eBook Chapters

The Himalayan region is recognized amongst the 34 global biodiversity hotspots. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) comprises of five biogeographic provinces, covers approximately an area of 591 thousand km² and extends from Jammu and Kashmir in the north-west to the Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The IHR is a source of great diversity of food, fuel, fodder, timber, dye and medicinal plants. It comprises about 18% of India and is more than 2,800 km long and 220 to 300 km wide, with altitudinal range of 200–8,000 m. The IHR alone supports about 8,000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of bryophytes, 1,159 species of lichens and 6,900 species of fungi. The state Himachal Pradesh is divided into four conspicuous zones, namely Shivalik/lower montain zone, mid-hills/middle mountain zone, high hills/temperate zone and cold dry zone. Five rivers namely Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Yamuna and Chenab with a large number of their tributaries flow through the state. The flora of the state consists of about 180 families comprising about 1,038 genera and about 3,400 species. The region is facing greater and more difficult challenges than ever before in achieving balanced economic growth, alleviating poverty, and sustainably managing the renewable natural resources. People’s dependence on forest and related natural resources is historic, cultural, and inevitable as other viable alternatives for earning a living have been few. The consequence of this trend has been the commercialization of forest products, mainly non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The NTFPs are the major bioresources among various natural resources available and provide various ecosystems services to the mankind. Like other parts of the IHR, in Himachal Pradesh people earn their livelihood from the forests in many ways i.e., earning cash income; satisfying their needs for fuel, medicine, shelter, and supplementary food; using traditional agricultural inputs such as leaf litter, fodder, small tools, and water; and cultivating land inside the forest boundaries as forest encroachers. Their dependence on forest resources is both historic and cultural to the extant that it is an integral component of the forest ecosystem of the region. Although, large amounts of NTFPs are collected by different communities in the state, no comprehensive study on the amount collected, number of people engaged in collection and trading, and the marketing chain involved has been carried out to date. Therefore, the present study focuses on conservation and sustainable utilization and market potential of different tradable medicinal plants/(NTFPs) in Himachal Pradesh, north western Himalaya.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” during all the occasions. All over the world, the floriculture sector is experiencing rapid changes. Opening up to the world market in the WTO regime paving way to free movement of floricultural products world wide, globalization and its effect on income generation have all contributed to increase in per capita consumption of flowers in most countries. Noticeable feature of global floriculture is the development and expansion of floriculture in non traditional areas. Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and Japan had strong tradition for growing and consumption of flowers. The concept of commercial floriculture was perpetuated across the world from those regions. Now production centers are developing in Latin America, Africa and also in Asia to meet the demand of consuming countries and also to expand domestic market, commensurate with improved economic conditions, These countries provide highly qualitative floricultural products with low cost price which is finding a favourable place in markets of Western Europe, America and Japan. Emergence of new production centers has made floriculture more competitive and this in turn is benefiting the ultimate consumers.

Trade in fruit and vegetable products has been among the most dynamic areas of national as well as international agricultural trade, stimulated by rising incomes and growing consumer interest in product variety, freshness, convenience, and year-round availability. Advances in production, postharvest handling, processing, and logistical technologies—along with increased levels of international investments have played a facilitating role.

4.1. Global Trade of Processed Fruits & Vegetables

4.1.1. Country Wise Trends of Export in Value-Added Fruits

Table 4.1 shows the processed fruits export of top 15 countries in the global market. The USA remained the largest exporter at global level with the exports valued at USD 15089573 thousand with a share of about 12 per cent. The Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR %) of the USA was noted 7.58 per cent. Spain is the second largest exporter of processed fruits and vegetables with the CAGR of 6.14 per cent and share of 8 per cent. Some other dominant exporting nations are namely, Mexico, Netherlands, China, and Chile, showing a CAGR nearly, 13 per cent, 11 per cent, 16 per cent and 9 per cent, respectively.

Cheese, butter, whole milk powder, and skimmed milk powder are a major part of the world’s dairy trade. The demand for worldwide dairy exports is highly concentrated. With a share of 12 per cent, New Zealand is the largest exporter of dairy products, followed by Germany, Netherlands, France and the US. Germany has been the world’s major dairy importer as well with a share of 10 per cent. Other large dairy product importers are China, Netherlands, France, Italy and Belgium.

Before 1999, India was a net importer of dairy products. The successful implementation of the ‘Operation Flood’ program and trade reforms caused the direction of India’s dairy trade to change marginally. India has been a net exporter of dairy products since 2000. Statistics show that India’s export share of dairy products over world dairy exports increased marginally from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.5 per cent in 2019, while its import share of dairy products over world dairy imports increased marginally from 0.018 per cent in 2001 to 0.04 per cent in 2019. The Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia, and the USA are the major markets for India’s dairy products. Conversely, India is a favorable market for the European Union, New Zealand, Australia, UAE, and US dairy products.

Export and import- an overview

The major thrust of livestock development strategy in India has been on achieving self-sufficiency in livestock products through import substitution. Several initiatives were taken to develop the Indian livestock sector in the past and India emerged as the largest milk producer in the world and it is also one of the largest producers of other livestock commodities. However, the economic policy reforms and economic liberalization triggered in 1991 have widened market opportunities for the livestock sector. The global demand for livestock products is also on the rise. Such developments offer an opportunity for India to increase its livestock exports, especially for products like bovine meat, whose domestic demand is low. With improved domestic production and marketing efficiency, better access to expanding world market, India has the potential to become more competitive and may augment port of livestock products. The export and import details reveal that there has been a steady increase in the value of imports and exports of livestock and livestock products in India.

Major poultry products which are traded in world market are live poultry, edible poultry meat, cuts and offals excluding livers, eggs in shells, eggs not in shell, egg yolks, egg powder etc.

Abstract
Non-tariff barrier (NTBs), particularly Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), have increasingly shaped the contours of international trade. While originally instituted to safeguard human, animal, and plant health and ensure product standards, these regulatory mechanisms are often criticized for functioning as covert instruments of protectionism. This chapter undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the dual nature of SPS and TBT measures, acknowledging their public policy rationale while critically examining their role in distorting trade flows, increasing compliance burdens, and eroding competitiveness, especially for exporters in developing economies. It highlights the economic ramifications, operational challenges, and policy complexities inherent in their implementation. Drawing from global best practices and multilateral frameworks, the study advocates for targeted strategies such as regulatory harmonization, improved transparency, enhanced capacity-building and robust dispute resolution mechanisms. These approaches are essential not only to prevent the misuse of SPS and TBT provisions but also to facilitate equitable market access and support rules based international trading system. The chapter emphasizes that achieving this balance is critical for fostering inclusive economic growth, promoting global competitiveness, and strengthening cooperation among nations in an increasingly interconnected world.
Keywords: Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs), Sanitary and Photosanitary Measures (SPS), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), Regulatory Harmonization and Disguised Protectionism

Introduction
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others. Trademarks play a crucial role in protecting brand identity and fostering consumer trust, acting as a legal safeguard against imitation and brand dilution. The concept of a trademark has evolved over centuries, adapting to changing business landscapes and globalization, thereby becoming a vital asset in business strategy.
Definition of Trademark
According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a trademark is a “sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises.” The purpose of a trademark is to help consumers identify and choose between products and services based on the reputation and goodwill of the brand.
Key Characteristics of a Trademark:
• Distinctiveness: A trademark must be unique and distinguishable from other marks.
• Non-descriptive: A trademark should not directly describe the goods or services it represents.
• Non-deceptive: The mark should not mislead consumers regarding the nature or origin of the product.
Trademarks include names, symbols, logos, sounds, colors, and even scents that can be associated with a product or service. For example, the Coca-Cola logo is trademarked for its distinct font and red-and-white color scheme, making it easily recognizable worldwide.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables rank as the most consumed commodities among horticultural crops, whether eaten raw or processed into value-added products. However, the global increase in population and periodic disruptions in supply chains have heightened concerns over food waste. This waste originates post harvest at the farmer level and as leftovers from households, restaurants, and commercial establishments, with fruits and vegetable waste accounting for a substantial 42% of total food waste.

The composition of fruit and vegetable waste varies widely depending on plant species and tissues. Peels and seeds, for example, are rich in phytochemical compounds suitable for food flavourings and preservatives. Similarly, vegetable tissues containing carotenoids, vitamins, and fibres exhibit antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, potentially mitigating human health issues. Therefore, efficiently utilizing these waste products in various applications not only offers environmental benefits but also addresses sustainability challenges effectively.

Of the total land area of the world, arid zones account for 18.8%. Throughout the arid zones, there is no dearth of problems, but rapidly increasing desertification (some call it land degradation) is a problem of worldwide dimension. Water is a scare commodity in arid zones. Much of rainfall is lost by evapo-transpiration and as a result, ground water recharged only by seepage through soil profile. However, it is a common phenomenon in arid zones of the worlds that ground water is frequently used at the rate that exceeds recharge. The situation in arid tropics of India, which is spread over an area of 31.7 million ha, is no more different.

Agriculture is the human enterprise that is most vulnerable to climate change. Tropical agriculture including agriculture in arid tropics, particularly subsistence agriculture is vulnerable, as farmers do not have adequate resources to adapt to climate change. Land-use options that increase livelihood security and reduce vulnerability to climate and environmental change are necessary. Rural folk in arid western Rajasthan, the principal hot arid region of the country have been practising arable cropping in association with these scattered trees on crop fields since time immemorial. This combined protective-productive system of integration of trees into farming system rooted in the principles of ecology, productivity, economics and sustainability, is generally referred as agroforestry. In fragile ecosystems of hot arid regions of India

ABSTRACT

Chamba and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh are abode to vast natural diversity. The people of the area had developed varied traditionl approaches to live with the nature so that natural resources can be protected for their sustained use. The present paper enumerates some of the ecofriendly life styles, agroforestry systems and water use practices being adopted by the farmers of the region.

Mathura, Uttar Pradesh Livestock plays a crucial role in agriculture and rural economies, affecting livelihoods, food security, public health, and economic development. The Gross Value Added (GVA)of livestock sector is about Rs. 11,14,249 crore at current prices during FY 2020-21 which is about 30.87%of Agricultural and Allied Sector GVA and 6.17%of Total GVA. At constant prices (2011-12), the GVA of livestock sector is about Rs. 6,17,117crore during FY2020-21with a positive growth of 6.13% over previous financial year (DAHD, 2022).Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households that indicates importance of livestock sector as a whole. Despite the presence of limited land and water resources, India has the world’s largest livestock population accounting for over 35.94% of cattle, 20.45% of buffalo, 26.40% of goats and 12.17% of sheep of the world’s population. The goat population in the country was 148.88 million in 2019, increased by 10.1% over previous census BAHS, 2012 (DAHD, 2019).In India the goat sector contributes 8.4 percent to the Indian livestock GDP that is 1,16,400 crores through meat Rs64,000 crores, through milk 22000 crores, through skin Rs3345 crores, through manure Rs2535 crores, and others Rs4360 crores. India rank f irst in goat population and possessregistered37 goat breedsin different agro climatic zones.Goats (Capra hircus) are one of the oldest domesticated species and it provides meat (Chevon), milk, yoghurt, cheese and other by-products such as hair and skin. Goats rearing provide much needed livelihood support to the landless and weaker sections and also hold considerable potential for commercializationas well as provide job opportunities in rural India.

Introduction

Sustainable exploitation of fish stocks and conservation of fish habitat are matters of concern for fishery scientists and administrators all over the world. Worldwide there is a declining trend in natural fish catch (FAO, 2002) and India is no exception. Increasing harvest pressure, destructive fishing operations, introduction of exotics, are examples of factors from within the sector responsible for increasing pressure on fish stocks. The decline in open water catch has been a serious issue in fisheries as millions of rural households depend on fishing to maintain their livelihood incomes, and because fish is a major protein source in the globe. However, the government in several countries is addressing the issue in a number of ways, such as: (i) moving towards biological management from revenue-oriented management; (ii) involving resource users in capture fisheries management to maintain natural productivity; and (iii) starting programs such as rehabilitating of degraded habitats (FAO, 1999).

27.1 Introduction

Eggs containing nutrients that play fundamental roles beyond basic nutrition in consumers and their promotion as functional foods should be considered. Eggs rich in protein and offer a moderate calorie source (about 150 kcal/100 g), rich in vitamins and minerals and also great culinary versatility and low economic cost, which make eggs within reach to most of the population. Eggs are also relatively rich in fat-soluble compounds and can, therefore, be a nutritious inclusion in the diet for people of all ages and at different stages of life. In particular, eggs may play a particularly useful role in the diets of those at risk of low-nutrient intakes such as the elderly, pregnant women and children.

INTRODUCTION

Jewellery has been a favorite form of adornment since time immemorial in all parts of the worlds and Indian is not an exception. The significance of jewellery in the country is evident from the fact that on many auspicious occasions, jewellery forms a part of gifts. Jewellery has not only been considered for the purpose of adoration, but it can also be sold to overcome the economic crisis. This way, jewellery also serves the purpose of insurance, which can be depended upon. To accentuate their feminine beauty, women use jewellery made of gold, silver and diamonds. Traditionally, jewellery has always been linked with wealth, power and status.

INTRODUCTION

The North Eastern Region of India comprises of eight states, viz., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram and Sikkim. These north eastern states are home to myriad tribals and several ethnic groups. Most of the people of the north-eastern region of India belong to the Mongolian race and the food habit of the region is fairly similar with that of South-East Asian countries. Fermented foods form an intrinsic part of the diet of these people. Fermentation has been an age long traditional practice of preserving various food products in the region. These fermented products are used as condiments in the preparation of various traditional sauces, strews and dishes (Saisithi, 1994).

1. INTRODUCTION

Food fermentation is the oldest method of food preservation and have originated several million years ago. It plays an important role in ensuring the food security of millions of people around the world particularly marginalized and vulnerable groups. It is relatively efficient, low energy consuming process which needs no refrigeration or other energy intensive food preservation technologies but increases the shelf-life of foods. Fermentation ensures not only increased shelf-life and microbiological safety of food but may also make some foods more digestible and lower or eliminate the toxicity of substrate like cassava.

The food fermentation technology utilizes the ability of growth of microorganisms on various substrates for the production of a variety of fermented foods, beverages and pickles like bread, beer, cheese, idli, tempeh, miso, sauerkraut, fermented sausages, etc. Fermented foods are popular throughout the world since antiquity and in some regions these are the major component of the diet of millions of individuals. Indigenous fermented foods such as bread, cheese and wine have been prepared and consumed since ages and have occupied important place in culture, religion and tradition of people all over the world.

It is an old practice that during the flourishing period, the fishes specially trash fishes are caught from their natural habitat and a bulk of them are preserved to make available for further use. Traditional fish preservation techniques are mainly based on combination of salting, drying and smoking. These techniques have allowed more widespread consumption of fish. Sun drying is most ancient method of fish preservation. Drying removes moisture from tissues and help to arrest bacterial and enzymatic putrefaction.

Fermented fish have, for many years, been considered as a Southeast Asian product. These products are highly salted and fermented until the flesh is transformed into simpler components. Fermentation of fish is a product in which the identity of the fish is maintained to large extent. Fermented fish products as fish sauces, fish paste, or salted fish have been consumed since ancient times. Because of poor roads and other methods of transport, the provision of fresh fish to potential inland consumers was impossible, and this encouraged fermentation as a preservation technique. In Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Kampuchea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, the use of fermentation as a preservation method for fish has been of great value since earliest times. In the countries of northern Europe, fermented fish products are used mainly as condiments, whereas in Southeast Asia, various fish products are regarded as staples. In India and Sri Lanka, pickled and in Colombo, cured fish have been known for many years

Overview of fishing methods in Kashmir
The water resources of the region of Jammu and Kashmir are abundant, ranging from large lakes in valleys and high altitudes to ponds, pools, streams, marshes, springs, and rivers. Its approximate size is 222236 square kilometers, extending from latitudes 32° 17′ N to latitudes 36° 58′ N and from longitudes 73° 26′ E to longitudes 80° 30′ E. Its whole water spread area is around 32765.3 hectares, or 2% of its overall area (Anon., 2013). Because of their unique natural characteristics, the vast water resources found in lakes, marshes, streams, and rivers are ideal locations for cold water fishing and, as such, have played a significant role in the growth of this sector. These water bodies support diverse populations of both indigenous and exotic fish species, suitable for cultivation as well as those that thrive without human intervention (Mahanta et al., 2009). The Kashmir Valley's water bodies are home to several native and alien fish species (Shah et al., 2020). The Central Asian fauna, which is dominated by the Schizothorax group, makes up the majority of Kashmir's ichthyofauna (Sunder et al., 1978).
Kashmir is endowed with several lakes, including Manasbal, Dal, Wular, and others, each having a unique hydrological environment (Balkhi et al., 1987). Since every lake in Kashmir Valley is located on the Jhelum River's flood plain, the lakes' origins are either tectonic or fluviatile. The Wular Lake, which is situated in District Bandipora and is referred to as the "fish bowl of Kashmir" since it supplies 60% of the fish produced in the Kashmir valley, is said to be the biggest freshwater lake in India (Malik et al., 2018). It spans over 200 square kilometers. The Wular Lake is bordered by several villages all along its shores, including two sizable cities, Bandipur and Sopore, Gurumayun and Choudhury (2009). Rich biodiversity is supported by Wular Lake and the marshes that surround it. It is a significant fishing resource in the valley, providing food for a sizable population that lives on its edges. The lake is the valley's greatest fishing resource and an essential home for migrating water species, including geese, ducks, shorebirds, and cranes (Syed et al., 2020). An understanding of fishing gear is essential for managing fisheries, Target species, fishing location, climate, and water velocity are only a few of the variables that affect how different fishing methods and equipment are used and regulated. Due to the unique characteristics of these habitats, classic fishing techniques that are useless in plains water bodies with slower current may be used in locations with swiftly flowing water, especially in mountainous regions. Understanding the traditional catching practices and gear of a region is

Introduction

Fishing technology is the discipline dealing with the natural sciences and technology for optimizing fish catch and fishing operations, leading to a productive and sustainable capture fishery. The fishes are one of the main exploitable resources of the aquatic ecosystems that provide a cheap source of protein which helps solving the problem of nutritional security particularly in NE region of the country. The rapid development of fishing technology in India during the recent years has paved the way for increased production availability of new synthetic materials, evolution of new designs of fishing craft and gear and avoidance of ignorant harmful fishing techniques etc. It is essential that any developmental activity adopted, should also be base rooted in the objective of uplifting the economy of the fishing communities. This implies that the improvisation of the existing tools and techniques and introduction of new ones to enhance fishing efficiency need a careful study of the traditional technologies.

Further, selection of fishing methods and gear are influenced by various factors such as physiography of the water body, nature of fish stock, characteristics of the material from which gear are fabricated and standard of living. Therefore, variation in application of fishing devices can be observed in different type of water bodies, which have characteristic of their own due to unique nature of the water resources of the region. The success of these fishing techniques depends on various factors like selection of site, time, efficiency of materials used and availability of fish, etc. For successful fishing some attractant as a lure is popularly employed.

The North Eastern Region of the Country is very rich in the indigenous knowledge and techniques of fishing. The fishing gear and craft vary from one state to other states in terms of technical specification, materials and method of fishing. The type and size of water bodies also determine design fishing gear and craft to be used for fishing. The present day fishing methods and fishing devices which are in use in the region are the result of continuous efforts and knowledge inherited through generations of fishing community. Hence, fishing methods and fishing devices in the region was developed by the community according to their need, availability of the material, type of water bodies and target species. In this presentation, an assessment, compilation and documentation of these indigenous fishing technologies of the Tripura which is important for academicians, researchers and other stake holders, is made.

INTRODUCTION

Fish are one of the main exploitable resources of the aquatic ecosystems that provide a cheap source of protein which help solving the problem nutritional security particularly NE region of the country. The rapid development of fishing technology in India during the recent years has paved the way for increased production availability of new synthetic materials, evolution of new designs of fishing crafts and gears and avoidance of ignorant harmful fishing techniques etc. It is to be taken into account that any developmental activity adopted should also be base rooted in the objective of uplifting the economy of the fishing communities. This implies that the improvisation of the existing tools and techniques and introduction of new ones to enhance fishing efficiency need a careful study of the traditional infra-technologies. Further selection of fishing methods and gear are influenced by various factors such as physiographic of the water body, nature of fish stock, characteristics of the material from which gear are fabricated and standard of living. Therefore, variation in application of fishing devices can be observed in different type of water bodies, which have characteristic of their own due to unique nature of the water resources of the region.

With increasing food production, availability and accessibility the global agro-industrial food system has improved.However, malnutrition, biodiversity loss and climate change are newer challenges. The best solution to this is the utilization of indigenous and traditional crops which will bring a transformative change in the food system. There is a need to look into the development of smallholder producers. The agro-industrial food system has improved the food supply and has made way for significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability and socio-economic stability mainly amongst the rural poor. Now is the time to mainstream the underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system. This will provide opportunities to develop a sustainable and healthy food system.It will also help towards the societal goals which include employment creation, wellbeing and environmental sustainability.

Importance of Traditional Foods

Traditional convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption. Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen products that require minimal preparation (typically just heating).

These products are often sold in portion controlled, single serve packaging designed for portability for “on-the-go” eating. Convenience food can include products such as candy; beverages such as soft drinks, juices and milk; fast food; nuts, fruits and vegetables in fresh or preserved states; processed meats and cheeses; and canned products such as soups and pasta dishes.

Traditional Foods

Preparation of Vadagam and Appalam

Vadagam is a traditional product mostly prepared from rice flour and also sago. It is an deep fat fried product and consumed as a side dish in the meals. Papad also known as appalam or papadam in South India, is essentially a thin wafer like product, usually circular in shape rolled from a dough made out of pulse, cereals, edible vegetable oil, alkaline and mucilaginous additives. It is normally consumed in toasted or fried form. In India, papad has been associated and deeply entwined with social customs/ rituals and has been developed into culinary art.

Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part of food production in India since ages. These practices have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change with spatial and sequential diversity (Patel et al., 2020). Traditional Agriculture can be defined as a primitive style of farming that involves the intensive use of indigenous knowledge, traditional tools, natural resources, organic fertilizer and cultural beliefs of the farmers (Abeysekara et al., 2021). It is noteworthy that it is still used by about 50% of the world population. Traditional agriculture can be defined as a set of knowledge- practice-trust nexus which has developed by its adaptive nature and passes on to the next generation through a cultural transmission that explains the relationship between living beings with their environment (Berkes et al., 2000).

Introduction

Food is a culture, emotion, hospitality and prestige which is closely knitted with tradition. Traditional knowledge is a community based functional knowledge system which is developed, preserved and refined by generations through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. It includes beliefs, values, and practices gathered from the practical experience of older generation, and its whole function is survival and development of culture of people. Traditional foods, originated from ancestral kitchens are developed through ages, invented, modified, utilised and evolved to improve nutritional and social wellbeing of the people around the world. Most of them are culture specific, region specific, environment specific, community specific and season specific. These foods are socially, culturally and economically important and provide food security, enhance livelihood and improve nutritional and social wellbeing of people. Food culture arises out of the place of a people’s origin and so traditional local foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise communities and enable a cultural continuity through conserving their histories. Indian cuisine is represented as a wide spectrum of food cultures with distinctive regional differences and preferences (Achaya, 1998).

Traditional knowledge is a type of Intellectual property. It is also known as indigenous knowledge generated from the local communities and tradition of regional technology areas. This knowledge is orally passed over generation from person to person. According to world intellectual property organization, Traditional knowledge is an indigenous, cultural and intellectual property. The biodiversity of a country, the uses and applications of biological resources and prevalent practices are examples of traditional knowledge associated with life science. TK has the tremendous potential of being transformed into commercial opportunity by the development of products and processes. Hence, a share of benefits must accrue to creators and holders of Traditional Knowledge.

Introduction

Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Traditional Cultural Expressions (TCEs) are crucial intangible heritage passed down through generations in indigenous communities. TK encompasses indigenous knowledge, practices, and innovations related to cultural traditions, natural resources, and ecosystems, while TCEs are heritage artistic and literary expressions that embody traditional culture and knowledge. TK and TCEs are deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of indigenous communities, and play a vital role in preserving their identities, values, and beliefs. However, they are vulnerable to exploitation and misappropriation, which can lead to cultural loss and undermine the rights of indigenous peoples. Thus, it is crucial to involve indigenous communities in decision-making and protect their rights to safeguard and preserve the integrity of TK and TCEs.

ABSTRACT

Documenting the traditional knowledge system for technology development considers as the first step towards a sustainable agriculture. A study was undertaken in some villages of operational area of KVK, Nalanda district to investigate and document the traditional knowledge system of dairy farmers in the area of Breeding, Feeding, Health care and Management. The findings revealed the materials and practices related to animal husbandry from the study area. The majors among them were like use of Eucalyptus leaves in controlling Haemorrhagic septicemia (Gala ghotu), allowing animal to remain stand in mud for few hours, spread out tobacco leaf power on the infected part of FMD disease, applying brine solution on the animal’s buttock for the treatment of mastitis, feeding banana stem juice in order to controlling diarrohea in dairy animals. Papaya fruits fed to the cattle increases fertility in them, spraying of chhoa for controlling termites, incorporation of tobacco leaf, betel leaf and curry leaf enhances the shelf life of ghee at least by 2 months, use of Eucalyptus leaves in controlling Pneumonia in cattle.

Abstract

The human race has been dependent on plants for both material and financial needs for millions of years. This has enabled them to evolve a unique system of knowledge on the utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources. Tribals rich traditional knowledge is associated with biodiversity. This knowledge has been acquired over years, treasured and are endowed with and passed on by the local communities and the tribals. Farmers with their age old experience in farming developed a comprehensive knowledge on nutrient content and medicinal properties of various plants. Cereals, small millets, pulses, oilseeds & many more forest plants form important component of food source for the tribal people of North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. This knowledge was documented from older generation who could provide age old information about the landraces and traditional life styles which are under threat. This paper briefly describes the extent of knowledge possessed by tribal respondents on Agrobiodiversity in terms of crops and landraces cultivated in selected mandals of Visakhapatnam district. Results indicated low knowledge on landrace of Jowar whereas medium knowledge in case of oilseeds and millets and high knowledge in cereals, pulses and vegetables. This calls for a immediate attention from various stake holders for Agrobiodiversity conservation.

In Comparison to Literature : A Comparative Account

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

ABSTRACT

Dermatology is the branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of skin disorders. Owing to the lack of proper hygiene and sanitation, incidence of skin diseases is a major health burden particularly in developing and under-developed countries. The study aimed at documenting the plants traditionally used to cure different types of dermatological disorders by the tribals and natives of district Udhampur. Ethnomedicinal data was collected by interviewing 91 infomants between the age group 26-89 years. Quantitative approaches were used to determine Use value (UV). The study revealed that a total of 64 plant species belonging to 59 genera and 43 families were used by the tribals and natives of district Udhampur for the treatment of 25 ailments of skin disorders. The most prevalent families were Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Rosaceae, Solanaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Majority of the taxa were growing in wild. Among the different plant parts used, leaf was the most frequently used. About 90% of medicinal preparations were applied topically. The most important medicinal species as per the use-value (UV) included Phyllanthus emblica, Aloe vera, Ficus carica, and Cannabis sativa. The present investigation may serve as a baseline data to initiate further research for the discovery of new bioactive compounds, thereby, providing important leads in the development of novel drugs for the treatment of such disorders.

20.1 Introduction
The average Indian diet, which is predominantly vegetarian, relies heavily on milk as a source of animal protein. Ancient Indians developed more stable milk products to preserve its nutritional value due to the high ambient temperatures in the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, the ethnic dairy foods, which are frequently referred to as traditional or Indian indigenous milk products, have been developed over the course of centuries by utilising locally available equipment, implements, and manufacturing procedures.
20.2 Definition of Traditional Indian Dairy Products
Traditional Indian dairy products, or indigenous milk products of India, encompass all milk-based items that have evolved over generations using locally sourced ingredients and traditional cooking methods. With advancements in mechanized manufacturing technologies and unit operations, these diverse indigenous milk products are set to establish a robust presence in the industrial landscape. Across India, a variety of milk-based sweets, beloved by people of all ages and genders, hold significant cultural importance, often being integral to celebrations and social gatherings, highlighting their essential use of indigenous dairy ingredients.
20.3 Classification of Traditional Dairy Products
The nomenclature of Indian indigenous milk products varies across different regions due to variations in its components and manufacturing methods. Indigenous milk products can be conveniently categorised into nine main categories to facilitate a deeper understanding of their nature.

Abstract

Surveys made systematically in different remote places of Tamil Nadu brought to light more than 1000 indigenous techniques adopted for pest control in various crops of agriculture, horticulture and store grains. Target animals included array of insect species and animal pests namely rodents, mites, molluscs and microbes like nematodes and viruses. Various kinds of plant species reveal their modes of action distinctly.

INTRODUCTION

The North Eastern Hill (NEH) Region of India comprising the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim lies between 20º5’ to 29º30' latitude and 89º49' E to 97º3' E longitude. The region possesses a great diversity in soil and climate as influenced by varied altitudes ranging from 18m MSL to more than 3000m MSL. In the entire region due to high rainfall (1800 mm to 3000 mm/year) humidity is very high (50-100%). The average minimum and maximum temperature is also comparatively low and ranges from below 0°C to a maximum of 35ºC. This region is very rich in natural resources with diverse flora and fauna.

Abstract

In developing countries, about 80 percent of the world population depends on traditional medicines for their primary healthcare as estimated by World Health Organization. In a recent floristic survey undertaken in Chithara Village Panchayat recorded a very rich diversity of wild medicinal plants. Based on extensive literature search, of the total 272 plants, 96% species were known to have marginal to outstanding medicinal properties and uses. Among the plants, ten species namely, Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Cannabis sativa L., Cissampelos pareira L., Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Euphorbia hirta L., Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., Justicia adhatoda L., Solanum americanum Mill. and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal were found to be very important as they possess medicinal properties for curing a large number of diseases in traditional system of medicines in India and other parts of the world. The whole plants including root, stem and leaves are utilized traditionally for curing various ailments such as abdominal pain, cold, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, inflammation, fever, rheumatism, sexual disorders, skin diseases, respiratory diseases etc. These plants are also reported to contain numerous important phytochemicals such as alkanes, amino acids, flavonoids, organic acids, polyphenolic compounds, polyphenols, steroids, tannins, terpenes etc. which qualifies their various medicinal properties. Plants are reported to yield potent drug such as vasicine and vasicinone (by A. vasica), bacosoids (B. monnieri) and withanolides (W. somnifera). The paper provides the details of traditional medicinal usages and chemical constituents of ten high value medicinal plants recorded from the study area.

Abstract

The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya depends on wild medicinal plants for curing a number of ailments since ages. The traditional knowledge systems which evolved through trial and error method are an integral part of their culture. The objectives of the present study were to highlight the medicinal plants used by the Khasi tribe to treat various diseases, provide scientific validation of the medicinal plants by pharmacological screening using secondary literature and suggest strategies for its sustainable management. A total of 363 plants distributed in 283 genera and 129 families were documented. The life forms of these plants were in the order of herb > tree > shrub > climber > parasite > epiphyte. The herbal remedies for treating various ailments are prepared by using the whole plant either individually or in combination with other plant parts. Cross validation with the help of secondary literature showed the presence of active compounds in these plants. Therefore, it is suggested that traditional knowledge should be properly documented and scientifically explored with more emphasis on species specific phytochemicals and their mode of action.

Introduction

The hot arid zones of the country are spread over 32 million ha in the state of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Punjab (5%), Haryana (4%), Karnataka (3%) and Maharashtra (0.4%), in addition to the cold deserts in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh which are characterized by hostile agro-climate and fragile eco-system. In Rajasthan, the hot arid zone covers 12 district of whole western Rajasthan. It covers the 61 % area of the Rajasthan State and characterized by an annual rainfall between 100 – 500 mm with a coefficient of variation (CV) varying from 40 – 70 per cent; low and erratic rainfall combined with extremes of temperature (450-500 cal/cm2/day); low relative humidity; high potential evapo-transpiration value ranging from 1600 mm in eastern part and 1800 mm in western part of the region.

The livestock sector is a pillar of the global food system and a contributor to poverty reduction, food security and agricultural development. Livestock play a major role in sustainable food systems—for example, manure is a critical source of natural fertilizer, while livestock used as draft animals can help boost productivity in regions where there is low mechanization. Livestock are important assets for vulnerable communities.

Natural Animal Farming

Government of India is promoting natural farming, through National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) and organic farming through ParamparagatKrishiVikasYojna (PKVY) and Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER).On the initiative of NITI Ayog, Natural Farming defined as is a chemical-free traditional farming method. It is considered as an agroecology based diversified farming system which integrates crops, trees and livestock with functional biodiversity. Natural farming is a system where the laws of nature are applied to agricultural practices. This method works along with the natural biodiversity of each farmed area, encouraging the complexity of living organisms, both plants, and animals that shape each particular ecosystem to thrive along with food plants. Natural Farming builds on natural or ecological processes that exist in or around farms. Several studies have reported the effectiveness of natural farming in terms of increase in production, sustainability, saving of water use, improvement in soil health and farmland ecosystem. It is considered as a cost- effective farming practices with scope for raising employment and rural development.

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.

Evolution of Traditional Advertising

Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms

• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.
Evolution of Traditional Advertising
Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms:
• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience.
• Radio Advertising: The introduction of radio in the early 20th century revolutionized advertising by allowing businesses to broadcast their messages to a vast audience.
• Television Advertising: The mid-20th century saw the rise of television commercials, providing businesses with an engaging and visually appealing way to market their products.
• Outdoor Advertising: Billboards, posters, and transit ads have been used to attract consumers in high-traffic areas.
• Direct Mail Advertising: Sending promotional materials directly to consumers’ homes has been an effective marketing strategy for decades.

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.
Evolution of Traditional Advertising
Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms:
• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience.
• Radio Advertising: The introduction of radio in the early 20th century revolutionized advertising by allowing businesses to broadcast their messages to a vast audience.
• Television Advertising: The mid-20th century saw the rise of television commercials, providing businesses with an engaging and visually appealing way to market their products.
• Outdoor Advertising: Billboards, posters, and transit ads have been used to attract consumers in high-traffic areas.
• Direct Mail Advertising: Sending promotional materials directly to consumers’ homes has been an effective marketing strategy for decades.

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decades, as concerns about declines in local habitats, species, and livelihoods related to agriculture and allied sectors have increased, the potential contributions of local and traditional knowledge (LTK) to ecosystem research and management have been increasingly recognized (Thornton and Scheer, 2012). North Eastern region is well known as one of the 18 hotspot areas of the world and hence is blessed with rich biodiversity and fish fisheries resources. With more than 90% of population being fish eaters, there is heavy demand of fish but a wide gap exists between supply and demand. The region produces over 0.214 million tonnes of fish annually, with almost 50% coming from aquaculture.

Introduction 
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) serve as the foundation of any efficient and high-functioning laboratory, ensuring data reliability, patient safety and adherence to regulatory standards. In an environment where accuracy, consistency and data integrity are critical, comprehensive GLP training becomes the driving force behind operational excellence. A well-structured training program strengthens the capabilities of laboratory professionals, enabling them to navigate complex regulatory landscapes while upholding the highest standards of quality and safety. In today’s rapidly evolving scientific and industrial sectors, maintaining stringent laboratory standards is imperative rather than optional. GLP provides a structured approach that ensures every test, analysis and experimental procedure is carried out with precision, ethical rigor and strict adherence to safety measures. However, beyond simply following GLP principles, continuous assessment of laboratory personnel’s competency is essential to sustaining long-term proficiency and compliance. Competency assessment in GLP plays a crucial role in verifying whether laboratory staff possess the requisite expertise to perform tests accurately and generate reliable, scientifically valid results. As a framework designed to uphold the credibility of non-clinical laboratory studies, GLP is instrumental in reinforcing research integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory authorities. Laboratories that rigorously follow GLP guidelines contribute to reproducible and verifiable scientific findings, which are vital for regulatory approvals and critical decision-making in pharmaceuticals, healthcare and research sectors. Competency assessments function as both a quality assurance mechanism and a professional development tool, guaranteeing that laboratory personnel not only comprehend standard protocols but can also execute them effectively in real-world scenarios. With the continuous evolution of laboratory sciences, training and assessment methodologies must also advance to meet new challenges. This chapter explores the transformation of GLP training and competency evaluation, emphasizing their significance, diverse methodologies and essential components. Additionally, it highlights best practices for implementation and introduces innovative strategies designed to complement established global standards, such as those outlined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). By embracing these advancements, laboratories can not only achieve regulatory compliance but also cultivate a culture of excellence, ensuring that their workforce remains agile, skilled and prepared to meet the demands of modern scientific landscapes.

Training represents a systematic process of developing knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies that enable individuals to perform their current and future roles more effectively. It involves planned learning experiences designed to bring about relatively permanent changes in behavior, performance, and capabilities through the acquisition of new information, skills, and attitudes. The essence of training lies in its purposeful nature, distinguishing it from informal learning or casual instruction by its structured approach to achieving specific learning objectives within defined timeframes and contexts. The contemporary definition of training has evolved from narrow skill-based instruction to encompass broader developmental approaches that address cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of human performance. Modern training is understood as a strategic organizational investment that enhances individual capability while supporting broader business objectives such as productivity improvement, quality enhancement, innovation promotion, and competitive advantage development. This expanded conceptualization recognizes training as both a human resource development tool and a strategic business process that contributes directly to

Horticultural plants are grown for their diversified produce like fruits, vegetables, flowers, aromatic (essential oils) or medicinal components, spices (oleoresins), etc. if these plants are allowed to grow naturally, they will grow wild with very less potential yield. Therefore, it is essential to train and prune these plants not only to develop the proper framework in manageable shape but also to improve the potential yield in terms of quality and quantity.

Once the sapling is planted, it is essential to maintain the proper framework by cutting certain branches as well as some parts of branches. In the initial period, it is essential to maintain well distribution of flower or fruit bearing parts growing in four directions. Once the plant achieves proper framework after a certain period; then also some of the plant parts, namely branches or certain portions of branches, are removed to achieve potential yield.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Most botanists identify trees by their leaves, f lowers and fruit. However, the plant architecture specialist is interested in trunks, branches and twigs. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning, e.g., mango, sapota, while some fruit trees can grow well naturally, e.g., pineapple, papaya as they do not require pruning. Most deciduous trees like apple, pear, almond etc. and grapes, ber, fig, citrus, pomegranate, guava etc. require pruning to train them for desired shape.

10.2 TRAINING

Training is an operation by which the plant is made to develop an orderly structure or frame work. This is done by staking, tying, supporting, propping, trailing or spreading on certain structure with or without pruning of plant. Training is usually done when plants are young. Bending, twisting, decapitations are done by using springs of hard wire, where it is required. It is a physical technique which controls the shape, size and direction of plant growth known as training or in other words, training in effect is orientation of plant in space through techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts.

The following special terms are used in grape cultivation:

1. Training: Consists chiefly in giving a shape to the vine to the various forms of support.
2. Pruning: Consists in removing canes, shoots, leaves diseased, unproductive and other vegetative parts of the vine.
3. Thinning: Thinning is the removal of flower cluster, immature fruit cluster or parts of cluster.
4. Shoots: Shoots are the current season’s top vegetative (succulent) growth arising from a bud after pruning.
5. Canes: Canes are the woody matured shoots.

Objectives

1. To study the objectives and principles of training and pruning.
2. To study the methods of training and pruning.

Training: It refers to judicious removal of part to develop a proper shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load.

Objectives of Training

1. To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun
2. To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
3. To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
4. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.