eBook Chapters

Preliminary

1. Short title and extent

1. This Order may be called the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983
2. It extends to the whole of India
3. It shall come into force on the 30th December, 1983

An Act to provide for regulating the quality of certain seeds for sale, and for matters connected therewith. It enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India.

1. Short Title, Extent and Commencement

• This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.
• It extends to the whole of India.
• It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for different areas thereof.

THE SEEDS BILL, 2004
A
BILL
 to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and  export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

A bill to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-Fifth Year of the Republic of India as follows

Part I - Preliminary

1. Short title: These rules may be called the Seeds Rules, 1968
2. Definitions: In these rules, unless the contest otherwise requires.

7.1 Introduction 
The global economy of today magnifies the extend and scope of product safety issues for a wide range of items, from food and medicine to consumer goods, medical devices, and automobiles (Marucheck et al., 2011). Industrial globalization has raised awareness of the many risks and vulnerabilities that goods face as they move through the supply chain, from design and sourcing to manufacturing, shipping, distribution, and ultimate sale to the end user (Milovanovi? et al., 2017). These challenges necessitate the implementation of reliable and sustainable methods for producing goods. This can be achieved via biorefineries, which may reduce supply chain disruptions while promoting environmentally friendly resource utilization. Biorefineries are usually referred to as first and second generation biorefineries with accordance to the raw material utilized. The former uses food crop as raw material wherein the latter utilizes lignocellulosic and agricultural residues as raw material for generation of value-added products (Guo et al., 2015). Additionally, algae biomass is utilized in the third generation biorefineries (Parajuli et al., 2015). However, among these three the first generation are the most established while the second and third are still developing at various stages due to technical and economic challenges (Gerssen-Gondelach et al., 2014). Globally, ethanol biorefinery processing U.S. corn and Brazilian sugarcane dominate production contributing 52% and 28%, respectively (Renewable Fuels Association, 2023). These biorefineries are further distinguished based on categories such as sugars, oils and syngas which serve as key intermediates in production of bioethanol, glycerol or lactic acid (Calvo-Flores and Martin- Martinez, 2022). Additionally, these biorefineries utilizes feedstock and residues which can be derived from forest, sugar crops and oil crops. The processing technologies employing for utilization of such raw material are fermentation, gasification and pyrolysis. This configuration of biorefinery determines the integration and systematic pathway from raw feedstock to final product (Aristizábal?Marulanda et al., 2019). Furthermore, both the supply chain and value chain are significant part of biorefineries. The value chain stands for the value-oriented aspect of the process which is often derived by customer demand and include product innovation, marketing and value development (Sharma et al., 2013). In contrast, the supply chain focuses on the logistical flow of materials, encompassing the movement of raw materials from suppliers to end consumers. However, certain stages of supply chain overlap with biorefinery systems such as separate pretreatment and fermentation facilities (Sutduean et al., 2019). The design of biorefinery system involves a structural decision process at strategic, tactical and operational levels. These decisions are made with respect to various biohazards at each level. The macro-level strategic decisions, address long-term risk mitigating strategies to ensure overall safety (Chaturvedi et al., 2020). Once the high-level decisions are established, tactical and operational decisions are implemented. The tactical decisions focus on implementing safety measures with processes such as handling hazardous materials and optimizing biorefinery. While

The social area analysis model of urban structure incorporates all three aspects of city structure, namely concentric zones, sectors and multiple nuclei. It is a more comprehensive statement of urban forms. The model was developed by R.A. Murdie in 1969. According to this model, the physical space of streets, buildings and roads are superimposed by three dimension of social space (Fig. 8.1). The social criteria are the following:

Family Status

Family status indicators include population and age variables, house ownership and age characteristics, family size and marital status and other life cycle. These exhibit a concentric zonal or ring pattern with older, smaller renter households located near the city centre and owner occupied newer larger family households near the outer fringe.

Economic Status

Economic status tends to include measure of income, occupation and education. This portrays a distinct sectoral pattern with definite high income and low income sectors.

Introduction

The Indian dairy industry plays a vital role in the nation’s economic and social fabric, deeply connected to the livelihoods of millions of rural families. It is more than just a source of income; for many small-scale and marginalized farmers, it provides a lifeline, ensuring stability and sustenance in areas where opportunities are often scarce. At the same time, the industry faces the immense responsibility of balancing economic growth with ethical practices, environmental conservation, and the welfare of the communities it serves. In this complex environment, businesses operating within the dairy sector have the potential to make a meaningful difference, but only if they prioritize social responsibility alongside profitability. By embracing sustainable practices and fostering inclusivity, these enterprises can address critical challenges while contributing to a more equitable and resilient industry (Christie, 2020; Rotz et al., 2020; Clay et al., 2019).

For the dairy industry, social responsibility is not an abstract concept; it is a pressing need. Across India, small-scale farmers form the backbone of this sector, especially in rural regions where economic vulnerability is widespread. These farmers often face numerous challenges, including fluctuating milk prices, limited market access, and a lack of resources to improve productivity (Kamath et al., 2019; Sadashive et al., 2017). Businesses in the dairy sector can act as catalysts for change by creating fairer systems, empowering marginalized groups, and ensuring that ethical treatment of livestock becomes standard practice. Beyond its immediate economic impact, the industry has a profound role to play in addressing broader social issues, such as gender inequality and food security, while promoting sustainable development that benefits everyone involved (Jaiswal, 2018; Garai et al., 2019).

1. The Stability and Shelf-Life of Food

    1.    In the UK, the date coding to be used is determined by the total life of the product: for microbiologically highly perishable foods, a ‘use by’ date is needed, while for other foods, including foods with more than 18 months’ shelf-life, a ‘best before’ or a ‘best before end’ date is needed.

    2.    IFT (1974) definition of shelf-life, is : The period between manufacture and retail purchase of a food product during which the product is of satisfactory quality.

    3.    Shelf-life is defined as the time during which the food product will :

        i.    remain safe;
        ii.    be certain to retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and 
    microbiological characteristics;
        iii.    comply with any label declaration of nutritional data,

The Himalayas, which cover 594 400 km2, run for about 2 500 km from west to east, between Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in the west and Namcha Barwa (7756 m) in the east with three parallel ranges namely The Great or Inner Himalayas, The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and TheShiwaliks (Fig.1).The fish species distribution in the Himalayan streams depends on the flow rate, nature and substratum, water temperature, and the availability of food.This region has a dense net of rivers and streams, as well as numerous lakes, manmade reservoirs, floodplains and swamps, man-made ponds and irrigation canals of cold-water character. These water resources have a diverse fish fauna that support the livelihoods of rural communities within the region. They also provide various opportunities for development of cold-water fisheries and aquaculture.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Textural assessment has long been used to indicate quality in agricultural soil and although it contains an element of subjective judgement, a skilled surveyor can differentiate many grades of texture. Soil texture correlates with the distribution of particle size in the soil, though this is not the only component in texture. Although particle size distribution is an objective attribute of soils and can, in principle, be measured with accuracy, the determination is in practice quite difficult and certainly laborious, so that it is customary in soil mechanical analysis to divide the soil into several broad fractions: sand, silt and clay are the principal categories. The clay fraction, which comprises the smallest particles in the soil, is generally defined as the fraction smaller than a nominal diameter of 2 jam. The practical division is, however, based on the velocity of fall of soil particles through a fluid, calculating the diameter of the particles from the equation of Stokes

The possibility of the drifting of continents was first suggested by the French scholar Antonio Snider in 1858, but this was so much opposed to the scientific view then prevailing that nobody took notice of it. In 1910 F.B. Taylor of America invoked the hypothesis of horizontal displacement of continents or continental drift with a view to explaining the distribution of mountain ranges, but for various reasons the hypothesis of Taylor received scant attention. German Professor Alfred Wegener was the first to put forward this idea in the form of a theory in 1912 and published a detailed discussion of it in 1915. But an account of the First World War (1914-18) this could not attract the attention of many scientists. In 1924 an English translation of Wegener’s book was published. Since then it has attracted much attention and publicity, and a huge literature has grown around this theory.

Wegener was primarily a climatologist and the main problem he wanted to explain was the change of climates in the geological past. There are several geological evidences to show that there have been important and large scale changes in the climates of the world in the geological past. The occurrence of coal in the cool middle latitudes indicates that the climate of these regions was hot and humid in the carboniferous times and the natural vegetation was dense forest which ultimately resulted in the formation of huge coal deposits. On the other hand, in India, South Australia, Brazil or South Africa where the climate is warm today, there are evidences of cold climate and the presence of glaciers in the carboniferous period. The only conclusion that can be reached from this is that either the climatic zones have moved or if they have not, then there has been movement of the landmasses. There are several difficulties in postulating shifts in the climatic belts of the world as their geographical distribution is governed primarily by the sun. It, therefore, appears to be more probable that the landmasses have changed their position.

Isostasy is derived from the Greek word isostasios meaning ‘in equipoise’ or in a state of balance. American geologist Dutton was the first to use the term isostasy in 1889 for the state of gravitational equilibrium that exists between continents and ocean floor and the mountains, plateaus and plains on a rotating earth, in accordance with densities of their underlying rocks. Dutton was of the view that the height of these different features was related to their density. In other words, the higher features were composed of rocks of lower density and the features of lesser to height were made of rocks of higher density. For instance, the continental blocks whose average height is about 5 kms above the ocean floor are composed of lighter rocks than the latter, and to compensate for their higher height the continental blocks go deeper into the earth so that the continents and ocean basins may remain in equilibrium. The same argument applies to the mountain ranges. The excess mass of lighter materials which rises in the form of mountain chains on the earth’s surface is compensated by light materials extending as roots into the denser strata below. In other words, the upper part of the earth’s crust is built of lighter rocks which is floating on the substratum of denser rocks. The hypothesis of the sialic rocks floating over the sima of the sub-stratum had been first put forward by Sir George Airy of Britain in 1855. The use of the word floating, of course, did not imply that the sub-stratum was in a liquid condition.

Introduction 
Food is the prime necessity of the life without which the existence of the human being may be perhaps dubious. India is agriculture predominant country where majority of its population depends on agriculture directly or indirectly. Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. About 54.60 per cent of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sector activities (Census, 2011). Agriculture and Allied sector accounts for about 18.4 per cent of India’s GVA at current prices during 2022-23. Given the importance of the agriculture sector, Government of India has taken several steps for its development in a sustainable manner (Agriwelfare.gov.in/en/Dept). India with massive network of about 63 State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), three Central Agricultural Universities (CAUs), four deemed universities and four central universities with agricultural faculty along with Indian Council of Agricultural Research accords due priority to the agricultural education, research and extension (ICAR Annual report, 2023-24). The role of these universities & ICAR in addressing the farm related problems cannot be overlooked. As per the All India report on Agriculture Census, 2015-16, India is a country with majority of the farmers being small (17.60 %) and marginal (68.50 %). Agriculture is very diversified with varied agro-climatic conditions which require different practices and strategies to perform. The role of agricultural research and extension in achieving food self-sufficiency is immense. Agriculture is a state subject and various players make agriculture profitable and farming a viable option. But the data indicates that, there is scarcity of extension officers at various levels in India. As per the report of the Committee on Doubling Farmers’ Income, 2017 (Volume XI “Empowering the Farmers 214 Innovations of University Extension in Indian Agriculture through Extension and Knowledge Dissemination”) reported that, the ratio of Extension Service Provider (ESP) to operational farm holdings is around 1: 1156. Coupled with this, the system has mainly focused on the input supply chain and crop cultivation activities. In the era of 21st century, innovation is the buzz word, and pervading in all spheres of life. It is astonishing to know that, todays discoveries are outdated tomorrow. In today’s rapidly changing world, innovation is crucial for organizations and societies to adapt, grow, and maintain a competitive edge. It drives economic development, addresses complex challenges, and improves the quality of life. Over the years, agriculture sector has also seen rapid changes in all aspects, and India’s efforts in this development pursuit are quite inspiring. Starting from food deficit nation to the nation with surplus food production, the role of agricultural research and extension viz a viz., innovation cannot be overlooked. As a result of bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh in the year 2014, the Professor Jayashankar Telangana Agricultural University was established on 03-09-2014 by an act of legislature. Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU) named in honour and memory of Professor Jayashankar, an eminent educationist and an ardent Telangana ideologue is the only Farm University of Telangana State. PJTAU has eleven constituent colleges with eight of those devoted to faculty of Agriculture, two to faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology and one to faculty of Community Science. In addition, there are twelve constituent polytechnics (eleven in Agriculture and Agricultural Engineering). The research component in the agriculture is addressed by Sixteen Agricultural Research Stations, including three Regional Agricultural Research Stations. As part of front-line extension support to reach the unreached, the University has established about nine District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centres (DAATTCs), eight Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), one each of Extension Education Institute (EEI), Agricultural Information and Communication Centre (AI&CC), Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) and Electronic Media Wing spread across the State to cater to various needs of the farming community. To address the farm problems and make agriculture profitable, the Agricultural University not only strives in research but also a pioneer in the institutional Innovations of University Extension system to cater to the emerging needs of the farming community by means of various innovations such as., Flag method of Extension, Interactive Information Dissemination System, Innovative farmers’ networking, Developing Farmer – Master trainers, Interactive

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The development of a soil profile involves the mobilization of major and minor elements and their subsequent deposition elsewhere in the profile or removal in the drainage water. For a full understanding of these processes we need to know what are the forms and reactivities of the soil constituents, the nature and mode of action of the mobilizing agents, the forms in which the mobilized material is transported—whether colloidal or in true solution, whether in ionic or complex form, whether alone or in association with other soil constituents—as well as its stability towards oxidation and reduction, microbial action, pH, and sorption and coprecipitation. The availability of micronutrients to plants is presumably governed by factors such as these. The current concern with problems of soil contamination has brought to the attention of soil chemists numerous toxic metals that were previously regarded as essentially the province of the geochemist.

It is probably true to say that no one of the factors listed above can be considered in isolation, but so far as any one factor is of dominant importance, this is nature of the mobilizing species; this determines the form in which the metal is transported, and its ultimate fate in the soil or in the drainage water.

This chapter is an attempt to summarize our present knowledge of the processes responsible for the mobilization and immobilization of metals in soils.

Abstract

Though people belonging to different disciplines from the common citizen to top level administrators are familiar with cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, etc., the tsunami which struck and devastated over 1000 km long Tamil Nadu coast was not only unexpected but also an unknown phenomenon for the people of this part of the region. The Government of Tamil Nadu, though faced with this disaster for the first time, has efficiently managed the crisis owing to clear policy directions from the top political executive of the government, the planned working of the ministers, the committed service rendered by the senior officials and the tireless efforts of district collectors and their supporting staff down the line. The immediate measures taken in search, rescue and relief operations are detailed in this paper. Also covered are the rehabilitation measures undertaken including those for orphaned children and unmarried girls and the steps adopted for the prevention of epidemics.

Keywords: Tsunami Disaster, State Administration, Relief and Rehabilitation, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION

India is traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been occurring regularly in some part of the country or the other. In Tamil Nadu, the unprecedented drought in 2002-03, followed by another drought of comparatively less severity in 2003-04 and the floods in the northern coastal districts in October-November, 2004 had kept the State machinery on constant alert. But the tsunami that struck the coastal districts on 26^th December, 2004 was an altogether new and nightmarish experience. It was a disaster, the like of which, had not been seen before. The suddenness and the ferocity with which the waves gushed into the habitations along the 1076 km long coast line, taking the people totally unaware, caused unprecedented damage, death and destruction and posed the greatest challenge to the State administration. However, the state faced the challenge successfully, thanks to the vision and commitment shown by the Government and the timely help rendered by a number of non-governmental organisations and groups.

The pandemic in 2019-2022 spread swiftly and became global in no time, caused by SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines were rapidly developed against the virus to restore public health and save global economy. Vaccines for immunisation drives were developed in a year of the pandemic becoming global and approved for ‘emergency use’ following expeditious development protocols. Vaccine development employed numerous nucleic acid, adenovirus and protein-based state-of-art molecular platforms, alongside the conventional attenuated and inactivated virus approaches. The majority of the attempts were successful and approved for use. All the approved vaccines were found safe and effective as per Phase I through Phase III clinical trials’ results. Mass immunisation drives demonstrably led to reduced hospitalisation, low disease severity and less mortality. Yet, there were initial vaccination hesitation across the world due to associated safety concerns about its possible long-term negative consequences. A part of it was attributed to technical reasons (as clinical trials were not fully complete with sturdy and convincing outcomes), and a majority was due to the misinformation that floated on the social media and other digital communications. Vaccine deployment across the globe was far from being equitable. Thus, immunisation was rapid in higher income (developed) nations with access to innovative advanced vaccines while low immunisation rates were seen in the low- and medium-income countries accessing majorly the vaccines based on simple technology. Given the scale and spread of the pandemic, scaled-up vaccine production and equitable distribution to limit viral spread and improve global health and socioeconomy were critical. This chapter attempts to dissect these scenarios and lessons learnt from these to prepare better for any such pandemic in future.

1. Introduction

The advent of computers, the Internet and other ICT technologies have enhanced the nature of tasks. No one is immune from technology. Technologies have paved the way for information transformation. Today every section of society is making full use of technologies to fulfil their needs. Electronic devices have affected human life to a great extent. These devices have changed the working styles of human beings. Working with electronic devices is much better than manual work. Therefore, every sector of human working society is updating itself by using or implementing electronic devices. The higher education department is no exception to this. Today every sector of higher education department is using these modern tools and technologies not only for official works but also for teaching. Library is the most important part of Higher Education Institutions and today the entire structure of the library has changed. Today computersare being used in every section of the library and the main work of the library- issue/return is also being done through the use of computers and the Internet. The resources available in the library have also become electronic. Every resource like books, magazines, research journals, dictionaries, glossaries, bibliographies, biographies, who’s who etc, is now being published in electronic form and the library has to purchase these resources for its users.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that is most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded! In January 2016, a global team was invited by the office of Prime Minister of India to discuss and prepare an approach paper on Agro-ecology ( or Eco Agriculture including Organic farming). The team consisted of J. Fagan, Hans Harren, M.H. Mehta and A. Thimmaiah who after intensive discussions had prepared several presentations – first given to the group of top officials of Government of India departments and institutions as organized through the office of the prime minister. This was later followed by a meeting with Prime Minister Modi. During this meeting, the clear question asked was, “You need not convince us that agro ecology and organic farming are the way forward, but the question is how? How do we expand this system to national scale ?”

There is no terminal of any kind of research, rather they presence a static snap of the gamut of ecological dynamics and functions.

The following scopes for future research

• To construct modelling on resilience, beyond agriculture like livestock f ishery, forestry.

• To create new Algorithm of prediction in ecological behaviour and dynamics

• Gender and economic factors in resilience study and analysis

• Ecological resilience in different agro climatic zones covering coastal ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem red lateritic ecosystem etc

• Policy research in ensuring and intriguing ecological resilience as well as social resilience on the common platform of production behaviour

• Importance of ecological resilience in the perspective of climate change and global warming

The Imperative for Regional Collaboration Climate change poses a transboundary threat that no single nation can address in isolation. In CMCs, rural populations, often dependent on agriculture and natural resources, are disproportionately vulnerable. For instance, Assam, India, faces rising temperatures and frequent floods, threatening 86% of its agriculture-dependent rural population. Similarly, Bangladesh, a climate change hotspot, grapples with salinization and cyclones that disrupt rural livelihoods. Regional collaboration offers a pathway to pool resources, share expertise, and develop scalable solutions. As the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia highlights, collaborative action enhances food and water security through shared knowledge

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is backbone of our country, India is lives in its villages, these are all vibrant statements about our nation and our farming system but now the situation has been turned out in to urbanization in terms of migration.UN also announces this year (2014) as an international year of family farming in this context, the real status of FF in India is a biggest question mark. This means FF is not happening as expected even though Tamil Nadu is one of the familiar state across India for family farming but due to lack of youth involvement in agriculture, Family Farming is not happening in a full-fledged and unfortunate thing is it is even more decreased. If this situation persists over a period of time, the above said vibrant statements will become spiritless, hence the solutions for this problem is Indiais reverse migration and every home should have farmer. These are all possible, if the youth is attracted towards farming and adopt Family Farming System (FFS). The statistics says in Tamil Nadu, 13 percent of youth only involved in farming and the population according to the census 2011 is about 7.2 crore, which means meager youth were involved in farming. Although Tamilnadu is one of the fastest growing urban state yet more than half of the population lives in villages and noticeable fact is more than half of them are under the age of 30. So that youth isthe only and powerful source to make agriculture through Family Farming. We believe that if and only if agriculture becomes intellectually, economically viable and bounty which fetches rewards, the younger generation of Tamilnadu will be interested to take forth farming as profession and make Family farming as an attractive one. This paper will explain possible areas to attract youth in Farming and adopt Family Farming System.

It was in April-May 1968 that the country witnessed the wonderful spectacle of large arrivals of wheat grain in the mandis of the Punjab like Moga and Khanna. Wheat production in the country rose to nearly 17 million tonnes that year, from the previous best harvest of 12 million tonnes. Indira Gandhi released a special stamp titled “Wheat Revolution” in July 1968, to mark this new phase in our agricultural evolution. The nation rejoiced at our coming out of a “ship to mouth” existence. Later in 1968, Dr. William Gaud of the U.S. referred to the quantum jumps in production brought about by semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice as a “Green Revolution.” This term has since come to symbolise a steep rise in productivity and, thereby, of production of major crops.

Wheat production this year may reach a level of 85 million tonnes, in contrast to the 7 million tonnes our farmers harvested at the time of Independence in 1947. I visited several grain mandis in Moga, Khanna, Khananon and other places in the Punjab in April 2011 and experienced concurrently a feeling of ecstasy and agony. It was heart-warming to see the great work done by our farm men and women under difficult circumstances when, often, they had to irrigate the fields at night due to lack of availability of power during the day.

The wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 (No. 53 of 1972) consists of 7 chapters, 6 schedules and 66 sections. This act has been amended in 1980. This act further amended as The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act- 2002, from 17thJanuary, 2003. This act deals with all those matters related to wildlife in captivity/free range for conservation.

Chapter I (Preliminary)

It discusses about the terminologies and definition
Captive animal means any animal, specified in Schedule 1, Schedule II, Schedule III or Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity.
Circus means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile where animals are kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvrers.

1. Introduction

India is an exquisite example of biodiversity. From time immemorial scholars like Charaka, Barathwaj, Athreyan, Agnivesha, Dhanyandhari, Shushruthan, Wakbadan and Bharathduja etc. have studied and explored the possibility of such a diversity for human welfare and the most conspicuous exploration in this field has lead to the discovery of so many indigenous medicinal plants that were scripted mainly in Vedas (1500 BC) that contain rich materials on herbal lore of that time. Charaka in his medical treatise – Charaka samhita delt with innumerable medicinal plants, their usage and descriptions. Besides the two above said texts, treatise like Sushruth samhita and Ashtangha hridaya samhita are a few among other precious ancient texts. Thus the gradual accumulation of practical and systematic medical knowledge lead to the formation of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda - the science of life, prevention and longevity, is the oldest and most holistic or comprehensive medical system available. It was placed in written form over 2000 years ago. Ayurveda is said to have been first complied as a text by Agnivesha (Agniveshtantra). This text was later revised by Charaka and renamed as Charaka samhita (completed by Dhridhabala). The concept of medicines envisaged in the Ayurveda comes from the monumental scripture called Ashtanga hridaya and Sahasrayoga.

Theileriosis is a tick-borne protozoan disease that affects a wide range of domestic and wild animals, particularly cattle. While multiple species of Theileria exist, Theileria parva and Theileria annulata are the most important pathogens in terms of their impact on domestic cattle. This disease is transmitted by ixodid ticks and has a significant impact on cattle populations in tropical and subtropical regions. Theileriosis poses a substantial threat to livestock productivity, affecting economic stability in many countries, especially those that rely heavily on agriculture and cattle farming.
The disease has two primary forms: East Coast fever (ECF), caused by T. parva, which predominantly affects cattle in eastern, central, and southern Africa; and tropical theileriosis, caused by T. annulata, which affects cattle across northern Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. Both diseases are highly pathogenic and, if left untreated, can lead to high morbidity and mortality rates, significantly impacting livestock production.

Introduction

A thematic layer is defined as a layer with a set of logical feature data placed under single theme such as soil type, pH level, salinity, and water table. The features in these layers determine real world objects and are created using geometries such as points, lines and polygons (Tickoo 2017). Thematic layering is the spatial representation of analyzed data of elements that belong to the same type. Thematic maps are used to create these layers, which show how one or more specific data themes vary across different geographic areas.

Maps make it easier to interpret and communicate the results of any GIS analysis. R has a large number of packages for making thematic maps. Static mapping is straightforward with plot()methods provided by core spatial packages sf and raster. The use of plot() function have been discussed in the previous chapters. Another package for mapping isspwithspplot() having enough options for producing good quality thematic maps.It is also possible to create advanced maps using ggplot2. This chapter discusses, separately, preparing thematic maps from vectors and rasters with the above mentioned packages. A dedicated map-making package tmaphas been given special focus in this chapter.

Introduction

Pig production and marketing have been driven by the growing consumer demand for high quality and low cost animal protein. As a result, organized and industrialpiggery has been rapidly developing globally. Pigs are domesticated in various parts of India, especially in South-Central and North Eastern Region (NER), each place has its own locally adapted pig breed, and most households raise at least one or two pigs each year. Pigs are more valuable alive than dead, acting as efficient converters of kitchen and agricultural scraps into nutrient-rich fertilizer, before becoming pork that could even sometimes be given as a wedding gift, used to curry political or social favor, or eaten as part of local celebrations, especially in NER. The 21stcentury agricultural and dietary changes however represent radical departures from the small holder production system and consolidation of industry is clearly visible in the last two decades. It should be noted that the industrialization of pig production is a relatively recent phenomenon globally. In India, too, the speed and scale of change has been phenomenal, conditioned by policies, investments and the transforming economic system.

Training: The Concept

For any kind ofdevelopment, resource is the basic condition and necessity. Every resource should undergo a process of refinement, up gradation, and integration for being able to contribute to a proper functioning and accomplishment. No exception to human resources, the most splendid and creative resource of the earth. While human resources are unique? The following are the reason:

(a) It can think and create

(b) It can integrate and coordinate

(c) It can ideate and communication

(d) It can support and sustain

Introduction

A community radio station is characterized by its ownership and programming and the community it is authorized to serve. It is owned and controlled by anon- profit organization whose structure provides for membership, management, operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large. Its programming should be based on community access and participation and should reflect the special interests and needs of the listenership it is licensed to serve.

While community radio is a form of public-service broadcasting, it has an approach that is different from conventional broadcasting. Its specific focus is to make its audience the main protagonists, by their involvement in all aspects of its management and programme production, and by providing them with programming that will help them in the development and social advancement of their community.

Permeability is a fundamental concept in food packaging, shaping the protective capabilities of packaging materials by determining the extent to which gases and vapors can move through them. This property plays a crucial role in preserving food freshness, safety, and quality by controlling the interaction between the food product and its surrounding environment. Understanding permeability is essential in designing packaging solutions tailored to the specific requirements of different food products, as improper permeability can lead to accelerated spoilage, nutrient degradation, and undesirable changes in texture and flavor. In this chapter, we explore the science of permeability in food packaging, breaking down its core principles, the behavior of different gases and vapors in various packaging materials, and the factors influencing permeability. Additionally, we examine how permeability impacts shelf life and consumer satisfaction, offering insights into selecting materials for specific food types. By understanding and manipulating permeability, food manufacturers can develop packaging that optimally balances protection and breathability, extending product shelf life and ensuring quality

Introduction 
The evolution of digital governance in the 21st century has significantly redefined how public institutions function, deliver services, and interact with citizens. This transformation, enabled and accelerated by Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), is not merely technical, but deeply institutional, cultural, and political. As states move toward more digitized, networked, and citizen-responsive systems, drawing upon theoretical frameworks that help explain, interpret, and evaluate these complex dynamics becomes essential. Theories provide the conceptual scaffolding necessary for analyzing the design, implementation, outcomes, and unintended consequences of digital governance practices. At its core, a theory systematically explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena. It involves a coherent set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and propositions that define causal relationships and offer predictive insights (Kerlinger, 2000). According to Prasad et al. (2017), theory represents a systematic grouping of interdependent concepts that offer a framework to organize existing knowledge, explain observable events, and predict yet-unobserved outcomes. Hollander (1967) adds that theories contain one or more functional statements or propositions that articulate relationships between variables to account for empirical realities. Central to any theory are concepts, the building blocks that articulate the causal linkages and assumptions within a conceptual system. When structured together, these elements form a deductive framework for reasoning and explanation. In sum, theory allows us to understand what is happening in digital governance and why, how, and with what implications. Digital governance, distinct from narrower terms like e-government or e-governance, is a multi-layered process involving the reconfiguration of power, the redesign of institutions, the engagement of diverse stakeholders, and the transformation of public value creation in a digitally mediated environment. It encompasses dimensions of public administration, information systems,

Introduction 
Life’s unpredictability is a common thread that weaves through our experiences, prompting the use of various societal mechanisms to help us navigate the uncertainties we face (Lenhart, 2020). On a personal level, a typical strategy for managing this uncertainty includes utilizing financial instruments, commonly known as insurance (Ito & Kono, 2010). Today a diverse range of items is now eligible for insurance, encompassing aspects such as health, travel, and personal belongings, typically categorized as health, travel, and property insurance respectively. In India, the recognition of life insurance is prevalent, but with the increase in literacy and financial awareness, a growing number of individuals and families are starting to grasp the importance of health insurance (Kumar & Duggirala, 2021). Following this cause, the third goal of sustainable development that highlights the significance of ensuring and promoting healthy lives is worth mentioningtowards the effort of massification of the health insurance. By integrating finance, the third Sustainable Development Goal emphasizes a crucial initiative aimed at achieving universal health coverage for every citizen, which encompasses state health insurance for all individuals(Pauly, 1994). This initiative aims to equip citizens with the financial resilience needed to navigate an uncertain future, particularly concerning health-related challenges. In the context of health insurance frameworks, understanding the accessibility of initiatives aimed at the bottom of the pyramid is crucial for realizing universal health coverage towards achieving the SDGs’ (Pablos-Mendez, Cavanaugh, & Ly, 2016). The effectiveness of accessibility is intricately linked to the level of awareness that exists within the community. As the landscape of health insurance is ever-dynamic, understanding its intricacies will be crucial moving forward.For a thorough exploration, a researcher should have a wide-ranging grasp of the discipline, including theoretical, contextual, and methodological perspectives. Taking this into consideration, present chapter aims to explore a theoretical aspect of the review through a bibliometric analysis (Faruk, Rahman, Heliyon, & 2021, n.d.) of the literature spanning from 1984 to 2024 (Lebek, Uffen, Neumann, Hohler, & Breitner, 2014). This theoretical perspective will guide us in exploring how to reflect on the answers effectively. Theories illustrate methods for examining and establishing a structure for comprehending occurrences (Mahajan, n.d.). Furthermore, the theory clarifies how phenomena connect with the practical world, providing a distinct path and perspective for the researcher. This upcoming section will outline the reasoning behind this study, which entails performing a bibliometric analysis of the literature through the PRISMA Protocol (Moher et al., 2009), succeeded by a comprehensive text analysis of the chosen literature. The next section provides a concise overview of the theories explored within the realm of health insurance literature. This review adopts the PRISMA protocol (Moher et al., 2009) to scrutinize the articles to be included in the review. The protocol involves two phases of scrutinization, which consist of identification and screening. In the identification phase, I selected the Scopus register (Malanski, Dedieu, & Schiavi, 2021) and collected a database of 16797 articles. I gathered this database based on the “Article titles” criterion, including the keywords “Health Insurance” or “Health” and “Insurance” from 1984 to 2024, encompassing 50 years of literature. The year selection provides a timeline of the 50 years of academic scholarship related to the subset of health insurance as a research topic. After applying the language filter of English, duplication, and automation tools to this dataset, I were able to obtain 10961 articles for the subsequent screening stage. In this stage of screening, I have used the filter of subject area by selecting the subject area of Social Sciences; Business, Management, and Accounting; Decision Science; Economics, Econometrics, and Finance, which leads the collection of the 2580

For any research endeavor, perusal of available literature is of paramount importance. Such an effort will highlight the attempt made and provide a clear comprehension of similar studies. A search on earlier research studies revealed that only a few have concentrated on Multimedia, Interactive Multimedia and Information Technology (IT) in transfer of farm technology. The available concepts and literature are presented under the following sub-heads.

2.1 IT in Farm Technology

2.2 Interactive Multimedia in Farm Technology Transfer

2.3 Selection of Farm Technology

2.4 Effectiveness of Different Extension Teaching /Learning Methods

2.5 Effectiveness of Knowledge Gain

2.6 Effectiveness of Symbolic Adoption

2.7 Farmers Perception about Farm Technologies and Modes of presentation

2.8 Relationship of Characteristics of Farmers with their Knowledge and Symbolic Adoption.

The last century has witnessed a global change in agricultural practices. From high dependency on external input agriculture, the world is now shifting towards low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA). The history of dustbowl devastation in 1930s in America has put agricultural practices, tillage in particular, to question (Friedrich et al., 2012). Traditionally, tillage was believed to be a primary farm operation for preparing a good seedbed, nutrient mobilization, weed management, moisture availability, crop residue incorporation (Hobbs et al., 2008), thereby improving the overall soil health with increased production (Farooq et al., 2011a). The dust bowl devastation of 1930s gave rise to the concept of protecting soil by reducing tillage operation and maintaining ground cover, popularized as conservation tillage (Friedrich et al., 2012). Economic and ecological sufferings caused by the disastrous droughts in USA during 1930s drove the shift towards conservation agriculture (CA) (Haggblade and Tembo, 2003).

3.1 Entrepreneurship

3.1.1 The Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the active search for possibilities using originality and innovation. Taking prudent risks, effectively mobilising and managing resources, and adjusting to shifting market conditions are all part of it. By adding value and having a beneficial effect, entrepreneurs want to expand both commercially and socially.

3.1.2 Meaning of Entrepreneur

The French word "Entrepredre," which means "to undertake" is where the name "Entrepreneur" got its etymological roots. It was originally used to refer to a commander or planner of military missions in France during the 16th century when the phrase first gained popularity.

An entrepreneur is someone who has the knowledge, drive, and vision necessary to launch, run, and succeed in a new business venture while accepting the risks involved in doing so with the intention of making a profit. A common illustration of entrepreneurship is the act of founding a new company. Entrepreneurs are acknowledged as sources of innovation since they bring new concepts and creations to market, frequently displacing preexisting ones.

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution that is often due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. The Ganges Delta’s usage of deep tube wells for water delivery has raised awareness of the issue because it has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in significant numbers of people. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which is followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, anthropogenic sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Six West Bengal districts with a combined area of 34000 km2 and a population of 30 million have been determined to have groundwater levels of arsenic over the WHO maximum allowable limit of 0.05 mg l1. (Alam et al.,2002)

At present, 37 administrative blocks by the side of the river Ganga and adjoining areas are affected. Areas affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater are all located in the upper delta plain and are mostly in the abandoned meander belt. More than 800 000 people from 312 villages/wards are drinking arsenic-contaminated water and amongst them, at least 175 000 people show arsenical skin lesions. Thousands of tube well water in these six districts have been analysed for arsenic species. Hair, nails, scales, urine, and liver tissue analyses show elevated concentrations of arsenic in people drinking arsenic-contaminated water for a longer period. Arsenic comes from a geological source. Only a few soil strata have high arsenic contents, which are determined to be linked to iron-pyrites according to investigations of bore hole silt. Arsenical skin lesions in various areas cause a variety of societal issues. (Das et al.,1996)

This chapter focuses on key terms and their associated concepts that are crucial for effectively communicating the ideas of the study. It also establishes a theoretical orientation for the empirical investigation and provides guidance for selecting appropriate predictor variables that are relevant to the research.

The scholastic and theoretical exercise referred to in the statement related to the intellectual and academic process involved in conducting research. It involves delving into existing literature, theories, and concepts related to the research topic, as well as formulating new ideas and theories based on the researcher’s understanding and analysis.

One of the key outcomes of this exercise is the development of an operational definition. An operational definition is a clear and concise description of how a specific concept or variable will be measured or observed in the research study. It provides a framework for understanding and interpreting the data collected during the research process.

Furthermore, the pursuit of knowledge is an essential aspect of the research process. Researchers engage in a systematic exploration and investigation of the research topic, seeking to expand the existing knowledge base and contribute new insights to the field. This pursuit of knowledge involves critically analyzing existing theories, synthesizing information, and generating new ideas and theories through the research process. The theory that is developed as a result of this exercise is constructed in alignment with the set of objectives and research designs established at the beginning of the research project. The theory serves as a framework that guides the research process and helps to organize and interpret the data collected. It is important for the theory to be congruent with the research objectives to ensure the research study is focused and relevant to its intended goals.

Migration shows the trends of social changes. From the historical viewpoint during the process of industrialisation and economic development, people migrate from farms to industries, from villages to cities, from one city to another and from one country to another. In modern times, technological changes are taking place in Asia, Africa and Latin America due to which these regions are witnessing large-scale migration from rural to urban areas.

Economists are interested in the study of migration because migration affects the supply of skilled and semi-skilled labourers, development of industries and commerce causing changes in the employment structure of the migrated people. Formulation of economic policies has a close relation with the process of migration because migration affects the economic and social development of a country.

3. Contemporary Crisis in Global Agriculture
Over the past century, bunch of initiatives have been taken and achieved worldwide in expediting human welfare. Societies have also changed to great extent as a result of quantum leaps in technology, rapid globalization, and innovations in agricultural production systems. Perhaps the world ‘free of fear and want’ envisioned at the foundation programme of the United Nations is still a far cry.
Similarly, much work left to be fulfilled the vision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and to make ‘a world free of hunger and malnutrition and one in which food and agriculture contribute to improving the living standards of all, especially the poorest, in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner’.
Amidst great plenty, millions of people still face pervasive poverty, inequalities, joblessness, natural resource depletion, environmental degradation, displacement, migration, disease, and deprivation. Majority of humanity’s progress has reached at a significant cost to the environment. The impacts of climate change are already being felt, and if left unabated; definitely will intensify to a considerable extent in the years coming. Besides, population dynamics will radically change demographics over the decades ahead. Growth in the world’s population is projected to be concentrated in Africa and South Asia and in the biggest cities.
Then agricultural production has to maintain pace with those of rising population for atleast a sustainable world. Although, agricultural production more than tripled between the years of 1960 and 2015, where Green Revolution owes to robust crop production and a significant increment in the use of land, water and other natural resources for agricultural purposes. This period witnessed a remarkable progress in both of industrialization and globalization of food and agriculture. At the same time changes in the length of food supply chains took place as the physical distance from farm to plate has increased dramatically; the consumption pattern of processed, packaged, and prepared foods has changed simultaneously in everywhere though the most in rural communities.

2.1 Present Situation
Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, which, for centuries, has shaped the thought, the outlook, the culture and the economic life of the people of India. Agriculture, therefore, is and will continue to be central to all strategies for planned socio-economic development of the country. Rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only to achieve self-reliance at national level but also for household food security and to bring about equity in distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in poverty levels.
The onset and growth of extension strategy has so far been in a response to the socio-economic milieu across the World. In addition to socio economic dimensions, the other dimensions like temporal, geographical, ecological, managerial, technological and so on are being ascribed towards modeling extension researches.
The North East part of India is not only unique but also solitary examples in these arenas by having a huge score of bio-diversity, geo-morphological variation and ethno cultural diversity. Still the agriculture is running there with low productivity, poor accessibility to market and splashed with traditional rigmaroles. In hunting out the crux of problems, it has been one of the options to deal with the problems of lithospheric barriers or opportunity, if any, on shaping the extension strategy for upgrading and uplifting the agricultural status of hill eco-system of Manipur.
The present study well encompasses the issues of hilly terrain including the slope and runoff directions for deciding on the befitting extension strategy. The entire slice of research has divided the terrain into high, medium and low altitude to elucidate the altitude specific factors impacting on the crop stands, yield behavior, technological options and market responses.
The empirical study has elicited a unique pattern of altitudinal change on crop husbandry, bio-diversity score, livelihood pattern and situation specific need perception to present ultimately a geo-sensible extension perception. This will be applied towards having a sustainable and comprehensive agro-economic

Theoretical Probability Distribution

Many random variables associated with statistical experiments have similar properties, and as such can be described by the same probability functions. The distribution obtained from a theoretical listing of outcomes and probabilities, which can be described by a mathematical formula representing same phenomenon of interest is called a theoretical probability distribution. The distributions of discrete and continuous random variables are accordingly called discrete or continuous probability distributions.

Discrete Probability Distribution: It can be defined as a probability distribution of discrete random variables. Such a distribution will represent data that has a f inite countable number of outcomes. If the random variable X is a discrete random variable, the probability function P(X) is called probability mass function and its distribution is called discrete probability distribution. There are two conditions that a discrete probability distribution must satisfy. These are given as follows:

Types of Discrete Probability Distributions

There are several important discrete probability distributions-

• Uniform distribution

• Binomial distribution

• Negative Binomial distribution

• Geometric distribution

• Poisson distribution

• Hyper-Geometric distribution

Little and Watts (1994) define contract farming as a system of vertical coordination between growers and buyers, in which production decisions are directly shaped by contractual agreements. These contracts specify obligations related to market parameters such as volume, value, quality and in some cases price. Beyond market terms, contracts often extend to the supply of inputs, technical guidance and a degree of control exercised by the contracting firm over the farmer’s production process. At its core, a contract serves as a mechanism for risk-sharing between the farmer and the contracting firm. It is not merely a transaction but a reflection of the broader relationship between the two parties. Importantly, the nature and effectiveness of such contracts are influenced by the larger political and economic environment in which they operate. Thus, while contracts provide structure and certainty, their success ultimately depends on contextual factors such as governance, market stability and institutional support. In practice, contract farming typically involves the purchaser providing production support-supplying inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and even technical advice-while committing to purchase the produce at pre-agreed conditions. Farmers, in turn, commit to supplying the required crop or livestock product of specified quality, within a defined timeline and in the agreed quantity.
Dimensions of contractual agreements
The intensity and complexity of contractual agreements vary, often depending on the scope of support provided by the contracting firm. The provisions generally include:
1. Market provision: A binding agreement on the future sale and purchase of a particular crop or livestock product.
2. Resource provision: In addition to marketing arrangements, the buyers may provide essential inputs, such as seeds, fertilizers or even land preparations and technical advice.
3. Management Specification: The farmers agree to follow recommended cultivation and harvesting practices, input usage norms and other quality control measures.

Theories of entrepreneurship
1. An economic theory
2. Leibensteon’s X-efficiency theory
3. Dynamic entrepreneurship innovation theory
4. Harvard School theory
5. Theory of high achievement
6. Theory of change
7. Theory of profit
8. Theory of adjustment of price
9. Theory of market
10. Theory of social change
11. Theory of entrepreneurial supply
12. Theory of personal resourcefulness
13. Theory of cultural values 

Mass Communication

The term ‘mass communication’ was coined at the end of the 1930s. The term ‘mass’ denotes great volume, range or extent (such as of people or production), while ‘communication’ refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the transmis- sion and reception of messages.

The term ‘mass’ was first formally defined by Herbert Bhumer (1939) as a new type of social formation in modern society, by contrasting it other formations, es- pecially the group, crowd and public.

Gerbner’s (1967) definition of mass communication is hard to beat. He defined it as social interaction through messages.

Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which special- ized groups employ technological device (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content of large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience.

Entrepreneurship Development
Entrepreneurship Development (ED) is a recent perspective in extension approaches. It attempts to integrate sociological nature of agricultural sector with capitalistic entrepreneurship. The terms like social entrepreneurship, corporate social responsibility and agricultural entrepreneurship have recently come in vogue. It is the most significant factor to bring about transformation of agricultural sector.
Theories of Entrepreneurship Development
The word entrepreneur is derived from a French root entreprenerd, meaning. to begin something, to undertake. Entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement [N-Ach] who is energetic and a moderate risk taker. An entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits opportunities. Entrepreneur is an innovator and dynamic agent of change, a catalyst who transforms increasingly physical, natural and human resources in a corresponding production possibility. Entrepreneurship is a means by which economy and society are transformed. The emergence of entrepreneurs in a society depends upon closely interlinked economic, social, religious, cultural and psychological variables.
Personality traits perspective of entrepreneurship
In this approach, the entrepreneur is assumed to possess a particular personality type and thus much research has been to enumerate a set of characteristics possessed. The main Concepts studied include innovativeness, dynamism, risk taking, creativity, alertness, need for achievement, aspirations, self-confidence and being ambitious. An entrepreneur is an individual who possesses qualities of risk-taking, leadership, motivation, and the ability to resolve problems. Entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviour also include openness to new information and people, motivation, making independent and self-directed decisions, the ability to see opportunities in a rapidly changing and uncertain environment, persistence, the motivation to achieve, technical know-how, taking ownership, personal integrity, accountable, capacity to manage and
organise.

Production- Function- The technical law relating inputs to outputs has beengiven the name of production function. Production function expresses the relationship between physical input and physical output of a firm for a given state of technology.
Law of Variable Proportion or Law of Diminishing Returns (Short Run Production Function)
This law explains the relationship between inputs and outputs in the short period. According to this law, output can be changed by altering variable factors (such as labour and feed) while keeping other factors (such as land and infrastructure) constant. The law states that with an increase in variable factors, keeping other factors constant, total product initially increases at an increasing rate, then increases at a diminishing rate, and finally starts decreasing.
1. Total Product (TP) - Refers to the total output of the firm per period of time.
1. Example: Total litres of milk produced by a dairy farm per day.