eChapters

Bread is considered as one of the oldest processed foods to be known, traditionally prepared using wheat flour and water and baked on hot stones. The process of bread making involves hydration of protein and formation of gluten network ABSTRACT 70 Bakery and Confectionery Technology upon mixing, the evolution of carbon dioxide owing to the action of yeast on sugars and aeration of the mixture by incorporation of the gas followed by coagulation of the dough upon heating it in the oven. 

The history of cakes traces back to ancient times where Egyptians first practiced advanced baking skills. However, the modern-day cakes are said to have evolved in Europe around mid of 17th century. Today cake products and its derivatives are widely found all around the world. Cakes are sweet baked products rich in sugar, fat and egg with a tender bite and a pleasant flavour. They are basically protein foams, stabilized by gelatinized starch. Quality of cake depends on number of factors like selection of ingredients, balancing of recipe, optimum mixing and baking procedures. Good quality cakes are characterized by large volume, uniform crumb with fine cells and pore size.

Confectionery is an vital food item of great acceptance among wide range of population. It has been relished as a major food delicacy from ancient times. The term confectionery is describes a spectrum of sweet goods and takes on different meaning depending on the country in which it is used, for example in the United Kingdom the term applies to any sweet product including cakes. In the United States confectionery is candy and includes sugar confectionery and chocolate confectionery.

In the Modern era of globalisation, a wide variety of miscellaneous bakery products are available. It is hard to acknowledge all of them in this chapter due to the unlimited specialities of bakers across the world. The writing here in this chapter is limited to formulation & technology used for the production of buns, pizza base, chapatti, wafers, pretzels, crackers and muffins individually.

Nursery is a place like a crèche, where young tender seedlings are nurtured before planting in the field. The healthy, sturdy, vigorous and diseas free seedlings can establish well in competitive environment. Generally, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, chilli, pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knol khol, lettuce, onion, Brussel’s sprouts are raised through seedlings. But skyrocketing cost of hybrid seeds and high premium of early harvest warrant the attention of cucurbits growers to produce the nursery, Nursery raising has certain advantages over the direct seeding like:

Technology Promotion
The activity of promoting the transfer of technology by creating opportunities, advertising and organizing technology events.
Promotion is a marketing tool, used as a strategy to communicate between the sellers and buyers. Through this, the seller tries to influence and convince the buyers to buy their products or services. It assists in spreading the word about the product or services or company to the people. The company uses this process to improve its public image. This technique of marketing creates an interest in the mindset of the customers and can also retain them as a loyal customer.
Promotion is a fundamental component of the marketing mix, which has 4 Ps:
1. Product (Warranty, features, variety, quality, design, packaging, brand name)
2. Price (List price, discounts, payment terms, credit)
3. Place (channels, coverage, Types of promotion locations, transportation, inventory)
4. Promotion (advertising, self-marketing/personal, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing, trade shows, events).

The way technology is evolving, and the way it is changing our ways of living, why should we not be optimistic about technology. But then optimism comes tagged with pessimism. We aim for unfathomable optimum optimism. Technology is like water. It finds its open spaces. If it fills the available spaces more than it should, there is flood.

Future engineers and technologists are expected to appreciate, more than before, the human dimensions of technology. They are expected to have a grasp of the global issues. There is a need to understand the nuances of working in a culturally diverse space. According to some experts, good engineering designs should not be deprived of the benefits of a broad spectrum of life experiences, as adequate familiarisation with societal demands is essential for practical technological literacy.

Future engineers need to be better equipped to deal with people of diverse backgrounds, such as from social sciences, management, and communication. Some of the grand challenges that are enlisted, from an engineer’s point of view, are environment protection, hunger, energy and controlling the spread of the diseases. We need developers of responsible technologies and products.

We need managers to manage things, and at the same time we need adequate number of things to manage. There is a need to build faith in the public that engineers and technologists are sensitive to their concerns. One of the biggest responsibilities of the engineers and technologists is to keep themselves updated about professional developments and practices.

Countries, not only want exceptional scientists and engineers, but also people who are temperamentally innovators, and think they fit into their country’s core values. Many would say, prepare young minds and nurture future innovators.

Introduction

Sugarcane based production system has to go a long way to turn hightech because of the existing technological gap in the irrigated agroecosystem. This has been realized more in the recent studies undertaken by social scientists. All the crops associated with the sugarcane based production need varietal introduction as well as the adoption of relevant crop management practices. Since the possibility of increasing area under sugarcane is remote in view of emerging low input high value crops, the projected target of 420 million tonnes by 2020 AD has to be achieved by enhancing the cane productivity and sugar recovery concurrently. The full exploitation of the existing improved sugarcane production technologies and development of a package of agro-techniques in the changing scenario of sugarcane based production system suiting to the socio-economic conditions of the farmers is as such the only master key to unlock the yield potential of sugarcane.

Introduction

The traditional methods of food production are coming under increasing strain due to the ever- increasing population of the world and the ever- decreasing availability of land and water resources. The good news is that there are currently concrete solutions to some of these difficulties that can be provided by technology. The fact that climate change is happening while the global population is growing poses the question of how we can ensure that the food we produce is reliable and of consistent quality. Is it possible to grow food in settings that can be regulated, allowing for production that is not dependent on the weather or temperature? It is just a computer enthusiast who is thrilled about how the industry is evolving, but maybe that makes it sound like a visionary. Over the course, gathering a significant amount of expertise working on initiatives that include the use of technology towards horticulture concerns is important. In order to keep newly emerging pests and diseases under control, horticultural crops require a higher degree of personal attention and plant monitoring than arable crops. The use of this intensive but integrated management strategy cleared the path for technology advancements that automated and optimized the farming processes that were previously handled manually, hence introducing increased precision and dependability

The Importance of Adoption of Technologies

Recently, the necessity to improve production, earnings, and productivity was the primary driving force behind the choice of technology that was made available to farmers. The primary obstacles included a lack of access to cash, a lack of familiarity with how to use the technology, and exposure to market risks, the latter of which was mitigated by the policies of the government in many countries. In the past, “good policy practices” were therefore rather straightforward, relating primarily to increasing output, and the goal of agricultural and horticulture policies was to increase productivity in agriculture and horticulture. This was the case because in the past, “good policy practices” were related to increasing output. It is possible that agricultural research and extension services could center their efforts, for instance, on increasing the overall productivity of smaller farms.

Abstract

The tectonic and the geomorphic features observed along the west coast of the area between Mangalore and Cape Comorin show that the NNW-SSE trending west coast has been carved out by the Western Ghats orogeny and the related NNW-SSE trending release fractures. The sinuosity of the otherwise straight coast line is due to Quaternary cymatogenic arching caused by the thrust related to the northerly movement of the Indian plate. The coast line has further attained peaks, projections and serrations due to the ENE-WSW trending series of Precambrian extension fractures which were reactivated gaining the northeasterly directed forces from the rising Carlsberg ridge. Overall, the west coast is being tectonically evolved even today due to the rise of Carlsberg ridge and the Indian plate movement.

Abstract

The analysis of IRS - 1A satellite imagery has indicated the existence of two NE - SW trending sub parallel faults along which the coast is undergoing land subsidence as revealed by the concavity in the shore line, preferential migration of the river systems and the drainage congestion, absence of beach ridges, occurrence of off shore shoal etc. The study has further indicated chains of tectonically induced environmental problems such as ground water logging, coastal zone flooding, storm surges, harbour sedimentation etc.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

Teff (Eragrostis tef) popularly known as Williams love grass or super grain or annual bunch grass originated in Ethiopia, South Africa has recently gained popularity with widespread cultivation and consumption in India, USA, South Africa and Eritrea (Arendt and Zannini, 2013). It generates around 500 million USA dollars as income to local farmers of Ethiopia. It is the second most important cash crop (Minten et al., 2013). 

Introduction Millets are a group of annual grasses which are small seeded, hardy, drought tolerant, low maintenance and mainly found in semi-arid regions. The historic importance of millets can be derived from various types of traditional dishes which uses millets like roti and chapati flatbreads in India, uji (a type of porridge), injera (a fermented flatbread commonly eaten in Ethiopia) and beer in Africa, and kasha and fermented drinks in Eastern Europe. Millets are the 6th most important cereal grain in the world. India, China and Nigeria are the largest producers of millets, and the Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics estimates that in Africa and Asia more than 90 million people depend on millets in their diets. There are hundreds of millet types, but the major types grown commercially are: proso millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, Japanese barnyard millet and browntop millet. In this book chapter, we will mainly focus on two minor millets i.e., Teff and Fonio

9.1 Introduction

In the 21st century, mass media plays an important role in disseminating quick information among many people and making communication easy. Today, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a significant role in daily life. ICT is the abbreviation for Information Technology (IT), which offers the ability to access information using telecommunication. It is primarily dependent on communication technologies. This incorporates computer system, sound video show and Internet. Information and communication technology is used in the majority of fields, for example, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, Defence, E-administration, E-Commerce, Banking, Transport, and so forth. ICT is assuming an essential job.

Telemedicine is a rapidly developing application of clinical medicine wherein medical information is transferred via telephone, the Internet or other networks for the purpose of consulting, and sometimes remote medical procedures or examinations. Telemedicine may be as simple as two health professionals discussing a case over the telephone, or as complex as using satellite technology and video-conferencing equipment to conduct a real-time consultation between medical specialists in two different countries. Telemedicine generally refers to the use of communications and information technologies for the delivery of clinical care.

Care at a distance (also called in absentia care), is an old practice which was often conducted via post; there has been a long and successful history of in absentia health care, which, thanks to modern communication technology, has metamorphosed into what we now know as modern telemedicine.

The terms e-health and tele-health are at times wrongly interchanged with telemedicine. Like the terms “medicine” and “health care”, telemedicine often refers only to the provision of clinical services while the term tele-health can refer to clinical and non-clinical services such as medical education, administration, and research. The term e-health is often, particularly in the UK and Europe, used as an umbrella term that includes tele-health, electronic medical records, and other components of health IT.

10.1 Introduction

Bony fishes (perfect mouth fishes) have a distinct mechanism for opening their mouths by lowering the mandible through the hyoid apparatus, skull either hyostylic or amphistylic. They have a single pair of respiratory openings, a movable maxilla and premaxilla, four-gill arches, a swim bladder, an operculum and a homocercal tail. They are both freshwater and marine. They vary greatly in shape but are built on the same basic plan.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry has long tradition since dawn of the civilization. Farmers and/or land owners integrate different woody perennials in their cropping system along with the animal unit depending upon the physiographic and climatic conditions. It is well proven fact that such adopted systems/practices are location specific and information on such systems is very limited. Therefore, the benefits accrued from such systems are underexploited in comparison to its potential. With depletion of agricultural lands due to shift in rainfall pattern, landslide, run off, regular leaching of nutrients, drying up of natural springs and lack of irrigation facilities have resulted into uneconomical agriculture in the mountain regions of India in general and particular in Jammu & Kashmir. Most of the villages in mountains witness migration on a large scale and lands turning up barren and un-productive. The agroforestry system can provide a viable solution for such problems.

Abstract

Paradoxically, on one hand wild relatives of crop plants got utilized as donor parents in developing hybrids and on the other hand got lost due to lack of conservation of practices, thus genetic erosion. And temperate fruit genetic resources are no exception. Over dependence of growers/orchardists on modern high yielding cultivars and all round development led to neglect of valuable genetic resources of fruit crops. Yet, there are scores of examples where wild relatives have been exploited for genetic improvement of temperate fruits and nuts and still there exists a rich plethora of genetic diversity in the Himalayas which remains untapped and underutilized. Through the process of naturalization, several  elite genotypes, often referred to as geographical/ecological races and biotypes have emerged possessing unique characteristics valuable from horticultural point of view.

Origin and history: Apple is a “King of temperate fruits” and it’s belonging to family roasaceae. Plants are deciduous in nature. The apple fruits are well known for its sweet, pomaceous fruits. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe, and were brought to North America by European colonists. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures, including Norse, Greek and European Christian traditions. Apple is the premier table fruit of the world. It is typical temperate fruit tree, about 40 percent of the world’s supply being produced in China. Major apple growing countries are U.S.A, Italy, west Garmany, France, Japan and China. In India a large number of apple variety were introduce in 1887 by Mr. Alexander Coutts in his orchard called hillock head in Mashobra near Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. It was also introduce in Bangalore and Nilgiri hills (Tamil Nnadu). But it was destroy by woolly aphid in 1897. In India apple is commercially cultivated in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Arunanchal Pradesh.

I am happy to note that the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, a premier national institute for agricultural research is celebrating the 100th year of its establishment. It is indeed quite fitting that JARI has chosen to celebrate this occasion by organizing a seminar on current scenario in temperate horticulture in Himachal Pradesh which is the second highest producer of temperate fruits in the country, I, therefore consider myself to be privileged to be a key speaker, and express my appreciation and gratitude to the organizers for giving me this honour and opportunity in this very important event.
 
The varied climatic and soil conditions in India provide enormous scope for cultivation of wide range of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate horticultural crops, The production of tropical and sub-tropical horticultural crops is confined to the plains, coastal and root hills of Indian mountain~ whereas, the temperate horticulture is monopoly of the hilly regions of the country. The production of temperate fruits in the country is spread over some fifteen states and union territories situated in the following regions.

Mans’ progress in this universe is posing a threat to the environment, we live in. If we do not treat the environment well, nature will have its own repercussions and we will inevitably have to bear the consequences. We have already begun to suffer for not taking care of mother earth in the past. The earth is warming up each year and this rise in temperature will have its effects on the earths’ inhabitants. Pollution, global warming, acid rain, deforestation, extinction of species, depletion of ozone layer, soil erosion and floods are some of the commonly heard problems of the environment and they are seem to be inter related. The objective of ornamental horticulture is the functional and aesthetic integration of people, building and site, using plants and space as its main tools. The necessity of it in landscape architecture is for positive control of the fast changing landscape for the future. Landscape architecture can help a major way to alleviate the earths’ problems. The landscape which includes urban, agricultural forests and other lands becomes a component of nature and thus ensuring that our landscapes are healthy in the first step towards this goal. The landscape gardener is a necessity because very a few people are capable of selecting the right kind of plants for their grounds; they cannot imagine a landscape picture in terms of varieties and groups, the way an expert can. Planning a piece of land with ornamental plants and features transforming it into a beautiful garden requires experience, patience and knowledge about land topography, soils and climatic factors.

The vividity of the garden depends on its design, features and the most vitally on plants, the key elements which make the garden enliven. Selection of variety of ornamentals is done in order to exhibit different form of growth, flowering time, leaf and stem texture, flower colour etc. Therefore trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, bulbous plants and ornamental grasses usually find place in the garden along with other secondary groups. Plants play a pivotal role in the protection of our environment as well as improving human life. Apart from their physical characteristics, plants aid in cleaning the environment and reducing some of the harsher effects of heat, sound, wind, air and also serves as complementor, attractor, emphasizer, diverter, indicators and provide aesthetic function by creating attractiveness for human activities.

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over India. Onions are bulbous, biennial, herbaceous and are typically grown as annual, which give off a distinctive and pungent odour when the tissues are crushed. Characteristic pungency and flavour in onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound, allyl-propyl disulphide. This organo sulphur compound has potential for anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites. Pungency varies with cultivar, growing condition, stage of maturity and storage conditions.

It is such a unique vegetable, used throughout the year in the form of salad or condiment or for cooking with other vegetables. Onions are used for flavour, aroma and taste in preparation of vegetables and used in the form of dehydrated, freezing, canning and pickling. Onion salt is prepared by dehydration and used in flavouring.

In meteorology, temperature is always referred to as the temperature of the air unless it is stated otherwise. There will always be exchange of heat in the atmosphere from a point at high temperature to a point at lower temperature. The transfer of heat through convection and radiation is always observed in the atmosphere whereas the conduction of heat takes place near the earth’s surface.

4.1 Diffusion of Heat

Heat diffuses (spreads) at different rates through different media, the rate at which diffusion of heat takes place is called thermal diffusivity. The thermal diffusinty of of some selected materials is given below:

One can see from the above table that iron has got higher diffusivity compared to wood. Suppose one end of iron rod is kept at hot temperature, the heat spreads faster in iron rod and the other end gets warmer quicker than in the case of a wooden stick which means that the transfer of heat is quicker in bodies with higher thermal diffusivity.

    Temperature variations in crop canopies can be affected by number of factors including water availability. When soil water is low, canopy temperature can rise rapidly, even upto 10°C warmer than the air temperature. Irrigation can help reduce canopy temperature, but it may not be able to keep below the threshold for heat damage. Canopy management and row orientation can affect the air temperature within a canopy. Potassium fertilization can reduce canopy temperature variation which can increase seed yield. Temperature affects many plant processes including photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and flowering. The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature, up to a certain limit. High Photosynthetic rates do not necessarily support high rates of dry matter accumulation may be due to increased respiration. If temperature profiles are measured in crop canopies, normally, it is expected that the temperature may decrease with increase in height and is minimum at the crop canopy in a well irrigated crop during day time. It is mainly due to increase in water vapor content within the crop stand due to soil evaporation. During night time, the temperature decreases with increase in height and temperature of the crop canopy will be more as no transpiration takes place during night time.
4.1. Instability
Atmospheric instability occurs when the earth’s atmosphere is unstable, which leads to highly variable weather patterns. In an unstable atmosphere, there will be rapid changes in temperature, pressure and wind with height (Fig.4.1). The instability is caused by the rising of warm air. Atmospheric instability can lead to the development of thunderstorms, tornadoes and convective clouds. The factors that determine the atmospheric instability are as follows:
4.1.1. Temperature Lapse Rate: Lapse rate is the rate at which the air temperature
changes with altitude. If the air temperature lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is unstable. The rate at which temperature of an air parcel changes with increase in height without loosing or gaining heat from the surrounding environment is called adiabatic lapse rate. In case of adiabatic process, there will be no exchange of heat between the air parcel and surrounding environment when the air parcel moves vertically upwards.
4.1.2. Humidity: The humidity in the air parcel determines whether it cools at
dry or wet adiabatic lapse rate. Therefore, greater the humidity of the air, unstable conditions will increase. When the dry air mass raises vertically upwards, the rate of decrease in temperature with increase in height is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The rate at which the moisture air mass gets cooled with increase in height is called wet adiabatic lapse rate.

The most of the animal population of the world?s lies in regions where frequent seasonal stressors adversely influence the health and productivity. The adaptation of animals to thermal stress is a physiological; biochemical process under endocrine control opens new opportunities to use of endocrine regulation as means of improving thermal tolerance. The animals raised in the semi-arid tropics, usually exhibit low productivity because of shortages of feed and harsh climatic conditions (Maurya et al., 2004). Heat stress can impact animal production and profitability in dairy cattle by lowering feed intake, milk production and reproduction. The animal production is affected by elevated ambient temperature which intern affects the availability of quality feed fodder and water. The indirect effects of climate driven changes in animal performance result mainly from alterations in the nutritional environment of the grazing livestock (Topp and Doyle , 1996). In tropical region most of the time is being spent by animals in the search of feed and fodder. The excess walking stress in the livestock reduces their body condition score and oftenly animal exposed to negative energy balance (Maurya et al., 2010). Under present climate conditions, the lack of ability of animals to dissipate the environmental heat determines that, in many areas in the world, animals suffer heat stress during, at least, part of the year. Heat stress has a variety of detrimental effects on livestock (Fuquay, 1981), with significant effects on milk production and reproduction in dairy cows (Johnson, 1987). The severity of stress and milk production by a cow depends on THI, length of heat stress period, air flow, size of cow, dry matter intake, water availability and coat colour.

At the moment India is world leader in milk production, closely followed by the USA, with a production volume of 84 million tons. More than half of the milk is produced by buffaloes. India has about three times as many ?dairy? animals as the USA, the vast majority (over 80 percent) being kept in herds of 2 to 8 animals. Annual milk yield per dairy animal is about one tenth of that achieved in the USA and about one fifth of the yield of a New Zealand dairy cow. As per India?s National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), the country produced 121 mt of milk in 2010-11 fiscal, which comprised about 17% of global production.

Livestock are homeotherms and has to maintain their body temperature at a fairly constant level through various means of heat gain and heat loss mechanisms. In order to survive in an environment for longer period the energy gain must equal to energy loss. The remarkable interaction has occurred between climate, soil, plants and animals during course of evolution. The maintenance of high level of production in hot regions is difficult as the large amount of heat has to be dissipated besides heat imposed by the environment. Similarly in cold regions, the animal has to produce extra heat to meet the thermoregulatory demand. Considerable variations occur between different species, and between different individual within a species in their capacity to adjust to environmental stress. The farm animals prefer an internal body temperature range from 36-40°C. Normal body temperature of livestock species are:

Cattle: 101-102^oF, Buffalo: 100.5-102°F, Sheep: 102-103°F and Goat: 102.5-103^oF

All the metabolic reactions are under control of various enzymes. The optimum ranges of temperature for activities of these enzymes incidentally fall in the range of normal body temperature. The body keeps its core temperature constant at about 37°C by physiological adjustments controlled by the hypothalamus. A group of neurons, located in anterior hypothalamus, are sensitive to change in skin as well as blood temperature. This hypothalamic centre acts as a “thermostat”. When core body temperature deviated from the thermostat temperature, numerous thermoregulatory mechanisms are initiated to bring back the core body temperature normal. However, in certain instance eg. fever the set point temperature of thermoregulatory control centre is raised. The hypothalamic thermostat works in conjunction with other hypothalamic, autonomic and higher nervous thermoregulatory centers to keep the core temperature constant. Some of these thermoregulatory responses are involuntary, mediated by the autonomic nervous system, some are neurohormonal and others are semi-voluntary or voluntary behavioral responses.

Introduction
Temperature regulation is a critical physiological process that allows animals and birds to maintain homeostasis in varying environmental conditions. Thermoregulation involves a complex interplay of behavioral, physiological, and biochemical mechanisms that ensure the body temperature of these animals remains within a narrow, optimal range. This process is vital for maintaining metabolic functions, health, and productivity, particularly in agricultural settings where animals are often exposed to temperature extremes.In farm animals such as cattle, sheep, and pigs, thermoregulation is primarily managed through a combination of heat production, heat dissipation, and behavioral adaptations. Endothermic animals generate heat internally through metabolic processes, particularly in the muscles and liver. This heat is distributed throughout the body via the circulatory system. When ambient temperatures rise, farm animals activate various cooling mechanisms to prevent hyperthermia. These mechanisms include increased respiratory rates (panting), sweating (in species like cattle and horses), and vasodilation, where blood vessels near the skin surface expand to dissipate heat. Conversely, in cold environments, animals reduce heat loss by vasoconstriction, piloerection (raising of hair or fur), and seeking shelter or huddling together. Behavioral adaptations, such as seeking shade or water, also play a crucial role in temperature regulation.In poultry, thermoregulation is equally important but is managed differently due to their unique physiology. Birds lack sweat glands and have a higher metabolic rate compared to mammals, which means they rely more heavily on respiratory evaporative cooling and behavioral adaptations. Poultry regulate their body temperature by panting, which increases evaporative heat loss from the respiratory tract. Additionally, birds adjust their posture, such as spreading their wings or ruffling feathers, to enhance heat dissipation. During cold stress, poultry increase their metabolic rate, fluff their feathers to trap air for insulation, and reduce blood flow to peripheral areas to conserve heat. The thermal comfort zone, or thermoneutral zone, is narrower in poultry compared to larger mammals, making them more susceptible to temperature extremes.The ability of farm animals and poultry to regulate their body temperature is influenced by several factors, including age, breed, body condition, and acclimatization to the environment. Younger animals and certain breeds are more vulnerable to temperature stress due to their less developed thermoregulatory mechanisms or specific genetic traits. For instance, breeds with higher muscle mass or thicker coats may be more prone to heat stress, while those with lower body fat reserves may struggle in cold conditions. Acclimatization, or the gradual adaptation to a new thermal environment, plays a key role in enhancing the thermoregulatory capacity of these animals.

Temperature is a fundamental meteorological element that exerts a pervasive influence on all aspects of life, particularly within the aquatic environments you are dedicated to understanding. For fisheries and aquaculture students, comprehending the dynamics of temperature in both the atmosphere and the water is absolutely crucial. In meteorology , temperature means the temperature of air unless it is mentioned otherwise. Think about the last time you felt the coolness of a mountain stream or the warmth of a shallow pond under the summer sun. These temperature differences are not just sensory experiences; they are critical environmental cues and constraints for fish and other aquatic organisms. Temperature directly affects their metabolic rates, oxygen requirements, growth, reproduction, and even their geographical distribution.
This chapter will delve into the concept of temperature from a meteorological perspective, bridging the gap between atmospheric conditions and their direct impact on the thermal regimes of aquatic habitats. We will explore:
• What temperature is and how it is measured in the context of both air and water.
• The primary drivers of temperature variations, including solar radiation (insolation), the Earth’s surface properties, and the movement of air and water masses.
• Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles and how these fluctuations influence aquatic environments.
• The crucial relationship between air temperature and water temperature, examining how heat is exchanged between the atmosphere and water bodies.
• The concept of thermal stratification in lakes and oceans, a phenomenon largely driven by temperature differences and with significant implications for water quality and habitat suitability

Gardens around the religious places / structures such as temple, mosque, shrine etc. have been developed since very old times. In fact gardening practice actually started with the temple gardens for growing flowers for worship purpose. The main purpose of these gardens is to create scenic beauty and a pleasant atmosphere where one can relax, mediate and spent some time in tranquility besides making prayer and worship.

Design

The garden around such structures depends on its type, requirement and number of visitors of that place. In case, large number of visitors visiting the place daily, garden areas need to be fenced with grill or hedge so that no damage is done to the garden, particularly walking through lawn, flower beds, plucking of flowers, leaves etc. Architectural beauty and position of the structure (temple, mosque, shrine), availability of space (area and allocation - front, side, back) should be taken into account while preparing design. In case of big areas with boundary, trees may be planted along the boundary wall. Remaining area is to be divided into blocks for accommodating other features like shrubbery border, flower beds, water bodies, fountain etc. as per availability of space and suitability. Gradation for making change of elevation by way of earth work or construction of retaining walls must be well planned and completed at the initial stage of garden construction. Other facilities for the public like seats, shelters, public conveniences are also to be taken into account.

Abstract

The present study has revealed that the NE-SW and WNW-ESE trending sinistral faults are very active along the Tamil Nadu coast and the same have caused considerable slope modifications along the Coleroon and Karungalar rivers which are well-manifested in the land, water and mudflat distribution pattern. Similarly, the progradation of the land in Vedaranniam nose is due to the rise of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area and the time transgressive modifications of the Vedaranniam backwater indicates the opening up of the N-S trending Pleistocene-Holocene faults.

Abstract

With its core intention to raise economic status of farmers, Govt of India vows for transformation in agriculture and sets goal to double farmers’ income by 2022. Nonetheless, net income increase at the farm is amalgamation of technologies, tactics and government policies. Farmers realized 3-4 times increment in their profit during era of green revolution when high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers were introduced in early seventies. Subsequently income enhancement of the farmers continued through raising of farm productivity per unit area and entrepreneurship. Thus Indian agriculture experienced transformation through chemical fertilizers, high yielding varieties, synthetic pesticides, off-season cultivation, high yielding breeds, export orientation and entrepreneurship development in food processing, mushroom production, dairying and poultry. With the result, India emerged as top producer of milk, millets, pomegranate, banana, mango, jute, pulses, okra, safflower etc and second top producer of wheat, rice, tea, tomato, potato, onion etc and third in egg production and fourth in poultry meat. Consequence was evolution of commercial farming from subsistence farming. In era of globalization and increased purchase power of consumers, profitability at the farm has become subject of competitiveness, quality and consumer preference. Price shoot-up and market crashing of commodities in the country has made agriculture, a profession of risk, uncertainties and unpredictability. It has thus, lost creditability of socioeconomic security. To make it remunerative and attractive, a combo plan of transformational technologies that has the competence to break production and productivity barriers and can also address market needs as well as consumer preferences is highly wanted. There is urgent need to infuse characteristic of market orientation in agriculture through marketing information system and promoting demand driven production system with focus on zonalization of crops taking advantage of niche area or geographical indications. Commodity supply must remain high through promotion of climate resilient varieties or breeds, mechanization, adoption of hi-tech crop and livestock management practices. All this has to be made sustainable by way of produce and product diversification through integrated farming system, organic agriculture and secondary agriculture. Considering future vision, research initiatives must continue on noble areas like vertical farming and in vitro farming. Information and communication technologies will open avenue for assured marketing by linking production to consumption system via proper marketing and distribution leading to increased farm profitability. This as a whole will make transformation in agriculture a reality.

Abstract

Indian agriculture witnessed a transformation in early seventies with green revolution in cereals. The Green Revolution resulted in a record grain output of 131 million tons in 1978-79. Yield per unit of farmland improved by more than 30 per cent between 1947 and 1979. This was because of introduction of high yielding varieties and use of agro-chemicals, particularly synthetic fertilizers. Farmers realized 3-4 times increment in their profit when high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers were used in integration. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of India’s population. Gross Value Added by agriculture, forestry and fishing is estimated at Rs 17.67 trillion (US$ 274.23 billion) in FY18. The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, increasing its contribution to world food trade every year due to its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the food processing industry. Food & Grocery retail market in India was worth US$ 380 billion in 2017, is the world’s sixth largest, with retail contributing 70 per cent of the sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of the country’s total food market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. It contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in Manufacturing and Agriculture respectively, 13 per cent of India’s exports and six per cent of total industrial investment. During 2017-18, food grain production is estimated at 279.51 million tons, with rice and wheat production in the country at 111.52 MT and 98.61 MT, respectively in the same period. Milk production stands at 165.4 million tons during FY17, while meat production is 7.4 million tons. India is the second largest fruit producer in the world. Production of horticulture crops is estimated at record 307.16 million tons (mt) in 2017-18 as per second advance estimates. Total agricultural exports from India grew at a CAGR of 16.45 per cent over FY10-18 to reach US$ 38.21 billion in FY18. In April-May 2018 agriculture exports were US$ 6.43 billion. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products. Spice exports from India reached US$ 3.1 billion in 2017-18. Tea exports from India reached a 36 year high of 240.68 million kgs in CY 2017 while coffee exports reached record 395,000 tons in 2017-18.

Tending is the term applied to pre-harvest silvicultural treatment of forest tree crops at any stage after initial planting or seeding. In other words, tending is the intermediate treatments that forest vegetation receives after establishment of regeneration and prior to final harvest of the stand. These tending operations can occur throughout the life of the forest stand, but do not include efforts directed at establishing regeneration. Tending operations play a fundamental role in the improvement of quality and stability of forest stands. Tending the trees after planting creates favourable conditions for both the plants’ survival and to stimulate a healthy, vigorous growth. Tending operations keep the plants from being suppressed by natural vegetation. It essentially covers operation on the crop itself and competing vegetation. Weeding, cleaning and thinning are important tending operations. Even improvement felling comes under tending operations but regeneration felling is not a tending operation. The major objectives of tending are to maintain sanitation, provide sufficient growing space, and more light, water, nutrients, etc. to the tree crops.

1.0. Objectives

• To impart knowledge of tense and verb
• To study forms of verbs and its use in twelve verb tenses
• To enable students to develop sentences in all tenses as required
• To study the pattern/formula of making sentences effectively

2.0. What is Tense

A tense can be defined as the form of a verb that indicates the time and the state of an action or event or Tense is the study of forms of verbs.

Teratology : is the study of abnormal development. If the malformation involves an organ or only a portion of the body, it is called an anomaly. If it is so extensive great deformity of the individual occurs when the animal is designated a monster.

etiological basis of teratology : All teratogenic agents directly or indirectly ar;ect the process of cell differentiation. These agents are divided into two broad categories i.e genetic or Intrinsic factors and environmental or extrinsic factors.

Genetic or Intrinsic factors : There are several types of genetic factors that result in abnormal development.

Introduction
Teratology is the branch of veterinary embryology that studies congenital malformations, often referred to as birth defects, which arise during embryonic or fetal development. Understanding teratology is crucial for veterinarians and researchers because these defects can lead to substantial animal morbidity, mortality, and economic losses in the agricultural and livestock industries. In addition, teratological research can offer insights into human congenital disorders, given the similarities between mammalian developmental processes.
Definition and Scope of Teratology
The term “teratology” derives from the Greek word teras, meaning “monster” or “marvel,” reflecting the historical observation of grossly abnormal fetuses or neonates. Teratology focuses on the etiology (causes), pathogenesis (development), and morphological consequences of developmental disorders. These abnormalities can manifest as structural, functional, or biochemical anomalies, and they can affect a wide range of systems, including the cardiovascular, skeletal, nervous, and reproductive systems. In veterinary medicine, the study of teratogens—agents that cause developmental malformations—is critical. Teratogens include drugs, environmental chemicals, infections, radiation, and nutritional deficiencies, among others. These agents can disrupt normal embryonic or fetal development, leading to a variety of abnormalities.
Causes of Teratogenesis
Teratogenic agents can be broadly classified into several categories:
1. Genetic Factors
Genetic mutations, chromosomal abnormalities, and hereditary disorders can predispose animals to developmental defects. Genetic teratogenesis can occur due to spontaneous mutations in the DNA sequence or inheritance of defective genes from one or both parents. Chromosomal anomalies, such as duplications, deletions, or translocations of

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a technology that eliminates or reduces the germination capacity of the following seed germination.
2. _____ technology offers a means of preventing the unwanted flow of genes from genetically modified organisms.
3. Terminator technology is technically known as _____.
4. _____ technology is used to protect the transgenes from being pirated by researches elsewhere.
5. _____ is a inducer used to initiate the terminator gene interaction.

Terminology of experiments
    
Evaluation trials are important in plant breeding where the selected lines are compared with standard varieties. In most cases, it will be necessary to make comparable yield trials under field conditions. In such case, the field becomes the experimental unit. In these cases, the field becomes the experimental unit. It requires the use of small plots and adequately replicated.

Germplasm
 
Germplasm of crop may be defined as sum total of hereditary materials, i.e. all alleles of various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives. The germplasm can be utilized in a breeding programme in following ways:
•    Direct release as a variety
•    It may be subjected to selection for developing a variety
•    It may be used as one of parents in hybridization programmes

Agroecology : Agroecology can be defined broadly or narrowly. “Loosely defined, agroecology often incorporates ideas about a more environmentally and socially sensitive approach to agriculture, one that focuses not only on production, but also on the ecological sustainability of the productive system.

or

The science of applying ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable agroecosystems.

Alternative Farming/Alternative Agriculture : These are essentially synonymous terms encompassing a vast array of practices and enterprises, all of which are considered different from prevailing or conventional agricultural activities. “They include:

Experimental unit : An experimental unit is the material to which is applied the treatment and on which the variable under study is measured. In an agricultural field experiment, the plot of land, not the individual plant, will be the experimental unit; in a feeding experiment of cows,the whole cow is the experimental unit; in human experiments in which the treatment affects the individual, the individual will be the experimental unit.

Treatment : The different procedures under comparison in an experiment are the different treatments, i.e in an agricultural experiment, the different varieties of a crop or the different manures will be the treatments. In a dietary or medical experiment, the different diets or medicines, etc. are the treatments.

1. Pathogen: An entity, usually a microorganism, that can cause disease in a plant.

2. Disease: It is a harmful alteration of the normal physiological and biochemical development of a plant (National Academy of Science, 1976).

3. Symptom: The external or internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a result of a disease.

4. Sign: The pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant.

5. Syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease.

6. Inoculum: The part of the pathogen which on contact with a susceptible host plant causes infection.

7. Infection: The establishment of a parasitic relationship between a pathogen and its host plant.

8. Incubation Period: The time between infection and the appearance of the first symptoms.

9. Lesion: A localized area of diseased tissue.

10. Blight: The rapid and extensive death of plant tissue.

There is a very impressive and extensive number of terms and definitions used in plant pathology, many of which you will not come in contact with. With interest, study and practice, terms and names will come to light and become familiar to you. When you start out, don’t worry too much about the terms; but also don’t be afraid of them. The more exposure you have to the subject the more comfortable you will be when dealing with your peers and the public. With these you are going to be exposed to some terms and definitions that will be a good ice breaker and prepares you for the information to follow

Till date, there is no complete agreement on the terms used in cropping system. An attempt was made to standardize the terms and their usage at the symposium on Multiple Cropping held by the American Society of Agronomy, in Knoxville, Tennessee, during August, 1975. Some definitions published in the proceeding (Andrews and Kassam, 1976) which forms the basis for the improvement and additions of definitions made subsequently (Francis, 1989). The terms commonly used in cropping system and their definitions are given in the following paragraphs.

The science that includes classification, nomenclature and identification of plants is called plant taxonomy. Taxa (Sing. Taxon):A general term for taxonomic classification, irrespective of rank.
18.1 Plant Types (habit and habitat)
1. Annual: A plant that completes its entire life cycle, from seed to reproduction to death, in one single year.
2. Biennial: A plant that completes its entire life cycle in two years.
3. Perennial: A plant that grows and reproduces for many years.
4. Monocarpic: plants that flower and set seeds once during its lifetime. They flower only after attaining maturity. They flower gregariously in a single season e.g. Bamboo and Kurinjis.
5. Polycarpic: Plants that flower and set seeds many times during its lifetime.
6. Aquatic: Organisms growing in water.
7. Shrub: A much branched, small, woody perennial plant with several branches from ground level upwards.
8. Tree: A tall, woody, perennial plant with a single trunk which usually bears branches.

Primary metabolism in a plant comprises all metabolic pathways that are essential to the plant’s survival. Primary metabolites, namely, carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are compounds that are directly involved in the growth and development of a plant whereas the secondary metabolites are compounds produced in other metabolic pathways that, although important, are not essential to the functioning of the plant. However, secondary plant metabolites are useful in the long term, often for defense purposes, and give plants characteristics such as color.
 
Secondary plant metabolites are used in signalling and regulation of primary metabolic pathways. Plant hormones, which are secondary metabolites, are often used to regulate the metabolic activity within cells. Secondary plant metabolites help the plant maintain an intricate balance with the environment, often adapting to match the environmental needs. Plant metabolites that color the plant are a good example of this, as the coloring of a plant can attract pollinators and also defend against attack by animals. Terpenes, alkaloids, sterols, pigments, growth regulators, and phenolics are the important secondary plant metabolites.

Introduction

Antibiotics are the substances produced by one microorganism and are required to inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Antibiotics are used to combat infectious diseases. The antibiotic sensitivity is very significant due to development of resistance among various microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Swab
2. Nutrient agar
3. Petri plates
4. Bacterial cultures
5. Forceps
6. Antibiotic discs
7. BOD Incubator

Procedure

1. Prepare the bacterial lawn on Nutrient agar plate.

Plants are exposed to various stresses such as temperature, water, oxygen, salts, nutrition etc, during its growth under dry land condition. Various simple tests have been developed by plant scientist for evaluation of different cultivars against these stresses. These tests are simple to perform in the laboratory with fewer instruments that are commonly available in most of the laboratories in developing countries. These tests have significance in plant water relations and cultivars reliably screened for various stresses. The crops upon which these tests have been performed here are used by the proponents of the tests. These tests are not advised to be performed on crops other than those used by the authors. It probably needs standardization for other crops. The following test has been explained for the benefit of the readers.