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This cosmopolitan family of about 375 genera and over 4,060 species, occur chiefly in north temperate regions, especially in the Mediterranean region. About 50 genera and over 140 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their reported number of species from the world in parenthesis, include Draba (300), Cardamine (160), Lepidium (150), Alyssum (150), Arabis (120), Erysimum (100), Sisymbrium (90), Heliophila (75), Rorippa (70), Iberis (30) and Raphanus (8). Majority of Crucifers produce an abundance of vitamin C. Characteristic pungent odour of its members is because of sulphur compounds.
Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Vegetables: Several common vegetables of daily use belong to this family. Some of them are radish (Raphanus sativus), cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis), Brussel’s sprout (B. oleracea var. gemmifera), sengri (B. sativus var. caudatus), etc.
• Oils: Fatty oil, used for cooking, pickles, bruning, massaging, etc. is obtained from the seeds of several species of this family. Mustard oil is obtained from several species of Brassica such as B. campestris var. sarson and B. campestris var. toria (Indian rape). Oil is also obtained from the seeds of B. juncea var. cuneifolia (Rai), B. alba (white mustard). The oil cake left after the extraction of oil, is a good cattle feed.

A family of over 322 genera and 8,900 species, Euphorbiaceae is closely related to Sterculiaceae of the Malvales through the various degrees of the union of stamens and the presence of the pistillode and staminode in the male and female flowers, respectively. They are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Euphorbia (2000), Croton (700), Phyllanthus (500), Acalypha (430), Japtropha (175), Manihot (170).
Selected Indian Genera
Acalypha, Codiaeum, Euphorbia, Hevea, Jatropha, Mallotus, Manihot, Phyllanthus, Poinsettia, Putranjiva, Ricinus.
Economic Importance
1. Fruits of Emblica officinalis are rich in vitamins, medicinal and also used for tanning.
2. Garden croton (Codiaeum variegatum) with variegated leaves, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Fig. 32.1, Fig. 32.3) with beautiful red bracts, Acalypha sanderiana, A. tricolor and Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Jew’s slipper), Putranjiva roxburghii (Child life tree) are used as ornamental purpose; Jatropha gossypifolia is commonly grown as hedge; Manihot esculenta (tapioca) yield valuable starchy food; Manihot utillissima (bitter cassava); Manihot alpe (sweet cassava); Manihot glaziovii yields ceara rubber; Hevea brasiliensis yields para rubber; fruits of Mallotus philippinensis yields a crimson powder used for dyeing silk, etc.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are
cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions.
Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly
from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately
reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280),
Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from
Pelargonium odoratissinum.
Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden
plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental
plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a
potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely
used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has
anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises
more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in
southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been
reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape
Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique).
Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and
pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels,
Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/
Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available
on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is
cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning
brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular
and devoid of spur like appendages.

Named after a French botanist Pierre Magnol, Magnoliaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 300 species, mainly distributed in the warm temperature regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The species are common in eastern Asia and eastern North America, and found also in Brazil, West Indies, and Malaysia.
Description of family
1) General habit: Deciduous or evergreen, often aromatic shrubs or trees; Liriodendron tulipifera reaches 20 to 65 m in height; Michelia and Magnolia are medium sized trees or shrubs; Schizandra is a climber.
2) Leaves: Alternate, large, simple, entire, petiolate, pinnately-veined; stipulate, stipules large, protect young buds and leave a circular scar on falling; stipules absent in Wintereae; oil glands present.
3) Inflorescence: Flowers usually solitary, either axillary or terminal; flowers crowded near the tips of the branches in Illicium.
4) Flowers: Large, showy, bracteate (Magnolia, Michelia) or ebracteate, pedicellate, bisexual but rarely unisexual flowers while other have bisexual flowers.

A family of about 150 genera and 3,800-5650 species, distributed mainly in sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. Family is particularly abundant in Australia where some Eucalyptus trees are world’s tallest angiosperms. Myrtaceae is represented in India by about 15 genera and over 170 species. Beautiful pinkish flowers of Myrtus communis are considered highly sacred among Greeks, Egyptians, Jews and Persians, and used in religious rites and ceremonies. Some of the larger genera of Myrtaceae along with their number of reported species include Eugenia (1000), Eucalyptus (500), Syzygium (500), Myrcia (500), Psidium (140), Myrtus (100) and Melaleuca (100).
Eucalyptus spp. produce important components of medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Economic parts are leaves and terminal buds-along with trunk. Lemon scented/ Tasmanian (E. globulus) is high in cineol content. Deodorant is manufactured besides utilization of oil for asthma, bronchitis, perfumery, etc. Phellandrene rich type, E. citridora (most widely grown in hill stations of southern parts of India). The source of citronellal and menthol from leaves and terminal buds is famous for perfumery industries.

Primrose family is represented by about 58 genera and 2,600 species which are cosmopolitan but chiefly distributed in northern hemisphere. Some of the
larger genera with their approximately reported species include Primula (500), Lysimachia (200), Dodecatheon (50), Dionysia (41), Anagallis (30), Cyclamen (15), Salomus and Soldanella (11).
Selected Indian Genera
Primula, Anagallis, Androsace, Cyclamen, Primula.
Economic Importance
The family is of no specific economic importance except that of some well known decorative plants it contains. Some species of Primula may cause contact dermatitis. Anagallis arvensis is used for curing snakebite, leprosy, gout and even hydrophobia. Cyclamen purpurascence contains glucoside cyclamen which is poisonous. Some of the commonly cultivated ornamental plants of Primulaceae are the species of Primula (primrose), Androsace (rock jasmine), Cyclamen (Fig. 46.1), Dodecatheon (shooting star), Douglasia, Lysimachia (Loosestrile) and Omphalogramma.

A family of about 611 genera and 13,150 species, Rubiaceae are chiefly distributed in tropics, but some are distributed in temperate or even arctic regions. About 75 genera and 275 species have been reported from India, chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical eastern Himalayas. Some of the largely represented genera with their approximately reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) include Psychotria (700), Galium (400), Ixora (400), Gardenia (250), Mussaenda (200), Asperula (200), Cephaelis (180), Rondeletia (120), Coprosoma (90), Guettarda (80), Rubia (60), Coffea (40) and Cinchona (40). Two most important plants of the family are Coffea arabica (coffee-yielding plant) and species of Cinchona (quinine-yielding plant).
Economic Importance of Selected Genera and Species
Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and roadsides include Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Galium verum (Ladies Bedstraw), Gardenia jasminoides (Jasmine), Hamelia patens, Hamiltonia suaveolens (Padera), Ixora arborea, I. coccinia, Morinda tinctoria, M. frondosa, M. luteola, Pentas lanceolatea and Rondeletia.

Represented by about 65 genera and 1,730 species, Scrophulariaceae are cosmopolitan in their distribution. About 60 genera and 360 species have been reported from India, chiefly from the Himalayas. Some of the genera along with their approximately reported species from world over are Pedicularis (500), Calceolaria (300-400), Scrophularia (300), Verbascum (300), Veronica (300), Penstemon (280, Linaria (150), Castilleja (150), Selago (150), Sutera (130), Mimulus (100), Antirrhinum (40) and Digitalis (20). The common names of the family (snapdragons, foxglove or figwort family) are because of its genera Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Digitalis (foxglove) and Scrophularia (figwort).
Selected Indian Genera
Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Linaria, Lindenbergia, Mazus, Verbascum, Veronica.
Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants: Include Angelonia angustifolia, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Calceolaria scabiosaefolia (slipperwort), Castilleja (Indian paintbrush), Chelone glabra (turtlehead), Collinsia grandiflora, Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), Linaria vulgaris (toadflax), Mimulus luteus (monkey flower), Nemesia versicolor (Nemesia), Paulownia tomentosa, Pedicularis canadensis (housewort), Russelia juncea (coral blow), Torenia asiatica and Veronica bungifolia (speedwell).

A family of 56 genera and over 1,300 species, Zingiberaceae are distributed in tropical regions, chiefly in Indomalaysia. About 17 genera and over 115 species have been reported from India, chiefly in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Some largely represented genera along with number of their world over reported species are Alpinia (250), Amomum (150), Costus (150), Zingiber (90), Kaempferia (70), Curcuma (60), Hedychium (50), Globba (50) and Elettaria (7).
Selected Indian Genera
Alpinia, Amomum, Costus, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium, Zingiber.
Economic Importance
1. Spices and condiments: Seeds of Amomum cardamom (Badi elayachi) and Elettaria cardamomum (true cardamom), roots of Alpinia officinarum (gangal root) and rhizomes of A. gangala (Siamese ginger), Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Zingiber officinalis (ginger) are used as spices, condiments and flavouring agents. Ginger oil, obtained from rhizomes of Z. officinalis, is used in perfumery and for medicinal purposes. Turmeric is also used for medicinal purposes.

The estimation of moisture in foods is one of the most important and most widely used measurements in the processing and testing of food products. It is used to determine the nutritive value of food, to express results of analytical determinations on a uniform basis, and to meet compositional standards or food laws. The level of moisture in different fruits and vegetables varies widely. Most fresh fruits contain more than 85-90% moisture in edible portions. Broad range of moisture content in common fruit, vegetables and their products as general guideline are given in Table 3.1.
Estimation of Moisture content in food products: Moisture content in foods can be estimated by following methods.
i. By Drying in an oven
ii. By distillation with an immiscible solvent
iii. By Chemical and physical methods (Infra-red heating method)

Most of the fruit, vegetables, and their products contain acid or a mixture of acids. These acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste. The level of acidity is estimated to measure the degree of tartness/sourness in the product.
Principle
Acidity in the sample is measured by titrating a known volume of sample against a standard alkali solution of known concentration using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The appearance of a light pink color indicates the endpoint of titration. However, for highly colored products like tomato sauce/ketchup, jamun juice, Rhododendron juice, mixed fruit jam, etc., accurate determination of endpoint may be difficult by using an indicator. Therefore, for such samples, acidity is measured by using electrometric methods i.e. titration to a predetermined pH value, or the sample is further diluted with distilled water to mask the interfering color. The level of titratable acidity is expressed in terms of the predominant acid. Different fruits, vegetables, and their products have different predominant acids. A list of some products having predominant acid is shown as under:

pH is important as a measure of active acidity which influences the flavour and palatability of the product and affects the processing requirements. This is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of the solution. It is also taken as the measure of the sourness or tartness of the given sample. The pH of a solution varies from 0 to 14. Solutions having a value of pH ranging from 0 to 7 on the pH scale are termed as acidic and the value of pH ranging from 7 to 14 on the pH scale are known as basic solutions. While, solutions with a pH value equal to 7 on the pH scale are known as neutral solutions. Samples with a pH value equal to 0 are known to be strongly acidic. Further, the acidity decreases as the value of pH increases from 0 to 7 whereas, solutions with the value of pH equal to 14 are termed as strongly basic solutions.
Most fruits have a pH value ranging between 3-4, with citrus fruits exhibiting a pH of up to 2.0. Vegetables may exhibit a pH of up to 6.0, as such they are classified as non-acid or low-acid foods. Based on pH value, most fruits, vegetables, and their products are classified into four arbitrary groups such as low acid (5.3 and higher); medium acid (5.3-4.5), acidic (4.5-3.7), and high acid (3.7 and lower). pH value of some fruits, vegetables, and their products is given as under:

Fruit, vegetables and their products are important sources of ascorbic acid. Aonla, guava and citrus fruits are good sources of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid).Ascorbic acid is sensitive to heat, light and oxygen but is stable in acidic
 media. The methods for estimation of Ascorbic acid are based on the reduction of 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye by ascorbic acid and those based on the reaction of dehydroascorbic acid with 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine. However,the 2,6 -dichlorophenol - indophenol dye reduction method is most commonly used in the estimation of ascorbic acid in fresh fruit and vegetables and their processed products.
2,6 dichlorophenol - indophenol visual titration method
The dye, which is blue in an alkaline solution and red in an acid solution, isreduced by ascorbic acid to a colorless form. The reduction is quantitative and specific for ascorbic acid in solutions in the pH range of 1-3.5.
Reagents
i. 3% Metaphosphoric acid (HPO3) solution:Dissolve 3g sticks/ pelletsofMetaphosphoric acidin a volumetric flask and make volume to 1oo ml with glassdistilled water.

Sodium benzoate is added to many fruit products to act as a preservative for the extension of the shelf life. Food Safety and Standards Regulations have specified the maximum level of sodium benzoate (Benzoic acid) in different products like sauce, ketchup, pickles, squash, etc. Therefore, the estimation of sodium benzoate (benzoic acid) in such products is considered a routine quality control procedure.
Principle
Benzoic acid which is sparingly soluble in water is converted into watersoluble sodium benzoate by the addition of NaOH in a sample containing sodium chloride solution. When the Sodium Benzoate solution is acidified with excess HCl, water-in-soluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard NaOH.

Sulphur dioxide is used as a preservative in many fruit and vegetable products. It can be added either in the form of potassium metabisulphite or by exposingthe product to sulphur fumigation by burning sulphur powder. Food safety and standards regulations have specified the maximum limit of sulphur dioxide in the finished products. Products having sulphur dioxide content exceeding the limit are considered not conforming to Indian Food Laws. Therefore, the estimation of sulphur dioxide in food products is considered an important attribute for quality evaluation.
Principle
Sulphur dioxide added to the food products may exist as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphite ions, as free sulphite ions and/or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2.
Free SO2 is measured by direct titration with iodine. In the estimation of total SO2, the combined SO2 is liberated by treatment with excess alkali at room temperature, followed by subsequent acidification to prevent recombination and titration with iodine. The method used is known as the Modified Ripper Titration Method.

The term canning refers to a process that involves heating foodstuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health; and microorganisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage.
Principle of canning: Destruction of micro-organisms causing spoilage, within the sealed containers using heat.
Canning Process
Preparation of food commodities for canning consists of selection of commodities, washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, blanching, filling into cans, filling hot syrup or brine, exhausting, double seaming, Sterilization/ processing, cooling, storage, etc.
Raw material selection
Fruits should be ripe but firm, evenly matured, and free from blemishes, insect damage, and malformation. Apple, pear, peach, and banana harvested at the mature stage are preferred for canning.

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, not less than 40% total soluble solids (TSS), about 1-1.5% acid and not exceeding 350ppm sulphur dioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Squash is diluted by adding cold/chilled water before serving (1:3).
Mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, guava, pineapple, jamun, plum, apricot, rhododendron petals etc., are used for making squash. Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is generally used as a preservative, whereas sodium benzoate is used as a preservative in squash made from coloured fruits like plum, jamun, phalsa and rhododendron petals.
Recipe: A generalized recipe for the preparation of squashes from different
fruits as a general guideline is as under:

Ready -to -Serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage that contains at least 10% fruit juice/pulp and 10o Brix total soluble solids with acidity ranging between 0.3-0.5%. The product is not diluted before serving like squash; hence it is called a ready-to-serve beverage. The product can be preserved by using 70 ppm SO2  or 120 ppm benzoic acid. Mango, orange, guava, lemon, lime, litchi, kiwi fruit, apricot, pineapple, etc., fruits are used for making RTS beverages. For lime & lemon drinks minimum level of juice content is 5% as per Indian Food Laws.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of ready-to-serve drinks:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.
ii. Some fruits like mango, kiwi, pineapple, and litchi are peeled before heating. Apricots, guava, plums etc are not peeled. Place fruit after peeling in a pan/pressure cooker and boil till softening

Fruit nectar is a type of fruit beverage that contains not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp, not less than 15o B total soluble solids and acidity ranging between
0.3-0.5 % but not exceeding 1.5%/. For orange and pineapple nectar, the fruit juice shall not be less than 40%. The product is preserved by heat processing/ thermal processing, as such no chemical preservative is permitted in nectars. Unlike squashes, fruit nectar is served chilled as such without any dilution.
Mango, guava, pineapple, papaya, jamun etc., are the most suitable fruits for making nectar.
Recipe: As a general guideline, the following recipe is used for the preparation of fruit nectar:
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit and extract pulp as discussed under fruit pulp making but do not add any chemical preservative.

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For the preparation of jam, not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps is called mixed fruit jam. Apple jam, apricot jam, mango jam, guava jam, pineapple jam, and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. According to Food Safety & Standards Regulations,2011 the minimum TSS in the Jam shall not be less than 65%(w/w). Earlier the minimum limit was 68% (w/w)
Raw material, ingredients and utensils required
1. Fruits like mangoes, guava, apples, apricots, plum, peaches and kiwi etc singly or in combination
2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle, utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles (Jars), LPG or Diesel Bhatti, bucket/tub for washing, Stainless steel sieve, Steam Jacketted Kettle, Boiler (for the commercial unit) etc. 

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without the addition of water, straining the extract, and mixing the clear extract with sugar followed by cooking the mixture to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff, and have an original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape when removed from the mould. As per FSSAI specification, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product (jelly and marmalade) shall not be less than 45 and 65 per cent (w/w) respectively. Jelly is made from fruit extract while jam is made from fruit pulp, therefore, jelly in contrast to jam is considered to be transparent and clear in appearance. Guava jelly is the most common commercial product.
Jellies: In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent which help in making the gel. Since, pectin is present in the cell walls of fruits as such fruit peel, whole or fruit slices along with a small quantity of water are gently boiled to extract the maximum proportion of pectin solution in the water extract. This water extract is used for the preparation of jelly.

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades should be kept slightly higher  than that for jellies. Citrus marmalades are of two types: i) Sweet marmalade and ii) Bitter marmalade.
Procedure
Preparation of fruit extract: After washing the fruit, remove the outer yellow flavedo portion of the peel of citrus fruits thinly which contains colouring matter and volatile oils, whereas the inner white albedo portion contains pectin. The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife, or on a shredding machine, and the shreds are boiled and drained to remove the bitterness. The sliced or crushed fruit is boiled gently by simmering with 2 or 3 times its weight of water to extract the pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoonful of the clear extract is taken from the pan and tested with alcohol for its pectin content. The process usually takes 30 to 45 minutes.

Fruit chutney is a product made in the same way as jam except that spices, salt, and acid (vinegar) in addition are added. The total soluble solids in chutney are] also less than that of jam. The product shall be of good quality with a palatable and appetizing taste. As per Food Safety and Standards Regulations, chutney\ shall contain a minimum of 40% fruit (w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50%. The acidity in the final product shall not be more than 2% with ash content not exceeding 5%. However, for vegetablebased chutney as well as hot & sour (spicy) chutney, the TSS shall not be less than 25%.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of chutney from different fruits is as under:

Fruit syrup is a beverage that contains at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, 65% total  soluble solids and acidity ranging between 1.2 -1.5%. It is preserved by using
350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. Fruit syrup is diluted before serving. Syrup can be made from the juice/pulp of jamun, ginger, lemon, phalsa, rose extract, bael, pomegranate, and brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) leaves/root extract, etc. Besides, a syrup/sharbat containing a minimum of 10 per cent of dry fruits is also regarded as fruit syrup.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of syrups from different fruits is as under:

Preserve (Murabba) is made by cooking the fruit either whole or in slices/ pieces in sugar syrup of heavy concentration (65-70oBrix). Usually for 1 kg fruit around 1.75 kg sugar is used and the cooking is continued till the TSS reaches 68oB. Fruits like petha (ash gourd), aonla, bael, apple, pear, karonda, pineapple and papaya etc., are used for making preserve/murabba.
Candies are also prepared similarly but the TSS is maintained up to 75-80%. For candy preparation, the fruit pieces are dipped initially in 55-60% sugar solution and the TSS of the syrup is increased by 5% everyday up to 4-5 days and then the fruit slices are drained free of syrup and dried in driers. Fruits like aonla, karonda, cherry, apple, ginger peels of orange, lemon, and grapefruit etc., and petha (ash gourd), are used for candy preparation.
Selection and preparation of fruits: Wash the fruits in water to remove dirt and residues. Peel, core and cut the fruits into pieces. Pricking should be done with stainless steel forks. In case of petha (ash gourd), after pricking place them in lime water

Tomato, apple, plum, mushroom, etc., are used successfully for the preparation of sauces. Sauces are of two kinds 1) thin sauces consisting of vinegar extracts of flavoring material like herbs or spices and 2) thick sauces which are highly viscous.
Sauces are prepared by maceration of spices, herbs, fruits, and vegetables in cold vinegar or by boiling. Thickening agents like pectin, carboxymethylcellulose,n etc., are also added to sauces to prevent the sedimentation of solid particles. The sauce is generally cooked to such a consistency that it can be freely poured without fruit tissues.
Procedure
Tomato fruits are washed, cut into pieces, and heated/boiled for about 10 minutes in their own juice in SS pan to soften the tissue. The heated fruit mass is passed through a pulper to separate skin and seeds. Half of the sugar and spices are placed in a muslin cloth bag which is then immersed in the pulp during cooking. Cooking is continued till the pulp is reduced to half of the original volume.

Drying and dehydration are interrelated terms. Drying generally refers to the method of removal of moisture from the food under natural conditions such as sunlight and wind for example open sun drying, shade drying etc. Whereas, dehydration refers to a process of removal of moisture by application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of temperature and airflow. In this case single layer of fruit and vegetables, either whole or sliced after primary pretreatments is spread on trays which are placed inside the dehydrator or in the open sun for drying. In the dehydrator, the initial temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 66-71oC for fruits and 60- 66oC for vegetables. Dried grapes (raisins and monucca), apricots, dates, apple rings/cubes, Morchella (Guchhi), bael, aonla, fig, green peas, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, garlic etc are commercial products prepared by using drying.
Procedure for drying: Drying generally involves three stages: pre-drying treatments or pre-treatments, drying of commodity and post-drying operations such as handling, packaging and storage. The flow sheet for drying of fruit and vegetables is shown in Figure 1 and details of pretreatments for drying fruits and vegetables are shown in Table 1&2 respectively.

1. Peeling: It is one of the integral parts of a food processing, and most agri-cultural crops need to be peeled to remove at the initial stage of food processing Peeling removes inedible portion (peel, seeds, and stalk) of fruits and vegetables. However, the susceptibility to spoilage increases due to acceleration of physiological process and the exposure of the tissues to microorganisms. The shelf-life and quality of fresh-cu produces could be compromised with the peeling.
The goals of optimum peeling operation are i. Minimizing product losses, ii. Types of products e.g., potato products, iii. Minimizing heat ring formation e.g., apple, potato, iv. Minimizing energy and chemical usage, v. Minimizing the environmental pollution.
Peeling operation can be grouped under following categories: Manual peeling (knife or blade), Mechanical peeling (abrasive devices, devices with drums, rollers, knives or blades and milling cutters), Chemical peeling, Enzymatic peeling, and Thermal peeling (Flame or dry heat peeling, steam or wet heat peeling, thermal blast peeling, and vapour explosion or vacuum peeling.

Abstract
The village Kakching Khunou of Thoubal District, Manipur is found highly suitable for Watermelon cultivation. Mr. Thokchom Nganthoi Singh a young
farmer who is a novice in agri-business proved to be successful agri-business of watermelon in Kakching Khunou. The study noted that prominent extension approach was of farmer-to-farmer extension while venturing the enterprise. The total cost for cultivation of watermelon was around `50000-60000/- per Ha with a profit of ` 1,50,000/- per Ha. In three years (2016-18) the farmer mark as success in cultivation of watermelon and also started cultivating cucumber and other vegetable crops in his small farm successfully.
Keywords: Watermelon, Agri-business, Farmer, Kakching Khunou
Introduction
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), family Cucurbitaceae originated from West- Africa augurs well as a very promising scrambler and trailer fruit plant.

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world.
Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton
Order : Thysanoptera
Family : Thripidae
Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

Introduction

Advertising is an integral component of modern commerce and communication. It has evolved from primitive oral traditions to sophisticated digital marketing strategies. This chapter explores the historical evolution of advertising, from ancient civilizations to the digital age, and provides a scholarly analysis supported by bibliographic references.

Early Forms of Advertising

The earliest forms of advertising date back to ancient civilizations. Merchants in Mesopotamia and Egypt used papyrus posters and inscriptions to announce products and services (Presbrey, 1929). Ancient Greek and Roman societies

Introduction

Advertising is a crucial component of marketing that helps businesses communicate their brand message, build awareness, and drive sales. It serves as the bridge between companies and consumers, facilitating informed decision making. In today’s dynamic global and Indian markets, advertising plays an indispensable role in shaping consumer perceptions and preferences.

The Role of Advertising in Marketing

Advertising acts as a powerful tool for businesses to create brand identity, differentiate themselves from competitors, and connect with target audiences. Key roles of advertising in marketing include.

Introduction

Advertising agencies play a critical role in the marketing ecosystem by designing, planning, and executing advertising campaigns for businesses. These agencies act as intermediaries between brands and consumers, helping businesses effectively communicate their message. This chapter explores the role, functions, and impact of advertising agencies, incorporating both global and Indian perspectives.

Functions of an Advertising Agency

Advertising agencies provide a range of services essential for a successful marketing campaign. Their key functions include

1. Strategic Planning: Agencies conduct in-depth market research to identify target audiences and formulate effective advertising strategies. They analyze consumer behavior, competition, and market trends to design impactful campaigns.

Introduction

Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customers by delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.

1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.

Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption

In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving. Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print

Advertising is a strategic communication tool used to promote products, services, or ideas to a target audience. Effective advertising writing is both an art and a science, combining creativity with persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. This chapter explores the step-by-step process of writing compelling advertisements that resonate with audiences and drive action

Understanding the Target Audience

Effective advertising begins with a deep understanding of the target audience. Without knowing the people you aim to reach, even the most creative and well-crafted message may fail to generate the desired impact. The advertising writing process is not just about selling a product or service; it is about communicating in a way that resonates with the audience. This chapter delves into the importance of audience analysis, key factors to consider, and how to apply this knowledge to craft compelling advertising content

Importance of Understanding the Target Audience

The success of any advertising campaign hinges on audience relevance. Advertisers must know who their audience is, what they want, and how they think. The primary benefits of understanding the target audience include:

Advertising is a crucial tool for businesses to promote products and services to their target audience. A well-crafted advertisement not only grabs attention but also persuades potential customers to take action. Writing an effective advertisement requires a strategic approach that combines creativity, clarity, and persuasion. This chapter outlines the key steps involved in crafting a compelling advertisement

Step 1: Define the Objectiv

Before writing an advertisement, it is essential to determine its primary goal. The objective could be to increase brand awareness, generate leads, promote a new product, or drive sales. A well-defined objective ensures that the message is clear and focused

Step 2: Identify the Target Audience

Understanding the target audience is critical in crafting a message that resonates with potential customers. Consider factors such as demographics, interests, preferences, and pain points. Knowing the audience helps in selecting the right tone, language, and messaging that appeal to them.

Step 3: Craft a Compelling Headline

In the digital age, social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook have become powerful tools for spreading awareness and influencing public behaviour. Digital advertisements on social issues can effectively reach diverse audiences, spark conversations, and drive social change. Unlike traditional advertising, digital ads offer interactivity, customization, and precise audience targeting. This chapter explores the principles and strategies for designing impactful social issue advertisements on WhatsApp and Facebook.

Understanding the Audience

To design effective social advertisements, it is essential to analyze the audience’s demographics, behavior, and engagement patterns. Key considerations include:

Age Group: Younger audiences engage more with interactive and visually appealing content, while older audiences may prefer informative and text-based content.

Interests and Preferences: Understanding user interests through social media analytics helps tailor content to maximize impact

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business, influencing consumer behavior and shaping market trends. However, the power of advertising necessitates a framework of laws and ethical guidelines to ensure that messages remain truthful, fair, and socially responsible. This chapter explores the legal and ethical considerations in advertising, highlighting key regulations, ethical principles, and real-world implications.

Advertising is a crucial component of any marketing strategy. It helps businesses communicate their value proposition to their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective advertising requires a well-thought-out strategy. In this chapter, we will explore the essential steps to creating an effective advertising strategy for marketing success. Step 1: Define Your Objectives Before launching any advertising campaign, it is essential to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Common advertising objectives include: • Increasing brand awareness • Generating leads • Driving sales or conversions • Enhancing customer engagement

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test
The routine use of the modified Kirby-Bauer method is recommended.
Material
• Sterile cotton swabs
• Soyabean – Casein digest broth or Tryptone soya broth
• Non selective agar such as nutrient agar.
• 0.5 Mc Farland turbidity standard:
Solution A
Bacl2, 2H2O. 1.75G
Make upto 100 ml with distilled water.
Solution B
H2SO4 1.0 ml
Make upto 100 ml with distilled water.
Stock Solution
0.5 ml of solution A + 99.5 ml of solution B. Dispense in 5 ml amounts.
Seal and store in dark.
• Glass vials or tubes 10 ml capacity
• Muller – Hinton agar
• Antimicrobial discs
• Sterile forceps
• Ruler or calipers

Precipitation and agglutination reactions are similar except in that for precipitation reaction antigen must be in soluble form. The precipitation reaction is highly specific and very sensitive for the detection of antigen being capable of demonstrating antigens in dilutions of 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000 or more. It is important to bear in mind that antigens used in precipitation reactions are of molecular size not cellular. A soluble antigen reacted with its homologous antibody at the optimum proportions produce an insoluble precipitate. The essential ingredients for precipitation test are soluble antigen (precipitinogen), antibody (precipitin) and an electrolyte (normal saline).
a) Precipitation ring test
The antigen is carefully layered over the antiserum, without mixing so that an interface is formed. Diffusion of each reagent will then occur into the other. If the system is homologous, precipitation will occur at the point in the tube, where the proper ratio of antigen to antibody is reached. Eg: Ascoli’s test for anthrax diagnosis.
In advanced decomposition of animals when cultures would be almost impossible, the precipitation method of Ascoli is used for diagnosis of Anthrax. This method is a mixing of immunized rabbit serum with an extract of organs under examination for the production of a precipitate.
Procedure
1. Grind up organs or blood of suspected animals.
2. Suspend in saline.
3. Boil for five minutes
4. Filter through filter paper and allow to cool
5. Carefully stratify 0.5 ml of this extract on 0.5 ml immune serum in small test tubes.

Principle
The principle of the test is that antibodies possess two antigen-binding sites that will attach specifically with the antigenic determinants on the surfaces of the bacteria, cells or particles. Under suitable conditions one antibody molecule will combine with the determinant group on the surfaces of two bacteria and in this way a lattice is formed. These lattices are generally visible with the naked eye as clumps and they sediment readily due to the large size of the clump.
Pre-requisites for Agglutination Reaction
a) The antigen (agglutinogen) should be in particulate form, which will remain in suspension for sufficiently long time.
b) The antibody (agglutinin) should be directed to the target surface epitope.
c) Antigen – antibody should be present in optimal proportions.
d) An electrolyte is necessary for the reaction to take place and usually the reaction is carried out in physiological saline solutions (0.85% NaCl). Because of the overall negative charge on red cells or bacteria at neutral pH it is difficult for them to come close enough, so that for molecule such as IgG antibodies are able to form a bridge between epitope of two different cells or bacteria. The presence of salt tends to neutralize the charge effects to allow agglutination.
Plate Agglutination Test
This is employed to screen sera within a short period for preliminary testing.
Materials
• Brucella abortus coloured antigen
• suspected serum
• glass plate.

Principle
Some viruses like Orthomyxo, Paramyxoviruses etc. have the property to clump the erythrocytes of certain species of birds or animals. This is not an antigen-antibody reaction but a network of erythrocytes formed by the bridging virions. These virions on their envelop have peplomers that binds with the receptors on the erythrocytes. If large quantities of virus are used for HA and allowed to act on red blood cells
for a long period of time, the agglutinated red cells shed the virus particles which then float freely in the suspending fluid and neither attach to the same red cells nor agglutinate them. This process of dissociation of virus from the red cells is known as elution, and is due to the destruction of receptors on red cells by the virion associated receptor destroying enzyme - neuraminidase. The red cells freed from the virus particles are known as stabilized red cells. The elution will occur most rapidly if the temperature is raised to 37°C as the enzyme neuraminidase will be more active at this temperature.

Practical Application of Haemagglutination
a) Spot test: For rapid detection of the presence of a haemagglutinating virus. This can be done by mixing two or three drops of suspected sample (infected chick embryo fluids or cell culture fluids) with equal quantity of 5% chicken red cells in normal saline. The appearance of the clumps of agglutinated red cells, indicate the presence of a haemagglutinating
virus in the sample.
b) Titration of the virus using the haemagglutinating property.

Nocardia has the ability to form gram-positive, branching filaments of less than 1um in diameter. It is closely related to Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium and Rhodococcus species
History Nocard described this organism in 1888, following its isolation from a case of bovine ‘farcy’, hence the name of the type species: Nocardia farcinica.
Natural Habitat
Nocardia species are soil borne saprophytes
Morphology
They are gram-positive, obligate aerobes ability to form branching filaments. Some produce true mycelia and some strains are acid-fast. All species are nonmotile. Gram stained smears from lesions revealed gram-positive branching filaments that often show fragmentation into coccobacillary elements. The modified ZN stained smears exhibit a similar morphology but most of the filaments retain the carbol-fuchsin dye and stain red.
Cultural Characters
The Nocardia species grow very well in blood agar incubated aerobically at 370C for upto 7 days. Inoculate the suspected colonies from blood agar into Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) and incubated at 370C for upto 10 days.

Dermatophylaceae is a group of bacteria with mycelial filaments which divide transversely and in at least two longitudinal planes to form masses of coccoid or cuboidal cells, which characteristically become motile. They are gram positive, non acid fast, aerobic and produce aerial mycelium when their growths are stimulated by 10% CO2. Dermatophilus congolensis, Dermatophilus  dermatonomus and Dermatophilus pedis are the pathogens causing variety of skin lesions in mammals, including man. Dermatophilus congolensis causes very severe clinical disease and its infection is most common in tropical and subtropical regions.
Diseases caused by Dermatophilus species
Dermatophilus congolensis mainly affects Cattle, horses, sheep and goats, but many animal species and man can be infected.The disease has many names;
Cattle : Streptothricosis or Dermatophilosis
Horse : Skin Funk (Rain Rot, Rain Scald, Dew Poisoning), Grease heal
Sheep: Mycotic dermatitis (general infection), lumpy wool (wool- covered skin) and strawberry foot rot (skin of lower leg and coronet
Natural Habitat
Dermatophilus congolensis is the only species in the genus is thought to maintain itself in small foci of infection on a carrier animal or within scab particles in dust. It can survive in scab material for period’s upto 3 years.
History
Bovine disease was first described by Van Saceghem in 1915 in the Congo now known as Zaire in Africa.

The genera Proteus and Providencia belong to the tribe Proteae of the family Enterobacteriaeceae. The members of both these genera are gram negative, motile bacilli, aerobes and facultative anaerobes and can grow on basic media. A characteristic feature which distinguishes tribe Proteae from other members of Enterobactereaceae is the presence of the enzyme phenylalanine-deaminase which converts phenylalanine to phenylpyruvic acid (PPA reaction).They also produces a powerful urease enzyme which rapidly hydrolyses urea to ammonia.
Genus Proteus
They are gram-negative bacilli, 1-3 μm long and 0.6 μm wide. They are noncapsulated and are actively motile by peritrichous flagella. The name ‘Proteus’ refers to their pleomorphism, after the Greek God Proteus who could assume any shape. Four species: Proteus mirabilis, P.vulgaris, P.penneri and P.myxofaciens are recognized. Proteus mirabilis, P.vulgaris are widely recognised as human pathogens.
Culture Characteristics
These can grow on ordinary media like nutrient agar with a characteristic fishy or seminal odour. On MacConkey and Teepol lactose agar, lactose nonfermenting pale colonies, around 2-3 mm in size are formed. On non-inhibitory solid media such as blood and nutrient agar Proteus mirabilis and P vulgaris show characteristic swarming growth in the form of a uniform film, which spreads over the whole surface of the plate. In young swarming cultures, many of the bacteria are long, curved and filamentous, sometimes reaching upto 80 μm in length. When two different strains of swarming proteus mirabilis encounter one another on an agar plate, swarming ceases and a visibile line of demarcation forms. This is known as the Dienes phenomenon. In liquid medium (peptone water, nutrient broth), Proteus produces uniform
turbidity with a slight powdery deposit and an ammoniacal odour.

Moraxella bovis occurs as short (1.0 to 1.5 x 1.5 to 2.5 μm), plump Gramnegative rods or, occasionally, cocci which typically occur in pairs. This organism is non-motile, aerobic and usually catalase-positive and oxidasepositive. Although proteolytic, it is unable to utilize sugars. Growth, which is enhanced by the addition of blood or serum to media, does not occur on MacConkey agar. The optimal temperature for growth is 33-35°C. Most M.phenylpyruvica strains will grow on MacConkey agar. But M.bovis and M.lacunata are unable to do so.
Virulent strains, when isolated from cases of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, are fimbriate, haemolytic and grow into the agar. Species, other than M.bovis, which are periodically isolated from clinical specimens, are generally regarded as non-pathogenic.
Usual Habitat
Moraxella bovis is found on mucous membranes of carrier cattle. The organism is susceptible to desiccation and is short-lived in the environment. It can survive for up to 72 hours in the salivary organs and on the body surface of flies, which can act as vectors.
Colonial Appearance
On blood agar after 48 hours’ incubation the colonies of M.bovis are flat, round, small (1 mm diameter), greyish-white and friable, surrounded by a narrow zone of complete haemolysis. The appearance is not unlike that of a beta-haemolytic streptococcus. New isolates are often piliated and erode the agar, sinking into it. Colonial growths will autoagglutinate when suspended in saline. On subculture, colonial variation is common, pili are no longer formed and the colonies are butyrous and less likely to autoagglutinate. Some colonies can become non-haemolytic. The strains of M. hovis (M.equi) isolated from
horses are non-haemolytic even on primary isolation. M.lacunata and M. phenylpyruvica are non-haemolytic on blood agar and some strains of M. phenylpyruvica will grow on MacConkey agar.

Many non-spore-forming, anaerobic, Gram-negative bacteria cause opportunistic mixed infections, often in association with facultative anaerobes. Synergistic interactions between the organisms in these mixed infections are common. Fusobacterium species and bacteria formerly referred to as Bacteroides species account for more than 50%of the anaerobic organisms isolated from these infections.
Usual Habitat
Nan-spore-forming, Gram-negative anaerobes are often found on muwus membranes, particularly in the digestive tract, of animals and man. They are excreted in the faeces and they can survive for short periods in the environment. Dichelobacter nodosus, a primary pathogen of the epidermal tissues of the hoof region of ruminants, survives for less than 4 days in mud. Diagnostic Procedures
In order to ensure that isolates of anaerobes are aetiologically significant, specimens for isolation procedures should be obtained by direct sampling from discharges or lesions and by supra pubic puncture in urinary infections. Specimens should be processed promptly after collection. Commercial kits and transport media are available for specimens from suspected anaerobic infections. In the core of a tissue specimen over 2-3 cm, an anaerobic microenvironment is usually maintained. Samples of fluid in a syringe remain suitable for anaerobic culture if air is expelled from the syringe and the needle
is plugged.
Anaerobic jars with an atmosphere of hydrogen and 10%CO2 are used for incubating cultures at 37°C for up to 7 days.

The order Spirochaetales contains two families, Leptospiraceae and Spirochaetaceae. It comprises spiral or helical bacteria (spirochaetes) which share some unique morphological and functional features. Members of the order are motile by means of endoflagella which are located within the periplasm.
The spirochactes are slender, motile, flexuous, unicellular, helically coiled bacteria ranging rrom 0.1 -3.0 μm in width. The outer sheath, the outermost layer of a spirochaete cell, is a multi layered membrane that completely surrounds the peri plasmic flagella (axial filament) and the helical protoplasmic cylinder. The cylinder consists or the nuclear material, cytoplasm, cytoplasmic membraneand the peptidoglycan portion of the cell wall.
The periplasmic flagella are wrapped around the cylinder and are in the peri plasmic space of these Gram-negative bacteria. One end of each flagellum is inserted near a pole of the protoplasmic cylinder and attached by platelike structures called insertion discs. The distal end of each flagellum is not inserted and extends to the centre of the cell and may overlap the flagellum from the opposite end. The periplasmic flagella facilitate the motility of the bacteria in viscid environments.
Leptospira species
Members of this species (leptospires) are motile helical bacteria (0.1 x 6 to 12 μm) with hook-shaped ends. Although cytochemically Gram-negative, they do not stain well with conventional bacteriological dyes and are usually visualized using dark-field microscopy. Silver impregnation and immunological staining techniques are used to demonstrate leptospires in tissues. Leptospirosis, which can affect all domestic animals and humans, ranges in severity from mild infections of the urinary or genital systems to serious systemic disease.

Members of the genus Serpulina (Treponema) are host-associated spirochaetes found in the oral cavity, intestinal tract and genital region of animals and humans. The cells are wider, are not as tightly coiled as th e leptospires and can be stained by aniline dyes.
The species of veterinary significance are S. Hyodysenleriae (swine dysentery) and T. paraluiscunicllii (ventdisease of rabbits). S. innocens, present in the faecesof pigs and dogs, is thought to be non- athogenic,although some workers regard S. innocens as a strainof S. hyodysenteriae of lower virulence. S. hyodysenteriae and S. innocens are s imilarmorphologically, culturally as well as biochemicallyand can be grown on laboratory media. T. Paraluiscuniculi has not been cultured in vitro.
Normal Habitat
T. paraluiscliniculi produces a benign venereal disease of rabbits and is present in lesions in the genito-perineal area of rabbits. It causes latentin fection in mice, guinea- pigs and hamsters. The treponemes can be found in the lymph nodes of these animals. The reservoir of S. hyodysenteriae is the intestinal tract of pigs, wild rats and mice. Recovered, asymptomatic pigs can excrete these organisms in faeces for 3 months or more. Survival of S. hyodysenteriae in soil or voided pig faeces is short, about 24 48 hours. Infection is by the faecal-oral route.