eChapters

23.1. Aim

To determine the total soluble solids in fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

23.2. Theory and principle

Total soluble solids (TSS) are determined by means of brix which measures the specific gravity or by using hand refractometer which measures refractive index. Brix is a measure of soluble solids only in case of pure sucrose solutions. Generally, the fruit juices contain more sugar than any other soluble constituent. Hence, brix provides a useful guide of soluble solids or sugar contents. Brix hydrometer is used to determine the percentage of brix in syrup while Abbe refractometer gives refractive index as well as degree brix. The Refractive index of the test solution is measured at 20°C using a refractometer and the soluble solid content is determined by the use of tables correlating refractive index with soluble solids. Generally, hand refractometer is used for determining TSS in food samples in fruit processing units (Table 3.1).

24.1 Aim

To determine the moisture content in fresh and processed products

24.2 Theory

Estimation of moisture in fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products is important for evaluating their nutritive composition as well as to optimize method for their processing like drying, preparation of different products viz; jams, preserve, candies etc. Moisture is determined by drying the weighed sample to a constant weight in hot air oven and measuring the loss in weight to express the moisture content in percent. This method is used for estimation of moisture in all food products which do not decompose at 100ºC. Moisture content of some commodities (Table 4.1) is as under:

26.1. Aim

To determine the pH of food samples.

26.2. Theory

The hydrogen-ion concentration of a food is a controlling factor in many chemicals and microbiological reactions. Pure water has equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions, each having the value of 1×107g/litre at room temperature that is why water is regarded as neutral. The pH of pure water is 7.0, the solution having pH below 7.0 is regarded as acidic while solution with pH above 7.0 is alkaline. Most fruits and fruit products have pH below 4.0 while vegetable; milk and meat products have pH more than 4.0. The pH value of some fruits and fruit products is given in Table 6.1. Thus, with the increase in acidity in the solution, the pH value decrease and vice versa. However, presence of buffer salts helps in maintenance of pH. Estimation of pH of the food is important as the processing conditions for different food products are categorized on the basis of their pH.

27.1. Aim

To estimate the titratable acidity of fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

27.2. Theory

Most of the fruit, vegetables and their products contain acid or mixture of acids. The acids may occur naturally in the fruit and vegetables or may be added during manufacture of different products or by lactic acid or acetic acid fermentation. Generally citric acid is added in most fruit products while in pickles, sauces and ketchup acetic acid is used. The acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste, thus estimation of acidity is used as the measure of tartness. They also help in preservation by lowering the pH of the finished products.

29.1. Aim

To estimate ascorbic acid in fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

29.2. Theory and Principle

Fruit, vegetables and their products are important sources of ascorbic acid. The ascorbic acid is present in sufficient quantity in aonla, guava, grapefruit, lemon, pineapple, strawberry fruits etc. Barbados cherry is the chief source of vitamin C. The products manufactured from these fruits are also considered as rich in ascorbic acid and the contents available in the commodities can be detected by using 2, 6 dichloro-phenol - indophenol visual titration method.

30.1. Aim

To estimate the salt contents in given samples by using Mohr method.

30.2. Theory and principle

Common salt is used during preparation of pickles, sauces, ketchup, fruit chutney and appetizers. Besides, imparting taste, the salt in appropriate concentration also acts as a preservative. In different products, it is estimated by using Mohr method. The sample is titrated with standard solution of silver nitrate for estimation of salt by using potassium chromate as an indicator. From the titre the concentration of salt is estimated by using a standard expression.

31.1. Aim

To estimate the sodium benzoate contents in fruit and vegetable products.

31.2. Theory and Principle

Sodium benzoate is used as a class II preservative in preservation of pickles, sauces, squashes etc. Its estimation is important as the quantity of class II preservative shall not exceed maximum limit prescribed under FSSAI. In a sample containing NaCl, the benzoic acid is converted into water soluble sodium benzoate by addition of NaOH. When the Sodium benzoate solution is acidified with excess of HCl, water insoluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard sodium hydroxide.

33.1. Aim

To perform canning of fruit and vegetables.

33.2. Theory

Canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health as well as micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Broadly canning is a method of preservation of food for achieving longer shelf-life.

33.3. Principle of canning

Destruction of spoilage causing micro-organisms and enzymes within the sealed containers by means of heat.

35.1. Aim

To prepare squash from fruits or fruit pulp.

35.2. Theory

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice or pulp and 40% total soluble solids (TSS). Squash is diluted before serving (1:3). According to FSSAI specifications, class II preservative in fruit squash shall not exceed 350 ppm sulphur dioxide/700 ppm KMS or 600 ppm sodium benzoate. Artificial colour and flavours can also be added when declared on the label.

35.3. Raw material, ingredients, machinery and equipments required

1. Fruits like mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, pear, apricot and pineapple are used for making squash.

36.1. Aim

To prepare cordial from lemon and lime.

36.2. Theory

Cordial is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit beverage from which pulp has been removed completely. It contains at least 25% fruit juice, 30% total soluble solids (TSS), 1.5% acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide. Lemon and lime juice cordials are the commercial products.

36.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Lemon and lime are used for making cordial.

37.1. Aim

To prepare ready to serve drink from fruits.

37.2. Theory

Ready to serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix total soluble solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready to serve beverage. Mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink are the commercial products available in the market.

Sweetened fruit juice is categorized as ready to serve beverage in which the minimum juice content shall be 85% with a minimum TSS of 10%, while unsweetened juice is a natural juice having 100% fruit juice with natural total soluble solids. These are preserved by heat processing method. Sweetened apple, pear juices are commercially manufactured.

38.1. Aim

To prepare nectar from different fruit pulp/juice.

38.2. Theory

Fruit nectar is also a RTS drink but it contains not less than 150Brix TSS and not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp. It is preserved only by heat processing as such no preservative is allowed in fruit nectars. Mango nectar, guava nectar etc. are the commercial products in this category.

38.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Mango, guava, and pineapple nectars are commercially available in the market. However the nectar can also be prepared from a number of other fruits like jamun, aonla, apricot, papaya, plum and bael etc.

39.1. Aim

To prepare Jam from different fruits.

39.2. Theory

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For preparation of jam not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. According to FSSAI specifications, minimum quantity of soluble solids in the prepared jam shall not be less than 65% (w/w). The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps, is called as mixed fruit jam. Approved fruit colour and flavour can also be added into the jam when declared on the label.

39.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, apricot, mango, plum, peach, guava, pineapple, pear and kiwifruit etc either singly or in combination (mixed jam).

40.1. Aim

To prepare jelly from guava fruits.

40.2. Theory

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without addition of water, straining the extract and cooking the clear extract with sugar to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and having original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape. In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent. As per FSSAI specifications, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product shall not be less than 45 and 65 percent (w/w) respectively. Guava jelly is the commercial product available in the market however jelly can be prepared from sour apple, karonda, jamun, loquat etc.

41.1. Aim

To prepare marmalade from citrus fruits.

41.2. Theory

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices/shreds of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades are kept slightly higher than that for jellies. They shall contain minimum of 45% fruit and 65% total soluble solids.

41.3. Raw material, ingredients, machinery required

1. Orange and lemon like citrus fruits are used for making marmalade.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils for cooking and mixing, muslin cloth, glass jars, sterilization tank, gas bhatti etc.

42.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of chutney from different fruits.

42.2. Theory

Fruit chutney is made in the same way as jam except that the spices, salt and vinegar or acetic acid is also added. In comparison to jam, chutney contains less total soluble solids. The product shall be of good quality with palatable and appetizing taste. As per FSSAI specifications, the chutney shall contain minimum of 40% fruit (w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50%. The acidity in the final product shall not be more than 2 percent with ash content not exceeding 5 percent. Mixed fruit chutney is commercially made by using different fruits in appropriate combinations.

42.3. Raw material, ingredients, equipments and utensils required

1. Stainless steel peeling/cutting knives, pulper for extraction of pulp.

2. Utensils for cooking and mixing, ladle, glass jars, sterilization tank, diesel or LPG stove/bhatti etc

43.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of preserve and candies from fruits.

43.2. Theory

Preserves (murraba) are made by cooking the entire fruit or its slices/pieces in sugar syrup of higher concentration (65-70°Brix). Usually for 1 kg fruit around 1.75 kg sugar is used and the cooking is continued till the TSS reaches 68%. Fruits like aonla, bael, apple, pear, karonda, pineapple and papaya etc can be used for making preserves. Aonla, bael and apple preserves are commercially available in the market.

Candies are also prepared in similar way as preserve, but the TSS maintained is slightly higher (75-80%). In preserve, the fruit is kept immersed in syrup and packed while in case of candies, the syrup is drained off and fruit pieces are further dried and packed. For candy preparation, the fruit pieces are dipped initially in 55-60% sugar solution and the TSS of the syrup is increased by 5% everyday up to 4-5 days till a TSS of 70oBrix is reached. The fruit pieces are then separated from syrup, rolled in powdered sugar, dried and packed. Karonda, apple, peels of orange, lemon, grapefruit, petha (Ash gourd) and ginger etc are used for candy preparation. Petha, ginger, papaya, aonla etc candies are commercially available in the market.

45.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of sauce from different fruits.

45.2. Theory

Sauces are of thinner consistency as compared to ketchups and contain TSS not less than 15oBrix. Pumpkin, tomato, apple, papaya and plum pulps etc are used successfully for preparation of sauces. Mixed vegetable sauce using pumpkin, tomato, chillies, carrots are sold as continental sauces.

45.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, tomato, papaya, pumpkin, plum etc are used for making sauce.

2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle and utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles, sterilization tank, Bhatti/LPG stove etc.

46.1. Aim: To prepare pickle from different fruits.

46.2. Theory

The preservation of food in common salt (NaCl) or in vinegar or edible oil with the addition of spices and condiments is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient /oldest methods for preservation of fruits and vegetables. Salt, vinegar, edible oil or lactic acid act as preservative in pickle making. Several kinds of pickles are sold in the Indian market. Mango pickle ranks first followed by lime, lemon, mushroom, galgal, aonla, jackfruit and karonda pickles.

Brining: For pickling, unripe fruits (like mango) after preparation (peeling, slicing) are mixed with salt or brine for its later use in pickle preparation

47.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of pickle from different vegetables.

47.2. Theory

Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. Pickles may be unfermented (mostly Indian pickles) and fermented (western pickles). Salt, vinegar, edible oil or acetic acid acts as preservative in pickle making. Mixed vegetable pickle from cauliflower, carrot and turnip is most common. Cucumber and olive pickles are examples of fermented pickles. The process of steeping vegetables/fruits in salt solution is also a common method used for preservation of mango and vegetable slices for longer duration storage for its later use in pickling.

49.1. Aim

To perform practical on drying/dehydration of different vegetables.

49.2. Theory

Drying refers to the method of removal of moisture content from the food to a level at which the activities of food spoilage and food poisoning micro-organism are inhibited. Therefore, reduction in water activity of the food is the main principal of preservation by drying. In the dehydrator initial temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 60-66oC for vegetables. The product shall be prepared from wholesome vegetables free from blight, insect infestation and fungal discoloration. Only edible portion of the vegetables shall be used and it shall be free from stalks, peels, stems, and extraneous matter. The dried/dehydrated vegetable may contain permitted preservative. The finished product shall be of good edible quality and shall reasonably reconstitute to its original shape and quality on boiling for 15 minutes to an hour. The finished product shall be free from visible mould, insect or larvae. Kind of dry vegetable shall be declared on the label. Acid insoluble ash shall not be more than 0.5%.

50.1. Aim

To prepare products from tomato fruits.

50.2. Theory

Commercial products from tomatoes include juice, puree and paste. Processing of tomato is now practiced from home scale level to a large scale enterprise. As a semi finished product, tomato puree is prepared on a small scale while at large scale tomato paste has gained commercial significance. Both puree and paste are used for preparation of different finished products like ketchup, juice, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products are well standardized, however, some modification with respect to recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variation in the quality of the raw material. The method for preparation and recipe of different tomato products are as under:

50.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Tomatoes.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils, juicer, pulper, glass bottles, corking machine, crown corks, muslin cloth, boiler/gas bhatti, etc.

51.1. Aim

To prepare products from tomato fruits.

51.2. Theory

Commercial products from tomatoes include ketchup, soup, cocktail, chutney, canned and dehydrated tomatoes. Processing of tomato is now practiced from home scale level to a large scale enterprise. Both puree and paste are used for preparation of different finished products like ketchup, canned and dehydrated products, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products are well standardized, however, some modification with respect to recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variation in the quality of the raw material. The method for preparation and recipe of different tomato products are as under:

51.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Tomatoes, sugar, salt, sodium benzoate etc.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils, juicer, pulper, glass bottles, corking machine, crown corks, muslin cloth, boiler/gas bhatti, etc.

52.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of fruits.

52.2. Theory

Freezing is a method of preservation in which the food temperature is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water changes in to ice-crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity in the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre-treatments is the basis for food preservation by freezing. The method for freezing of fruits depends upon the intended use. The process variables for freezing of different fruits and flow chart are shown in Table 52.1 and Fig 52.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer. The fruits are frozen to an internal temperature of -18oC or lower and kept at 18oC or lower throughout transport and storage.

53.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of vegetables

53.2. Theory

Freezing is often considered the simplest and most natural way of preservation for vegetables. Frozen vegetables and potatoes form a significant proportion of the market in terms of frozen food consumption. The quality of frozen vegetables depends on the quality of fresh products, since freezing does not improve product quality. Pre-process handling, from the time vegetables are picked until ready to eat, is the important factor affecting quality of finished product. The process variables for freezing of different vegetables and flow chart are shown in Table 54.1 and Fig 54.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer.

55.1. Aim

To determine dietary fibres in given samples.

55.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre.

55.3. Procedure for estimation of dietary fibre

55.3.1. Acid detergent fibre (ADF)

Reagents: Cetyl tri-methyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) reagent and Acetone

Apparatus: Digestion apparatus vacuum pump, oven, desiccator and sintered glass crucible.

Drought is a situation when the demand for water is much greater than the availability of water. Drought is a creeping phenomenon and it is experienced only after it has set in. The scarcity of water compared to demand will have greater impact on every activity of human life including failure of crops, food shortages, decline in ground water table, drying tanks, lakes or reservoirs, acute shortage of drinking water for humans and livestock shortage for cattle etc.

Drought will have very serious impact on economy of households as well as that of nation. There are five different types of droughts depending upon the nature of shortage of water

10.1 Meteorological Drought

Meteorological drought occurs when the water received through rainfall during a given period is much less than long period average rainfall of the area. The meteorological drought is associated with either failure of rain or due to long gap between the successive rainfall events. In India, meteorological drought occurs due to failure of south west monsoon or long breaks in south west monsoon rainfall. In Tamil Nadu the drought occurs due to failure of north east monsoon rainfall during months of October to December.

The weather parameters that may occur outside India will also play a dominant role on weather conditions in India. Such weather parameters are called as global weather parameters and were found to play very important role on weather even in most parts of the world. During normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean, trade winds blow west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia. To replace that warm water, cold water rises from the depths-a process called upwelling. These global parameters are popularly known as El Ni?o, La Ni?a, Southern Oscillation, and ENSO (combination of El Ni?o and Southern Oscillation).

In meteorology, we often use some of the physical parameters to explain the physical processes taking place in the atmosphere. These parameters must have already appeared in the earlier chapters. However, these are given in this chapter to enable the readers to get acquainted once again.

16.1 Momentum

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and its velocity. In S.I. system units mass is expressed in kilograms and velocity in meters per second.

Momentum = Mass x Velocity

Units for momentum (S.I. system) = kg. m/sec

In C.G.S. System, mass is expressed in grams and velocity in cm/sec.

Units for momentum (C.G.S System) = gm.cm/sec

1. Introduction

Libraries play an important role in developing reading habit among students. The Academic library specially means to support the teaching learning process and is focus to work on curriculum based education system. Inculcating reading habit among students in academic Library is a challenge. Our College SMRK BK AK Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nashik is dedicated towards the Women’s Education has accepted this challenge and established Book Club to inculcate reading habit among students. Reading Drive is one of the unique practices run in our college from 2014. Every year more than 200 students enrolled under the Book Club and read the books other than academics. Under this club, we take various activities such as Book Review Competition, Book talk, Books Exhibitions on Various Occasions, Digital Exhibition of Book Reviews submitted by students, New Arrivals Desk, Ask a Librarian and execute this Reading Drive.

A puppet is an object resembling a human, animal, or mythical figure, animated or manipulated by a puppeteer. Puppetry, an ancient form of theatre dating back to the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece, encompasses a wide array of puppet types, crafted from diverse materials to suit various forms and purposes.

Puppets vary greatly in complexity, from simple constructions to intricate designs. The puppeteer controls movements using hands, arms, or devices like rods or strings, manipulating the puppet’s body, head, limbs, and sometimes its mouth and eyes. Often, the puppeteer provides the character’s voice, synchronizing speech with puppet movements, which together convey narratives and stories.

Among the simpler puppet types are finger puppets, miniature figures fitting onto a single finger, and sock puppets, created and animated by inserting a hand into a sock, manipulating the hand to simulate the puppet’s mouth movements. Hand puppets, including live-hand puppets operated by one hand inside the puppet, and larger versions like live-hand puppets requiring two puppeteers, also feature prominently.

Getting familiarized with a video camera involves several steps. Here’s a guide to help you get started:

1. Read the Manual: Start by reading the camera’s user manual. It provides detailed information about the camera’s functions, features, and settings.

2. Identify the Parts: Physically handle the camera and familiarize yourself with its various parts, such as the lens, viewfinder, controls, and ports.

3. Basic Operations: Learn how to power the camera on and off. Practice adjusting basic settings such as aperture, shutter speed, and ISO if your camera allows manual control.

4. Practice Recording: Start by recording simple videos. Experiment with different settings and angles to understand how they affect the footage.

5. Explore the Menus: Navigate through the camera’s menu system to explore and adjust various settings like resolution, frame rate, and audio levels.

6. Use the Viewfinder/Screen: Get used to composing shots using the viewfinder or LCD screen. Practice framing your subject and adjusting focus.

7. Experiment with Lenses: If your camera allows, try using different lenses to see how they impact your footage. Learn how to change lenses and understand the effects of zoom and focus.

8. Check the Audio: Test the built-in microphone and, if possible, use an external microphone to see the difference in audio quality. Adjust audio levels as needed.

Lighting is a fundamental aspect of filmmaking and photography, crucial for setting the mood and tone of a scene. Different lighting techniques can evoke various emotions and atmospheres, helping to tell the story visually. Here are some common lighting techniques and the moods they create:

Types of Lighting Techniques

1. Three-Point Lighting

• Key Light: The main source of light, providing the primary illumination.

• Fill Light: Reduces shadows created by the key light.

• Back Light: Adds depth by separating the subject from the background.

Drone cameras have gained popularity due to advancements in technology and decreasing prices. Today, you can find various types of drones, from beginner models with cameras to those equipped with powerful HD and high-resolution 4K cameras. Despite the diversity of models, most drones share similar controls and functionalities. Thanks to technological advancements, drone cameras have become essential tools for aerial photography and videography. This article will explore the components of a drone camera, its functionality, and its diverse applications across various industries.

A drone camera is a specialized device attached to an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), designed to capture high-quality aerial images and videos. These cameras vary in size and design, from compact versions for hobbyists to professional-grade models used in commercial applications.

Organon

Organon of Medicine, a document of Homeopathic philosophy articulated by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, is the corner stone of Homeopathic principles and practices being followed by homeopaths throughout world. Before Organon of Medicine Dr. Hahnemann published an article “Essay on a New Principle” in 1796. The article was based on his first experience of the effect of Peruvian Bark Cinchona in 1790. The Organon of Medicine developed slowly out of Hahnemann’s research and experimentation over a period of time and newer experiences were added in subsequent editions. With more personal observations and experimentation, he published his new account of Homeopathy in 1810 in the form of a book entitled “Organon of Rational Art of Healing (Organon der rationellen Heilkunde). It was the 1st edition. Dr. Hahnemann laid out the doctrine of his ideas of Homeopathy in this book. The book contains the principles and philosophical back ground of the Practice of Homeopathy. The work was repeatedly revised by him and published in six editions, with the name changed from the second edition onwards to Organon of Medicine (Organon der Heilkunst). The book saw its five editions in the life time of Hahnemann and the 6th edition was published long after the death of Dr. Hahnemann. The 2nd edition was published in 1819, with the revised title Organon of Healing Art. The 3rd edition of the book came in 1824. The 4th edition was published in 1829 and introduced Hahnemann’s “Theory of Chronic Diseases”. The 5th edition of the book was published in 1833, that contained the doctrine of vital force and drug-dynamization. The sixth edition, written in 1842, a year before his death, was retitled Organon of Medicine and published in 1921 (78 years after his death in 1843).

Analysis of Symptoms

Symptoms are deviation from a state of health perceptible to by the patient, people around and the doctor/veterinarian. Symptoms can be physical and mental. Symptoms narrated by the patients are subjective and observed by the doctor / veterinarian are objective. Animals lack subjective symptoms. The word analysis means “careful examination of the different parts or details of something.” According to Castro “The act of resolving or reducing or breaking the whole in to pieces or groups is called analysis”. When analyzing a case, the value of symptoms is taken in to consideration on several points such as personality, and categories of symptoms as subjective, objective, general, common and uncommon symptoms. Symptom analysis gives an opportunity to learn when the symptoms developed, the feeling that those circumstances evoked the symptoms, and the ways in which those symptoms may have served some useful purpose to the patient. The main purpose of analysis is to identify the prescribing symptom in the given case.

Major source of common homeopathic drugs are plants, animals and minerals and the drug is prepared by dilution and vigorous shaking.

Origin and Source of Homeopathic Drugs

Homeopathic medicines/drugs are prepared from following sources.

Plant Source

Homeopathic drugs are prepared from different parts of the plants and herbs viz. whole plant, whole herb, flowers, stem, leaves, bark, root and seeds. Example- Aconite, Belladonna, Arnica, Bryonia, Calendula etc.

Animal Source

Homeopathic drugs are also prepared from some parts of animals (worms, insects, flies, lizard, crabs, toads and snakes) and their secretion. Example Coccus cacti, Lachesis, Naja tripudians etc.

Case taking in homeopathy is based on five themes such as Philosophy of Homeopathy, Materia Medica of Homeopathy, The case, Case Analysis and Case Management (Owen, 2007).

Themes

i. Philosophy – Clinical practice of homeopathy is based on the principles and key concepts of homeopathy as detailed in Chapter 2 and 12.

ii. Materia Medica- It is in the core of understanding of the practice of homeopathy providing the information how the remedy pictures are developed and expressed in different ways. It allows the practitioner to understand the patient and prescribe rationally.

iii. The Case- The relationship between a homeopath (human /veterinary) and patient (animal or human) is in the center of the therapeutic process in case taking in homeopathy. It is more than a record of the consultation as case skills facilitate the level of revealing by the patient and the depth to which the homeopath perceives.

iv. Case Analysis- Case analysis allows the matching of what is perceived of the patient with what is known of the remedies. Case analysis governs the order, pattern and interpretation that emerge in the healing process. The variety of case analysis strategies and methodologies available to the homeopath is a major factor that determines the breadth of their clinical competence.

Homoeopathy is a different system of health care with a holistic, logical and philosophical tailor made approach in the treatment of an individual. The principles of management of diseases or treatment of diseases using homeopathy in animals are in no way different from that of human homeopathy. Homeopathy has potential to cure both human and animal diseases.

Homeopathic Philosophy or Principles

Management of diseases of humans or animals using homeopathy is based on eight basic principles or philosophies.

1. Similia Similibus Curentur- The basic philosophy of homeopathy is based on the ‘Similia Similibus Curentur’ (Latin) or Law of similars (like cures like) , natural law of healing. Which states that a disease can be cured by a drug or substance which is capable of producing similar symptoms in healthy subject when given in minute doses. The treatment in homeopathy is based on the similarity of symptoms of the patient to those of a drug described in Homoeopathic Materia Medica. Drug selection is based not only on the similarity of the presenting symptom, but also on modalities, constitution and temperament of the patient and exciting and fundamental causes.

Preventive Homeopathy

Homeopathy is entirely a unique philosophy different from that of conventional modern medicine. It is considered as a tailor made system of therapy administering a medicine fitting well in the totality of physical and psychological symptoms seen in an ailing individual whether it is human or animal. Homeopathy does not restrict to restoring health of ailing subjects (treatment of clinical diseases) but also offers scope for preventing diseases as well. It can play significant role in preventing enzootic and epizootic infectious diseases through administration of nosodes.

Nosodes

Nosodes are important class of homeopathic drugs specifically prepared from secretions or fluids of the diseased subjects or their infectious agents in the similar manner as other homeopathic drugs are made (process of dilution and succession). The word “nosode “ is derived from the Greek “nosos” (disease) and “eidos” (like). Nosodes are potentized remedies prepared from diseased tissues , discharges (products of disease) or disease causing agents (bacteria or virus) in a specialized manner following standard protocol. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann first prepared remedies from diseased tissues (mainly the miasmatic nosodes) for the three miasms (Psora, Sycosis and Syphilis) corresponding as Psorinum, Medorrhinum, and Syphylinum. Of which first two have common use in veterinary homeopathy. The nosodes have undergone proving similar to other drugs, and their use in veterinary homeopathy is in the same manner as with any other remedy i.e. matching patient symptoms with those of the remedy.

Migration is inevitable in the process of economic development (Afsar, 2003; Ballard, 2005). There exists a two-way causation between migration and economic development. Migration induces economic development while economic development induces further migration. Migration can be two types: international migration and internal migration. International migration deals with migration across the countries of the world, while internal migration deals with migration within the national boundary of a country (Zohry, 2005). There are four streams of internal migration which are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban. Among these four streams, rural-urban migration has certain distinct characteristics which affect developmental aspect of both places involved namely, place of origin and place of origin and place of destination. It is well known that developmental disparities between rural and urban triggers rural-urban migration. People generally migrate from less developed rural countryside to more developed urban centers they left farming and engaged in modern works which are more profitable and low risk oriented (Bhattacharya, 1993; de Haan, 1997). The impact of migration can be assessed in several ways; therefore welfare impacts, social impacts, economic impacts etc. For example, remittance send by the urban migrants to their native villages help them to evade poverty; increase consumption; invest more in agriculture, education, health. Remittances have certain social impacts as well.

Definition
Gangrene is a necrotic area invaded by saprophytic organisms leading to putrefaction.
Types of Gangrene
There are three types of gangrene
1. Dry gangrene
2. Moist gangrene
3. Gas gangrene
1. Dry Gangrene
Dry gangrene represents an area of coagulation necrosis resulting from  infarction followed by mummification. The extremities of the body like tail,  ears, legs and udder are affected.

Calcification

• Calcification is abnormal deposition of calcium salts in tissue other than bone.

• Calcium is normally present in blood and deposited in bones.

• Calcium if deposited in an abnormal tissue with normal or abnormal blood calcium level is considered as pathological condition.

Pathological calcifications are

1. Metatstatic calcification

2. Dystrophic calcification

Photosensitization is activation of photodynamic chemicals on the skin by long wave length UV or occasionally by visible light

• Necrosis and edema are produced in the exposed areas of skin of animals.

• The cellular damage by photosensitization is due to release of reactive oxygen species leading to mast cell degranulation and production of chemical mediators of inflammation.

Factors Necessary for Photosensitization in Animals

• Oxygen

• Sunlight

• Photodynamic chemicals

• Skin devoid of hair or wool and lacking pigments

Definition

IDD (immunodeficiency diseases) occur when there is a failure of the immune system to protect the host from infectious organisms or the development of cancer.

IDD are disorders of immune system that result in immunological deficiency. Immunodeficiency could be from defects in

i. B and T- lymphocytes

ii. Granulocytes

iii. Complement

Definition

Hypersensitivity is an altered reaction to a specific antigen that results in pathologic reactions upon the exposure of a sensitized host to that of specific antigen.

Explanation

Hypersensitivity reactions are inappropriate or misdirected responses to a specific antigen that result in harmful reactions upon exposure of a sensitized host to that specific antigen.

Affected animals require a sensitization phase in which the animal must have had either a previous exposure or a prolonged exposure to the antigen so that it can develop an immune response to the inciting antigen.

The harmful effects resulting from hypersensitivity reactions occur in the effector phase and are most commonly manifested through inflammation or cell lysis.

Definition

The animal reacts to its own tissue (endogenous antigen) to incite production of antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes. There is breakage of tolerance to the self-proteins.

• Autoimmune diseases are prevented by elimination of sensitized T and B lymphocytes by the process of apoptosis in the thymus and bone marrow during development (Central tolerance; clonal deletion), in the peripheral tissues (Peripheral tolerance) and clonal anergy (Clonal avoidance) by defective presentation of cells.

• The tolerance of CD4+ TH cells is critical in preventing autoimmunity.

• Two major autoimmune diseases are thyroiditis and haemolytic anemia. Other conditions are rare in animals

Migration is an integral part of civilization. Everyone is born in a location, wherein, for education he/she needs to migrate elsewhere and after completion of education, there would be further migration for jobs. During Covid-19 it was harshly depicted that more than 50 million migratory workers were forced to quit their job place and when the Covid-19 pandemic apocalypse was over they started re-migrating. Both Push and Pull factors are responsible for Migration. Pull factors incubates choices for migration ad push factors creates a compulsion for migration.Young people from all backgrounds are looking into different ways for rural and urban youth to get about in the town of Darjeeling. Urban adolescents are faced with downward mobility and endure disappointment in their hopes for professional professions and ‘modern’ lives, whereas rural kids enjoy certain types of upward mobility when they relocate into the metropolis (Brown, T. 2015). It is recognized that the main driving force behind migration is the pursuit of better job prospects, and the extent and direction of migration are predominantly influenced by employment opportunities (Khan, 1983). Furthermore, rural areas in Darjeeling have experienced a noticeable trend of male-selective migration in search of better opportunities in the past few decades. This migration primarily occurs towards urban environments within the district and major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, to name a few important destinations. Several factors have contributed significantly to this phenomenon, including population pressure, degradation of common property reSources like forests, long neglect of the region, economic and social backwardness, low agricultural productivity, and lack of opportunities. While this migration brings in much-needed income, it also diminishes the available workforce in the home villages.

Organic farming in India started receiving focused attention from the year 2004-2005 when National Project on Organic farming (NPOF) was launched during 2004, the area under organic farming was 42,000 hectares (Srimathi and Jency, 2014). By March, 2010, it was reached to 1.08 million hectares. In addition to these, 3.40 million hectares was wild forest harvest collection area. Thus, total area under organic certification process by March,2010 was 4.48 million hectares which was increased by 25 folds during last 6 years. In cultivated organic land 7.56 lakh hectares was certified while 3.2 lakh hectares was under conversion. In India, States such as Orissa, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh have been categorized as low or negligible fertilizers consuming states of the country.

In India, Mahatma Gandhi known as father of the Nation, deserves for imparting credit as pioneer for organic agriculture by way of promoting farmyard manure, compost and advocating use of night soil to enhance the soil fertility and thereby, crop productivity. Organic agriculture possesses lot of advantages over conventional agriculture, especially in areas having low rainfall and showing low soil fertility (Yadav, 2010). Although APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) as an apex body which is working to promote the export of organic food commodities. However, lack of adequate certification facilities and the trainings organized, markets for organic foods inadequate, political and scientific will power are some of the hindrances for operating organic agriculture in India. As human and natural resources are readily available in our country, so there is good scope for organic agriculture farming including organic animal husbandry by adopting proper organic agriculture policies.