaemia is a particular form of pasteurellosis caused by Pasteurella multocida and manifested by an acute and highly fatal septicaemia mainly in  cattle and water buffaloes. The disease includes pneumonic pasteurellosis (shipping or transport fever), a disease caused mainly by P. haemolytica, although various serotypes of P. multocida are occasionally involved. Although the morbidity of pneumonic pasteurellosis of cattle can be high, the mortality rate is much less than that of hemorrhagic septicemia.

Synonyms : Farcy, Pacin, Carn

Glanders is a contagious, acute or chronic, usually fatal anthropo-zoonotic disease of Equidae caused by Burkholderia mallei and characterized by serial development of ulcerating nodules that are most commonly found in the upper respiratory tract, lungs, and skin. The first recorded description of glanders is from the third century from Aristotle. In 1664, glanders was recognized as a contagious disease and in 1830, it’s zoonotic potential was suspected. In the late 1800’s, the Mallein test (1891) was developed for diagnosis of glanders. By 1910, the U.S., Canada and Great Britain all implemented glanders-control programs. B. mallei was eradicated from the United States in 1929.

Synonyms : Bang’s disease, Contagious abortion, Infectious abortion, Enzootic abortion, Undulant fever, Malta fever, Mediterranean fever

Brucellosis, one of the most ancient diseases,  continues to be a problem for humans and animals throughout the world causing enormous economic losses and significant human morbidity in endemic areas. The bacterial pathogen is classified by the CDC as a category B pathogen that has the potential for development as a bioweapon. It is one of the important zoonotic disease and considered  as the most common laboratory acquired pathogen with >5 lakh human cases reported  annually  around the world. Brucellosis is a chronic infection which can result in infertility, delayed heat, interrupted lactation, loss of calves, wool, meat and milk production in animals and undulant fever in humans.

Synonymous  :  Pearl’s disease, scrofula

It is a chronic insidious contagious disease of man and animals caused by  tubercle bacilli characterized by development of tubercles in lung tissue, lymph nodes or other organs resulting in caseation and calcification. The tubercles are frequently located in lungs and lymph nodes. But they may be formed in the liver, spleen, intestine, peritoneum, meninges and long bones.

Synonyms : Black leg, quarter ill
This is an acute infectious but non contagious disease of cattle, goat, sheep, swine and deer  caused by Cl. chauvoei characterized by development of focal gangrenous and emphysematous myositis. This gives rise to crepitation and serosanguinous swelling in heavy muscles especially in gluteal muscles and associated with severe toxaemia and high mortality.