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Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Table jellies: Fruit flavoured sweetened desserts set with gelatin or similar gelling agents.
Table salt: A fine-grained, free-flowing salt suitable for being dispensed at the table from a salt shaker. It is pure sodium chloride with the addition of anti-caking agents, a function which was performed before additives by a few grains of dry rice.
Tagatose: Ketose monosaccharide comprising six carbon atoms (hexoses); an isomer of galactose. It has sweetness similar to that of sucrose but no calorific value, making it suitable as a low-calorie sweetener and bulking agent. Formed by bacterial fermentation using galactitol as substrate or produced from lactose via isomerization of galactose.
Taints: Sensory properties relating to the perception of off flavour or off odour in a product. Taints in foods can be related to, for example, warmed over flavour in ready meals or boar taint in pork products.
Tallow: Solid animal fats normally derived from cattle or sheep tissue, containing high levels of saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids (triglycerides of stearic acid, palmitic acid and oleic acid). It is white, flavourless, odourless and solid at room temperature. It is usually prepared by heating suet under pressure in closed vessels. It is used for frying and in shortenings. Tamper evident closures: Closures designed to ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident.
Tamper evident packaging: Packaging designed to ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident.

Table shell : A table that is complete except for the data.

Table : A set of data arranged in rows and columns.

Tangible assets : Assets you can touch : buildings, machinery, gold, works of art, and so on. Contrast with intangible assets.

Tariff : Often used to describe a tax on goods produced abroad imposed by the government of the country to which they are exported. Many countries have reduced such tariffs as part of the process of freeing up world trade.

Tax arbitrage : Creating financial instruments or transactions that allow the parties involved to exploit loopholes in or differences between their tax exposures, so that all involved pay less tax.

Tax avoidance : Doing everything possible within the law to reduce your tax bill. Learned Hand, an American judge, once said : “There is nothing sinister in so arranging one’s affairs as to keep taxes as low as possible … nobody owes any public duty to pay more than the law demands.” Contrast with taxevasion.

Tax base : The thing or amount to which a tax rate applies. To collect income tax, for example, you need a meaningful definition of income. Definitions of the tax base can vary enormously, over time and among countries, especially when tax breaks are taken into account. As a result, a country with a comparatively high tax rate may not have a high tax burden if it has a more narrowly defined tax base than other countries. In recent years, the political unpopularity of high tax rates has lead many governments to lower rates and at the same time broaden the tax base, often leaving the tax burden unchanged.

Introduction

The demand for butter as table spread has declined due to high cost, poor spreadability at low temperature, high saturated fat and cholesterol content, changing life style and increased demand for healthy products. Today food industry is actively involved in new product development, this includes new formulations and imitation of foods being designed to compete with or replace existing products based on their superiority in convenience, cost and quality. The wide acceptance of bread in regular diet among urban consumers (75 percent of all household) reflects around 8 percent rate of growth in bread consumption. With this increase, the requirement of a suitable spread to complement has also increased. Table spreads include a variety of spreadable semi-solid products such as fat spreads, cheese spread, peanut butter etc. Butter has also been blended with vegetable oils/fat to produce a product that retains dairy qualities of butter with enhanced spreadability.

Tabletting is the area where sugar confectionery and pharmaceutical manufacture come closest, as the machines are similar the process can also be similar. Confectioners normally try to make tablets as hard as possible whereas pharmaceutical tablets are normally made to be fairly soft.

Tablets are made by compressing a powder in a die. Under pressure the powder fuses and is ejected as a tablet. The problem of tabletting is to produce a powder that will flow freely when poured into the die but bonds satisfactorily when compressed. Some materials are available in a directly compressible form. One example is sorbitol, which goes some way to explain the popularity of pressed sorbitol tablets with manufacturers. If directly compressible materials are not being used then the material must be granulated before being tabletted.

Granulation

Tabletting materials can be prepared by a number of different methods as outlined below:

ABSTRACT

Jharkhand state is endowed with vast and rich natural resources. It’s 80 per cent population resides in 32,620 villages and depends mainly on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood. Rural population in Jharkhand still suffers from several ailments, weakness and constraints which come in the way of the use of ICT for agricultural development. Low level of literacy, poor socio-economic status, low penetration of extension services, language barrier, lack of electricity, etc., are some of the problems due to which  the farmers are unable to access the latest techniques in farming through different ICT services and are using the traditional knowledge and techniques which yields very less.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is an important tree for social forestry, agro-forestry, wasteland development and dry land horticulture. The tree assumes great significance due to its various uses and capacity to withstand adverse agro-climatic conditions. The pulp of the mature ripe fruit has considerable export value in many parts of the world. The fruits are used for making processed products.

It is a common tree throughout the warmer parts of India, except where frost occures i.e. sub-Himalayan tracts and North-West Punjab. Rough estimates indicate that about 80,000 metric tonnes of tamarind pulp per annum is produced in India, bulk of which comes from the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and to a limited extent from Bihar. India is perhaps the main producer and consumer of this fruit in the world. In Maharashtra, the area under tamarind crop is around 13,186 hectare.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. Genus Tamarindus is a monotypic taxon having only one species. Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, probably Sudan, where it grows wild and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and America. It is also found growing in Camaroon, Nigeria and Tanzania. Tamarind has a long gestation period of 10-20 years and long-life span of even 100 years.

Cultivars/Varieties: In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter. One in Thailand is known as ‘Makham waan’. Another one is known as ‘Manila Sweet’. No other improved or named varieties are available.

Uses

Tamarind pulp is an important condiment as a sour ingredient in the Indian cuisine. Pulp has an excellent keeping quality. Timber is used for making agricultural implements. The wood yields excellent charcoal and is used for making gunpowder. Starch is obtained from seeds and is used in the textile industry. Seeds can be fed to animal after roasting and removing the outer skin. Seed is also a good source of tanning. Oil is obtained from seeds and is used in paints and varnishes. Leaves and flowers are also edible. It is rich in medicinal properties. Fruits is considered as digestive, carminative and laxative. With the addition of water and sugar, tamarind yields a cool drink which is quite popular in Latin America.Today India is the largest producer of tamarind in the world.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Tropical Africa and cultivated throughout South East Asia, Australia, America and India.

• Cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.

10.2. Economic importance

• The fruits are used as condiment or as acidulant.

• Fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world.

• Used as an acidic/flavouring agent in the Indian cookery.

• High in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins, and calcium.

• Used in traditional medicine and as a metal polish.

• Used for woodworking and oil can be extracted from the seeds.

• Seeds are astringent, aphrodisiac useful in giddiness, vertigo.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) or Imli is also called  Indian Date. It is a large broad leaved, tropical tree found in India and many parts of Asia.  Tamarind is native to tropical Africa and grows wild throughout  Sudan. It was introduced to India so long ago that it is now reported as indigenous. Sometimes during  sixteenth century, it was introduced into America and today it is widely grown in Mexico.
 
There are large areas of marginal and waste lands, which are not suitable for cultivation of fruits like banana, citrus, sapota, litchi, mango, pomegranate etc., either due to poor quality of soil or lack of water resources. Such lands are suitable for  cultivation of underutilized fruit crops like tamarind which is not so popular among  farmers due to following reasons:

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is a tropical evergreen tree species of Leguminosae family. It is a very versatile plant species which can grow easily up to 1500 m above sea level and found in abundance in the Indian subcontinent and African continent. The name Tamarindus indica was given by Linnaeus in the eighteenth century, inspired by the Arabic name “Tamar-ul-Hind”, meaning ‘date of India’. Tamarind is known by different vernacular names in different languages. In India, tamarind grows naturally in forest and also develops unattended on wastelands. Therefore, it is suitable to grow along the roads, in agroforestry as multipurpose tree species or as fire breaks for forest margins.

Tropical fruit tree are important crops which supplement and improve the quality of diet. Many of the species have multi-purpose uses in that they produce non food products such as fuel, timber, fodder, medicines and industrial products for small holders. Harvesting from these trees enable rural people to provide nutrition for a balanced diet and generate income thus alleviate poverty. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) can be found throughout much of the tropics, it is grown unattended in backyards, roadsides or waste lands. Tamarind is ideally suited for avenue plantings as a roadsides tree, in and around villages as a multipurpose species for agro-forestry system or as protective firebreaks for forest margins. It is a valuable timber species widely used for making furniture, tool handles, charcoal, oil mills, rice pounders and fuel wood. The leaves are an important source of food and herbal medicine and the edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams, chutneys, sauces, pickles etc. The fruit pulp of tamarind forms the “Tamarind of Commerce”. The name tamarind is derived from the Arabic word ‘Tamar-u’l-Hind’ because the dark brown pulp of the fruit was thought to resemble dried dates. It was therefore called the Tamere-hindi or ‘date of India. The production of Tamarind in India was estimated 201000 tonees for year 2017-18 (Horticulture statistics, 2018), India is the world’s largest producer of tamarind products. It is particularly abundant in the India states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The production in India is mainly concentrated in the drier southern states and the produce is collected by the villagers and sold in the market. In India, the average production of tamarind pods per tree is 175 kg and processed pulp is 70 kg/tree (Kulkarni et al., 1993).

•  
• Tamarind is at the 6th position in terms of export value, fresh, dried, powder and paste.
• It is a good source of iron.
• The red variety of Tamarind fruit contains anthocyanin while leucoanthocyanidin is present in the brown.
• Leaves are very rich in anthoxanthin, while the fruits are poor in this pigment.
• Xanthophylls are responsible for the yellow colours of the flower.
• The pulp contains 1.27% pectin.
• T.K.P. – Tamarind kernal powder, the use of cattle freed also.
• Kernal

Tamil Nadu state is situated at the south-eastern extremity of the Indian peninsula bounded on the north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, in the east by Bay of Bengal, in the south by Indian Ocean and in the west by Kerala state.  The state has a coastal line of 922 km and a land boundary of 1200 km. Tamil Nadu lies between 8°5’ and 13° 35’N latitude and 76°15’ and 80°20’E longitude. The total geographical area of Tamil Nadu is 13.03 m ha.

Tank mixing two or more pesticides saves time and labor and reduces equipment and application costs. In some cases, however, it can alter the effectiveness of one or more of the products. Two or more pesticides are considered compatible when they can be mixed and applied in combination without adversely affecting the effectiveness or the physical and chemical properties of the mixture, or causing undesirable damage to the application site. When problems develop from mixing two or more products together, the chemicals are considered incompatible.

Incompatibility

Incompatibility is a condition that prevents pesticides from mixing together properly to form a uniform solution or suspension. The formation of flakes, crystals, or oily clumps, or severe separation is unacceptable. Such incompatible mixtures clog application equipment and limit even distribution of the active ingredient in the spray tank. This prevents good pesticide coverage. The cause of incompatibility may be the chemical nature of the materials you are mixing. Impurities in the spray tank or water also may affect compatibility. Even the order in which you mix pesticides in the spray tank is important. Sometimes the types of formulations being mixed influence compatibility. Pesticide formulations of the same type are rarely incompatible with one another because they usually contain many of the same inert ingredients and solvents. Incompatibility can be a matter of timing or placement of the pesticides. Chemical or physical incompatibility may occur between the pesticides.

Background and Technology Intervention

Tanks are one of the oldest structures in India that has been serving as an important water harvesting device since time immemorial. The total number of irrigation tanks in India is estimated to be around 2, 08,000 of which, three states in South India viz., Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka accounts for nearly 1, 27,000 tanks irrigating 1.8 million hectares of land (Gandhiraj, 2009, Siva Subramanian, 2006, Sakthivadivel et al. 2004, Vaidhyanathan, 2001). In Tamil Nadu for instance, there are more than 39,000 tanks at present many of which were constructed during 18th and 19th centuries by kings, zamindars and Britishers (Jagadeesan, M 2011; Palanisami and Easter 2000: 9). Similarly in Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, tank irrigation developed extensively since ancient times. The district of Warangal and Karim Nagar have several old irrigation tank structures.

There are about 3000 tanneries processing 6000 tonnes of hides and skin annually in India. Large amounts of solid and liquids are generated in tanneries containing N and heavy metals. The treatment of tannery waste waters generates sludge which contain a large variety of organic and mineral components. The amount of sludge from a single tannery may be obtained up to 10,000 tonnes/ Yr. Fresh Sludges undergo preliminary fermentation on liquid separating plots which are stored in piles where further decomposition takes place. As a result of decomposition process, partially biodegraded material resembling compost is obtained. It looks like deep black earthy material. The chemical composition indicates the possibility of using it in agriculture. The hides of infected animals many contain anthrax germs and be contaminated with heavy metals particularly chromium in the sludge which depends on the technology for hide tanning and the methods used in a sewage treatment plants. The sludge from tanneries using chromium in the treatment process are not suitable to be used as fertilizer as they contain high amount of chromium. Co-composting of these wastes with crop residues could provide good quality compost and the heavy metal content would get diluted and reduced per unit weight.

Introduction

Substances found in many plants are generally related to one of the phenols, pyrogallol or catechol. Tannins are solids, usually extracted by hot water insoluble in ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, benzene; soluble in alcohol ether mixture, alcohol, water and in ethyl acetate, possessing a bitter astringent taste.

Tannic acid is Pentadigalloyl glucose, on hydrolysis yields digallic acid and glucose. Tannins are water soluble glucosides of polydepsides, polymeric ester of gallic acid. It is hydrolysed enzymatically and some efforts have, therefore, been made to preserve tannic, if it is to exert its activity in the duodenum. On the basis of physical or chemical principles which they employ, the methods of tannin analysis  can be grouped as follows.

Introduction

1. Various genera of tapeworms are found in poultry. They are:
   1. Raillietina spp.
   2. Choanotaenia spp.
   3. Davainea spp.
   4. Amebotaenia spp. and
   5. Hymenolepis spp.
2. Tapeworms mainly parasitise the small intestine. Tape worms deprive the bird of its nutrition and cause weight loss and decreased egg production.
3. Out of 3 species of Raillitina, Raillietina echinobothrida is one of the pathogenic species as it produces granuloma at its attachment site (nodular disease).
4. They all require intermediate host for their development.
5. Intermediate hosts are common houseflies, ants, beetles and grasshoppers, which makes control of tapeworms difficult.

Nutritional significance of millets
Millets, nutrient-dense grains rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre, are emerging as vital components of a balanced diet, particularly in regions where they serve as staple foods. Their high content of essential amino acids, iron, calcium, zinc, and B vitamins makes them crucial for addressing micronutrient deficiencies (Hassan, 2021). As gluten-free grains, millets are suitable for individuals with celiac disease or gluten intolerance, broadening their dietary appeal. Additionally, millets are rich in health-beneficial phenolic compounds, making them suitable for food and feed. Finger millet, with its diverse phenolic profile, has higher antioxidant activity than pearl millet. These phytochemicals positively impact human health by lowering cholesterol and phytates. Incorporating millets into human and livestock diets can improve health, reduce disease risks, and ease the pressure on maize (Hassan, 2021).
Essential nutrients in millets
Millets are particularly rich in carbohydrates, providing a sustained energy source essential for daily activities. Unlike refined grains, millets have a low glycaemic index, releasing glucose slowly into the bloodstream. This characteristic helps manage blood sugar levels and prevents spikes, making millets an excellent food choice for individuals with diabetes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that regular millet consumption can offer a variety of health benefits. The high fiber content in millets supports digestion, prevents constipation, and promotes a healthy gut microbiome (Jacob, 2024) Consuming millets can lower the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers. The antioxidants present in millets protect against oxidative stress and inflammation, which are key contributors to many health conditions. Furthermore, millets high fibre content and low glycaemic index promote feelings of fullness, regulate blood sugar levels, and help maintain a healthy body weight. Millets are ancient small grains grown in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, serving as staple foods for many people in Asia and Africa. Abundant sources of minerals and vitamins, they are often referred to as Nutri cereals. Millets contain valuable phytochemicals that provide therapeutic properties for various disorders and diseases, giving them nutraceutical value. (Mishra, 2022)
A wide array of biochemical compounds is present in the plant parts and grains. In the oldest texts of medicine in India and China, millets are noted for their medicinal value. Expanding interest and emerging facts highlight their therapeutic uses, with ample evidence showing that millet consumption aids in correcting lifestyle and metabolic disorders. The therapeutic properties of millets can be viewed in two ways: supplementary nutrition through minerals and vitamins, and therapeutic value through phytochemicals and specialty compounds like flavonoids, phenolics, and anthocyanidins that have antioxidant potential (Chellappan 2024). Millets are gluten-free, have a low glycaemic index, and their phytochemicals help correct lifestyle disorders and prevent ailments such as carcinogenesis. Supplementary benefits include the treatment of anaemia and

Introduction
The area of drug delivery has progressed remarkably in recent decades propelled by the demand for more efficient therapeutic approaches that can reduce side effects and improve the therapeutic index of medications. Conventional approaches to drug delivery frequently lead to widespread distribution, putting healthy tissues at risk of exposure to harmful levels of therapeutic compounds, while not achieving sufficient concentrations at targeted disease locations (Yu et al., 2023). This issue is especially apparent in addressing intricate conditions like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurological disorders, where the therapeutic window is limited, and the likelihood of adverse effects increases. In this context, the advancement of targeted drug delivery systems has become an essential approach for enhancing the effectiveness and safety of therapeutic agents, with liposomal drug delivery systems receiving significant focus (Mitchell et al., 2021). The concept of targeted drug delivery revolves around the selective direction of therapeutic agents towards specific tissues or cells, aiming to reduce exposure to non-target areas. This method is crucial for enhancing treatment efficacy, especially in conditions marked by variability in drug response, like cancer. For example, traditional chemotherapy frequently results in considerable toxicity and negative side effects because of the non-specific distribution of drugs (Gao et al., 2023). Utilizing specific delivery methods allows healthcare professionals to increase the concentration of therapeutic agents in tumor tissues, leading to better treatment results and minimizing harm to healthy tissues (Bae et al., 2011). Beyond oncology, targeted drug delivery shows potential for various diseases, such as infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and neurological conditions. For example, in the management of viral infections, targeted delivery can increase the concentration of antiviral agents within infected cells, thereby enhancing efficacy and minimizing systemic toxicity. Targeted delivery systems can enhance the transport of therapeutics across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the context of neurodegenerative diseases, addressing a major challenge in drug development for central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Delivering drugs selectively to their sites of action is essential for achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes and enhancing patient quality of life (Wu et al., 2023 a; Rana et al., 2024).
Among various drug delivery systems, liposomes have surfaced as a flexible and efficient platform for targeted drug delivery. Liposomes consist of lipidbased vesicles formed by phospholipid bilayers, capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. Their distinctive structure and characteristics render them excellent options for various applications in targeted therapy. The encapsulation of a wide variety of therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapeutics, anti-inflammatory drugs, peptides, and nucleic acids, stands out as a key benefit of liposomes. This adaptability facilitates the simultaneous delivery of various drugs or therapeutic approaches within one liposomal formulation, promoting combination therapies that can improve effectiveness and address resistance mechanisms (Wang et al., 2023).

Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities. In rural Uttarakhand, women contribute about 90 per cent of the total work in agriculture and animal care. Women’s participation rate in the State’s economy is much higher than in several states and the national average. In Uttarakhand, women’s role ranges from managers to landless labourers. Women’s average contribution is 55% to 66% of the total labour in overall farm production, with percentages higher in certain regions. From a demographic perspective, nearly 17% of households are women, higher than the national data (~11%). The main reason for this shift is migration other than divorce, separation or widowhood.

ABSTRACT

The exponential growth of population and rapid industrialization, urbanization, deforestation and improper landuse practices have led to depletion and pollution of surface and ground water resources in Tamilnadu, India. In addition, a recurrent monsoonal failure further aggravates the problem of water even for drinking water. Water plays vital role in our day to day life and other developmental activities in the area. Thus, the availability of surface and sub surface water potential governs the processes of planning and development. The surface water resources are inadequate to fill the water demand and productivity through ground water is quite high as compared to surface water. Keeping this in view, the present study is aimed to identify the potential location of potable groundwater exploration in hard rock terrain. Thematic information on geomorphic landforms, Landuse/landcover and lineament details are extracted from remotely sensed data. Geology, Soil class, Drainage network and Slope map of the terrain were prepared using existing maps and collateral data by conventional method. GIS based model was developed and appropriate rank and weightage had been assigned to all categories based on local conditions/variations in each layer according to relative contribution towards the desired output. Since the present study built with logical condition and reasoning rule based approach for groundwater targeting, it has been successfully used and clearly demonstrated the capability of Remote Sensing and GIS techniques in identification of potable ground water potential zones.

1. Introduction

Tuber crops are important group of crop species which produce tubers that are used for human food and animal feed. The popular tuber crops include cassava, sweet potato, greater yam, white yam, lesser yam, taro, tannia, elephant foot yam, yam bean, coleus etc. They contribute substantial amount of cheap energy coupled with high quality nutrition for more than two million people living in developing countries. Taro is one of the oldest cultivated tuber crop grown for its edible corms and leaves. It is an important tropical tuber crop, used as a staple food or subsistence food by millions of people in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and Central America. 

Description and Distribution
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Artemisia dracunculus Linn. constitute what is known as “Tarragon”, or, “Estragon”, so well - known to connoissuers, the world over, for its extraordinary flavor. Sometimes, it is also called French Tarragon. Its aroma is warm, aromatic, and reminiscent of Anise. It is a perennial herb found in Western Tibet (4265-4880 meter above mean sea level) and in Lahaul. It is distributed in Afghanistan, Western Asia and South and Middle Russia. It is cultivated in Southern Europe, (France, Spain), temperate zones in the USA, as well as, throughout the colder New England area. It grows to a height of about 2 feet (Pruthi, 1997).
Area, Production, Exports:
No information is currently available.
Crop Management:
Soil and Climate
Deel and Deel (1929) found that optimum yield of the herb material and essential oil are obtained in soil with a pH of 6.2 (in such a soil, the oil may contain as much as 66.3% of methyl chavicol, its chief chemical constituent).
Propagation
Through root subdivision/segments
Planting Season
For planting, a cluster of Estragon roots is divided into several segments, these segments are planted in the field in the months of February/March.

Indication: Irreparable damage of the meta tarsal joint.

M.mMedial malleolus

M.I., Lateral malleolus

T, Tibia

T. t., Tibial tarsal bone

T.f., Fibulartarsal bone

T.c. + 4, Fused central and fourth tarsal bones.

T.1, First tarsal bone

T.2+3, Fused second and third tarsal bones

Mt.2,Small, or second metatarsal bone

Mt.3+4, Large metatarsal or fused third or fourth metatarsal bon

1. Why Plant Nutrient Disorders?

Plant Nutrient Disorders result from nutrient imbalances in soils and plants. In-adequate use of one or more nutrients can result in nutrient imbalances. Presence or use of a nutrient in excess amount can hinder the absorption or uptake of another nutrient and thus,cause nutrient disorders. Lime induced iron chlorosis or use of excess Potassium can hinder the absorption of Ca²⁺/and, or Mg²⁺ by plants. Enhanced level of Mg can decrease the uptake of Zn. Excessive use of NPK fertilisers can result in micronutrient deficiencies.

Soils are being regularly depleted of their native reserves, due to intensive cropping and non-application of essential nutrients (primary, secondary and micronutrients). Lack or restricted use of quality organic manures, such as compost, green manures, crop residues etc. and cultivation of HYVs in most crops have accentuated the problem.

Task Automation is one of the most important applications of Artificial Intelligence and modern digital technology. It refers to the process of using technology, software, or AI tools to perform repetitive and routine tasks automatically without continuous human involvement. In many workplaces, people spend a large amount of time doing repetitive tasks such as sending emails, entering data, preparing reports, scheduling meetings, organizing files, and updating records. These tasks are necessary but time-consuming. Task automation helps in completing these tasks automatically, allowing people to focus on more important and creative work. In the modern digital world, automation has become an essential part of offices, businesses, education systems, banks, hospitals, and even personal life. Earlier, automation was limited to industries and manufacturing, but now automation is used in office work, communication, marketing, research, and data management. With the help of AI tools, automation has become smarter

Tax

A tax is a mandatory fee or fnancial charge levied by any government on an individual or an organization to collect revenue for public works providing the best facilities and infrastructure. The collected fund is then used to fund different public expenditure programs.

Direct and Indirect taxes

Types of tax system

1. Proportional tax: No matter the tax base’s relation to income size, the tax rate is always the same proportion. Taxing is according to the proportion of income. In this system poor people will be hit hard.
2. Progressive tax: Distribution of tax in a more just manner. People with higher income are charged with higher rates of tax. Eg. Income tax.
3. Regressive tax: Burden of payment will be more on poor. Taxes are charged from the poor at a higher rate than from rich. Ex. Commodity taxes – Affects poor rather than rich.

Taxidermy
The word ‘Taxidermy’ is derived from the Greek taxis meaning “fixing” or arrangement and derma meaning ‘skin’. It is possible to perform taxidermy of mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles and amphibians and procedure to perform taxidermy is also variable accordingly. In this case we will see the procedure applied to prepare a big cat (Tiger, lion, leopard etc.).
Skinning
To skin an animal make an inclusion from the chin along the belly to tip of tail, Then from paw to paw across the chest, and deal similarly with the hind legs. If they are done haphazard, The appearance of the skin will be completely wrecked. Place the carcass on its back and make an incision through the chin and carry it along the centre of the throat to the chest. There is a whorl of hair which runs from the chest along the belly to the vent, then carry the incision along from the vent to tip of tail. Fore- legs, after cutting through the ball of the pad the incision must be made exactly through the center of the white till it reaches the incision which is made from chin to tip of tail, the other foreleg is treated in the same way, both these incision should meet on the chest, and not end one above the other, Hind-legs after cutting through the ball of the pad. The incision runs behind the leg to end of the calcaneum, then turn inside the thigh. The hind leg, of course must be done in the same way. It will be better to mark with charcoal on proposed incision lines before the skinning carried out. After the pads have been skinned and turned back, also inside of the thigh and belly, there is not much need for the knife as the skin ought to be removed by what butchers term ‘ fisting ‘. Get someone to hold the leg to keep the carcass rigid, when the skinners pull the skin taut with his left hand and, with his right first clenched, process vigorously on the skin close to the

Objective: To understand the taxonomic characters and classification of the order Coleoptera, which includes beetles and weevils.

Order: Coleoptera (Coleos = sheath, Pteron = wing) Beetles and Weevils

Taxonomic Characteristics

1. Two pairs of wings, with the forewings thickened and hardened, forming protective covers called elytra, while the hind wings are membranous and protected by the elytra.

2. Both larvae and adults possess biting and chewing mouthparts.

3. Metamorphosis is complete.

4. Beetle larvae are commonly known as grubs. Snout beetle (weevil) grubs are legless (apodous).

Objective: To identify and understand the taxonomic status and relationships of orders within Endopterygota, focusing on their distinct larval and adult stages and current sister group hypotheses.

Objective: To differentiate and document the key morphological characteristics of insects from the families Arctiidae (tiger moths) and Acrididae (grasshoppers).

Objective: To study and identify key taxonomic features of whiteflies in the family Aleurodidae, which are small insects crucial as vectors of plant diseases like mosaic viruses.

Objective: The objective of this practical exercise is to explore and document key taxonomic characteristics of Aphididae, focusing on specimens like cotton aphids (Aphis gossypii) and bean aphids (Aphis craccivora).

Objective: To explore and document the taxonomic characteristics of cockroaches belonging to the family Blattidae through detailed observation and analysis.

Objective: To thoroughly examine and record the fundamental taxonomic traits of insects belonging to the family Cicadellidae through detailed observation and analysis.

Objective: To investigate and comprehend the taxonomic traits of family Mantidae, specifically cockroaches and praying mantises, through detailed examination and diagrammatic representation.

Objective: To explore and record the taxonomic features of insects in the family Pentatomidae through thorough examination and analysis of their morphology.

Objective: Aims to understand and identify the key differences between insects belonging to the suborders Nematocera and Brachycera.

Objective: The order Dictyoptera includes insects like cockroaches and praying mantises with netted wings. Recognizing their unique taxonomic traits is essential for precise identification and classification.

Objective: This practical aims to familiarize students with the essential traits of Diptera and explore the agriculturally significant families within this order.

Objective: To comprehend the fundamental taxonomic characteristics of the order Hymenoptera and its agriculturally significant families.

The order Hymenoptera displays remarkable diversity in its insect inhabitants. The term “Hymenoptera” originates from “Hymen” meaning membrane or the God of marriage, and “ptera” meaning wings.

Taxonomic Characters

1. Hymenopterans possess mandibulate mouthparts, where the labium and maxilla’s basal sections lie closely side by side, forming a sharp transverse fold near the basal third. In bees, these structures integrate to form a lapping tongue, representing a chewing and lapping type of mouthpart.

2. The thorax is specialized for efficient flight, featuring a collar-like pronotum, an enlarged mesothorax, and a small metathorax. The prothorax and metathorax are fused with the mesothorax.

Objective: This practical aims to understand the distinctive features of the insect order Mantophasmatodea and its major family, Mantophasmatidae.

Objective: To identify key characters of the order Neuroptera and explore the characteristics of the family Chrysopidae.

Order: Neuroptera

Etymology: Neuro (nerve) + Ptera (wings) = Wings with net-like patterns of veins

Common Members: Lacewings, Aphid Lions, Ant Lions, Alder Flies, Snakeflies

Key Features of Neuroptera

1. Neuroptera possess two pairs of similar-sized membranous wings with a complex, net-like pattern of veins.

2. They are relatively fragile insects and weak fliers.

3. Antennae are filiform, with or without a terminal club.

4. Both adults and larvae have chewing mouthparts, with larval mandibles being very strong and elongated. Some larval mouthparts are modified for piercing and sucking.

5. Larvae are compodiform and predaceous.

Objective: To study and document the taxonomic characteristics of Siphonaptera and Trichoptera, emphasizing their unique morphological features and ecological adaptations.