eChapters

A climate-resilient agriculture, which we need urgently, will have to be based on a two-pronged strategy: maximising farm productivity and production during a normal monsoon period, and minimising the adverse impact of unfavourable weather as witnessed during 2009.  Unfortunately, we are yet to develop an anticipatory research and extension programme to minimise damage during unfavourable monsoon periods.  For example, the deficiency in rainfall during the southwest monsoon of 2009 was 23 per cent.  The growth in agriculture and allied sector GDP was minus 0.2.  The highest growth rate in agriculture GDP of 5.2 per cent was observed during 2005-06 when the growth in total GDP was 9.5 per cent.  Had we had a scientific monsoon management strategy, we could have minimised the loss in 2009-10.  Similarly, if we have a strategy for maximising the benefits of a good monsoon, we can hope to achieve at least 5 per cent growth rate during 2010-11 in agriculture and allied sectors.  In parts of China like the Yunnan province, which has experienced 60 per cent less rainfall than normal, there is a move to grow different crops together in the same field, thereby distributing the risk arising from monoculture. It is time to develop a pro-active monsoon management strategy.

How can we develop a sustainable water security system in an era of climate change and global warming ?  In my view, every country should develop a sustainable water security system with the following four major components.

Supply augmentation

The major sources of irrigation water are from rainfall, rivers, tanks, reservoirs and other surface water resources, groundwater, industrial and domestic effluents, and seawater.  Seawater comprises almost 97 per cent of the global water resource and is an important social asset.  With the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice, sea level will go up with disastrous consequences. The tsunami of December 2004 gave a glimpse of what could happen in the future.  To augment supplies, we must harvest rainwater and store it carefully, both above and below ground.  Also, we should ensure that all waste water which emerges from industry and domestic use is purified and recycled.  Rainwater harvesting should become a way of life, so that it becomes everybody’s business.

There are reports in financial newspapers that the ongoing (2010) drought affecting nearly 200 districts in the country may not have much effect on GDP, since the farmers in the drought-affected areas contribute hardly 3 per cent to GDP.  It is sad that such a measure of the impact of drought on the lives and livelihoods of millions of rural families is even considered. It is this mindset, typical of the growing insensitivity to human suffering in our country, that is responsible for India being the home for the largest number of undernourished and malnourished children, women and men in the world.  No wonder we are finding it difficult to achieve the first among the UN Millennium Development Goals, namely, reducing hunger and poverty by half by 2015.  Unless we realise that agriculture in India is not just a food- producing machine, but is the backbone of the livelihood of over 60 per cent of our population, rural deprivation and suffering will not only continue to persist, but will get worse, leading to severe social unrest.

Genus : Feijoa 
Species : sellowiana Berg.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = unknown

Origin
Feijoa is native of subtropical South America, widely distributed in western Paraguay, parts of Argentina southern Brazil and Uruguay.

Uses
All parts of the plants are edible, the fruit has great resemblance to guava in respect of its appearance and size and other important pomological traits. Usually consumed as dessert or cooked, petals being thick are used in salad, on accounts of its high fruit flavour is also made into jams, jellies etc., besides these fruit juice is used to add aroma to non-alcoholic beverages.

Genus : Syzygium 
Species : aromaticum
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = unknown

Origin and Distribution

The wild species are found growing wild in New Guinea and its cultivation was found on some islands of Moluccas. By the 17th century its cultivation has spread to number of other islands and from Moluccas crop reached Asia. The Britishers further introduced it to in India, Sumatra, Sri Lanka and other countries of south east Asia. Through French, the crop reached Mauritius which further spread to Madagascar, Zanzibar (Africa) and finally reached tropical America (Brazil).

Uses
Chinese valued clove as a spice. In India, regarded as an important spice, dried clove buds or after grinding are used to flavour food, valued for medical purposes (flower and fruit) in south east Asia.

Genus : Eugenia 
Species : uniflora  L.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Eugenia uniflora, L. Is another important genera in family Myrtaceae which produces edible fruit. The fruit is known by several names like Pitanga, Surinam cherry, Cayenne cherry and Florida cherry. The word pitanga is derived from Tupi meaning ‘piter’ and ‘anga’, scent or odour. From its native home in Brazil the fruit was introduced in India at an early time probably by the Portuguese but is not cultivated commercially. The shiny deep green foliage is very attractive and the crushed leaves results in a pungent but agreeable odour which drives away the flies.

Genus : Euphoria/Nephelium/Dimocarpus
Species : longana (Lour.) Stend. cinerea
Family : Sapindaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 20

The longan (Euphoria longana) belongs to the Sapindaceae or soapberry family to which more important fruits like litchi and rambutan also belongs. The family contains more than 1000 spp. from 125 genera widely distributed in the tropical and warm subtropics. Most of the species are native to Asia though some are also found in south America, Africa and Australia. The genus has seven species but only longana is both horticulturally and commercially important as it yields/produces edible fruits. For most of the growth, flowering and fruit characters it is similar to the two above horticultural crops mentioned. In respect of soil and climate it is less demanding and does adapt or tolerates drier and cooler condition better than litchi.

Genus : Grewia
Species : subinequalis DC., asiatica L.
Family : Tiliaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 36

Phalsa (Grewia asiatica) belongs  to the family Tilaceae and some members  are native of India too and is  mentioned in Vedic writings and various plant parts are employed to cure number of ailments. The family comprises  of 18 genera and some 400 species distributed mostly in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Of the prevailing 140 species,  40 are indigenous to India of which Grewia asiatica is of significance horticulturally. Phalsa is commercially  cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and on limited scale in Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Genus : Averrhoa 
Species : carambola L.
Family : Oxalidaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n= 22, 24

According to a Dutch traveller Linschoten (1598) has described carambola as a ‘fruit with eight distinct corners as big as a small apple, sour in taste, resembles an unripe plum. The Chinese and Hindus eat this fruit as vegetable when green and as a fruit (dessert) when ripe. Carambola is esteemed in the Orient and is wide spread in the tropics. The bilimbi is a close relative to Carambola and in every livelihood is native of Malayan region and is considered as the only cultivated species. The fruit is very acidic in taste, and in appearance resemble cucumber.

Genus : Aegle 
Species : marmelos (L) Correa
Family : Rutaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18(36)

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) besides being indigenous to N. India it is also one of the most useful medicinal plant of India, as it has number of curative properties. In Ayurveda the Indian medicine system use of unripe fruit is advised for acute dysentery and diarrhoea whereas ripe fruit acts as an effective laxative. Amongst the fruits native of India, bael is said to be the most nutritious fruit, is rich in protein minerals, carbohydrates, vitamin C as well as in riboflavin content. Despite these quality statistics the fruit failed to become popular (as dessert) primarily it being very seedy with thick hard shell and mucilaginous flesh but the processing qualities needs to be exploited judiciously.

Genus : Cyphomendra 
Species : betacea  (Cav.)  Sendtner
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

The tree tomato is a bushy fruit plant which in early time was planted in the gardens high upon the mountain slopes. Presently in India, Sri Lanka and number of other countries it is grown in the hilly region. Indians of Peru at very early stages gave the world a number of food plants of which potato is of great value, and tree tomato in the only woody species of family Solanaceae. The tree is fast growing and starts to bear in about two to three years times. The egg shaped and usually smooth-skinned fruits are produced in large number in hanging clusters. The sub acidic and succulent fruits are agreeable and eaten as raw. In central America it is called tomate and cultivated at an elevation of 4000 to 8000 feet. The crop loves rich loamy soil and grows best under irrigated conditions.

Genus : Malpighia 
Species : punicifolia L., glabra Millsp.
Family : Malpighiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The barbados cherry, a member of the Malpighiaceae, is an interesting example of a fruit that rose like Cinderella, from relative obscurity about 40 years ago. It was at that time the subject of much taxonomic confusion, having been described and discussed previously under the binomical Malpighia glabra L. which properly belongs to a wild relative inhibiting the west Indies, tropical America and the lowlands of Mexico to southern Texas, and having smaller pointed leaves, smaller flowers in peduncled umbels, styles nearly equal, and smaller fruits. M. punicifolia

Genus : Pistachia 
Species : vera L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 30

Among the nut crops Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.) occupies a significant place for its delectable and nutty flavoured kernels which in large quantity is imported to India mainly from Iran and Afghanistan. On account of its demand for very exacting climatic requirements the crop has failed to establish successfully in number of new regions where efforts were made to introduce this crop, despite the fact that it resists drought and adverse soil conditions much better than more important fruits of the family Anacardiaceae. Pistachio trees are long lived but grow very slowly in early years of its plantation compared to many of the deciduous fruit trees. Alternate bearing is also a wide spread phenomena in this crop. Pista is a fruit of temperate region and can withstand wide fluctuation in temperature. The exact place of its origin though not definite, is often regarded to be indigenous to central Asia, where large stands of wild pistachio trees are found growing in abundance.

Genus   : Macadamia
Species : integrifolia Maiden and Betch
Family : Protaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =28

Macadamia nut is known as ‘Australian Nut’ or ‘Queensland Nut’ because of its origin in the rainforests of New South Wales and Queensland. The crop is sensitive to frost hence the site which suits orange and lemon tree cultivation is also good for macadamia. Macadamia through cultivated commercially in Australia it is in Hawaii that maximum improvement and advancement in terms of selection of superior cultivars has taken place and in short time of about 100 years macadamia culture has become a very fruitful entrepreneur. Presently there is huge gap between the macadamia nut demand and supply therefore efforts are being made to introduce macadamia into other tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

Genus : Cydonia / Pyrus
Species : oblonga Mill. vulgaris Pers. 
                cydonia L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

The fruit of pome class referred as Cydonia oblonga (also Pyrus cydonia) is an ancient fruit and yet its significance is not fully recognized and crop has received very less attention. There is hardly any mention of this old fruit in respect of its merit, its cultivation or in the form of some standard literature. One reason could be that amongst pome fruits where quince is placed, better fruit form, raw eating quality persisted, which markedly restricted quince improvement. Quince fruit lacks dessert class except when cooked but is commercially used for flavouring, in preparation of jellies marmalade and preserves. However in near East and Persia, quince cultivation is highly improved through the selection of better varieties which are eaten raw.

1. Introduction

Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) is a striking tuberous climbing plant with brilliant wavy-edged yellow and red petaled flowers. Glory lilies are grown commercially for a chemical compound, colchicine. The annual foreign exchange through the export of glory lily seeds is estimated to be Rs.100 crores (Alice and Sundravadana, 2012). It is used as anthemirtic, alexiteric and useful in ulcers, piles, abdominal pains and itching. It has abortifacient, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-leprotic properties (Gupta et al., 2005). Leaf blight disease was first noticed in  G.. Superba in West Bengal, India in 2004. The leaf blight disease was observed during June to September. Early symptoms appeared as small, circular to oval, light brownish spots, 2-6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently the spots enlarged and usually developed into concentric rings. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced and became irregular in shape, then the affected leaf blighted completely. The causal organism was found to be a fungus namely Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. The pathogen is greatly influenced by weather with the highest disease incidence reported in wet seasons and in areas with relatively high rainfall (Meena et al., 2010). The growth of A. alternata was maximum in pH range of 6-6.5 and temperature range of 25-30°C (Hubballi et al., 2010).

1. Introduction
 
Keratinophilic fungi are the natural colonizers of keratinic substances like hair, nail, fur, feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales etc. Cattle sheds, garbage, animal burrows, sewage, birds nest, feather and hair dumping sites, poultry farms, public places like parks, schools, market place etc., are the common habitats of these fungi (Ali-Shtayeh and Rana, 2000). They utilize keratin as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen and produce an extracellular enzyme keratinase.

Keratinophilic fungi have been receiving considerable attention in recent days as these include dermatophytes which are potential pathogens causing various diseases in skin and scalp (Weitzman and Summerbell, 1995). Human exposure to these fungi is a matter of health risk. Several non-pathogenic fungi are now being reported as opportunistic pathogen and their occurrence in various environments, where they are naturally occurring is not directly investigated. Although several antifungal drugs are available in the market, its use is being limited due to a number of reasons such as low potency, poor solubility, development of resistant strains and drug toxicity. Hence there is an essential need to evaluate plant extracts scientifically for their medicinal properties to discover more safer and effective antifungal agents.

Materials Required 

Fruits/vegetables, hand refractometers, fruit pressure tester, weighing balance, scale, chemicals and glassware required for analysis.

Procedure

    1.    Go to the orchard or vegetable field and collect samples of fruits and vegetables
    2.    Apply the specific maturity indices to the samples

Materials Required

Fruits/ vegetables, weighing balance, plastic crates, CFB boxes or other packaging material fruit pressure tester, hand refractometer, markers etc.

Procedure

    1.    Harvest the fruits
    2.    Subject them to various pre-treatments (as discussed in previous exercise).
    3.    Record their initial parameters i.e. weight, firmness, surface colour, TSS, rotting etc. 
    4.    Place properly packed commodity in storage alongwith a check under ambient conditions
    5.    Record the observations regarding changes in quality during storage
 

Materials Required

Fruit, pulper, fruit mill, hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, stainless steel pans, chemical preservatives, glass bottles, closures, crown corks, crown corking machine, plastic barrels.

Procedure

    1.    Select and weigh sound fruits/vegetables for extraction of juice/pulp.    
    2.    Wash and peel the fruits as required.
    3.    Extract the juice by hot or cold process.
    4.    Pasteurize the juice/pulp to inactivate the enzymes and partially kill microorganisms.
    5.    Preserve the juice/pulp by heat processing after hot filling and hermetic sealing or by addition of permissible quantities of suitable preservatives.
    6.    Label the bottles properly and keep them for storage

Materials Required

Fruits or fruit pulp, steel pans, weighing balance, refractometer, sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid, citric acid etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Extract fruit pulp as told in earlier exercises. 
    2.    Take a known quantity of freshly extracted or preserved pulp.
    3.    Weigh sugar (about half the weigh of pulp).
    4.    Heat pulp and sugar over a gas flame.
    5.    Add spices, chillies, salt, citric acid (if required) etc. and cook
    6.    Record the TSS to judge the end point. It should be more than 50o Brix.
    7.    Add measured quantities of acetic acid and sodium benzoate at the end.
    8.    Cool and pack in pre-washed and sterilized glass jars
    9.    Label and store.

Materials Required

Fruits or vegetables, stainless steel knife, steel pans, Can Body Reformer, Flanger, Double seamer, weighing balance, Refractometer / Salometer, sugar or salt etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Wash the selected fruit or vegetable (as the case may be) 
    2.    Cut into pieces or slices (the size and shape may depend on the fruit/ vegetable but it should not be too large or too small)
    3.    Blanch the material in boiling water for 1-2 min for effective inactivation of enzymes. 
    4.    Prepare the sugar syrup of strength 40o Brix or brine of 1-3 % strength.
    5.    Prepare the can body using a can body reformer and flange the ends in a flanger.
    6.    Seal the base plate using first and second roller operations of the double seamer. 
    7.    Transfer the prepared fruits / vegetables into the cans. 
    8.    Pour in hot syrup or brine into the cans.
    9.    Place the lid over the top of filled can. (follow the first roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS cans)
    10.    Exhaust the cans in boiling water for about 10 min. to exclude any dissolved air out of the tissues or syrup/brine.
    11.    When the temperature of the centre of can reaches 79-80 ºC for fruits or 82ºC for vegetables, remove the cans from the exhaust box and seal them properly (follow the second roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS can).
    12.    Process the sealed cans at 100ºC and 115-121ºC for fruits and vegetables respectively for 15-30 min in case of fruits and 25-45 min. in case of vegetables.
    13.    Cool the cans immediately in cold water and air dry them at room temperature.
    14.    Label and store in a cool dry place.

Materials Required

Canned product, weighing balance, can cutter, vacuum/pressure guage, seam checking guage, Refractometer / Salometer etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Take a canned product say canned peach.
    2.    Record the weight of the can (A)
    3.    Record the information marked on the label i.e net  weight, date of packing, etc
    4.    Observe the can externally for the concavity of the lid.
    5.    Record the vacuum of the can by using a vacuum guage
    6.    Cut the lid of the can with a can cutter
    7.    Record the head space
    8.    Put all the contents over a sieve and let the liquid drain
    9.    Record the weight of empty can (B) to calculate net contents
    10.    Record the drained weight of the pieces.
    11.    Record whether the liquid is syrup or brine
    12.    Record the TSS of the salometer reading of the liquid (as the case may be)

Materials Required

Cut flowers, 1000 ml conical flasks, scissor, tape, distilled water, chemicals, weighing balance, volumetric flasks, labels, thermometer (max. & min. type) and hygrometer. 

Procedure

    1.    Collect fresh spikes of flowers
    2.    Cut at the base keeping about 25-60 cm of the cut flowers stick (uniformly for each flower).
    3.    Prepare Pulsing/ Vase solutions.
    4.    Put the prepared flower spikes in labeled conical flasks containing different Pulsing/ Vase solutions (for a known period of time).
    5.    Record the weight of the spikes and other observations daily.
    6.    Record the temperature and relative humidity of the storage chamber daily.
    7.    Analyse the recorded data and draw conclusion about the best vase solutions for the selected cut flower.

Materials Required

Fruit, vegetable or product sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, petri plates, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    Take crucibles  or petri plates and record the tare weight of crucibles / petri plates (C) and mark them
    2.    Cut the sample into small and thin pieces (if solid)
    3.    Put the sample into the crucibles / petri plates in three replications
    4.    Record the weight of crucibles + sample (C + S)
    5.    Put in hot air oven for drying at 70 + 2ºC.
    6.    Record the loss in weight after every 1-2 hrs till it becomes constant
    7.    Calculate the moisture and total solids. 

Materials Required

Sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, muffle furnace, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    After following the procedure for the determination of moisture (in silica crucibles as given in previous chapter) the same sample can be used for the determination of ash. 
    2.    Heat the dried sample in the silica crucibles over a heater/hot plate/burner to burn the carbon.
    3.    When it becomes completely black and no more smoke comes out of the sample, shift them to muffle furnace.
    4.    After heating the samples in muffle furnace, all the marks of pen / pencil/ marker are lost, so one would not be able to identify the samples and error of weights may occur. Therefore, it is advised to place the samples in the furnace in one or two rows and draw the diagram on a piece of paper for identification purpose.

Materials Required

Fruit/ sample, refractometers, thermometers, standard solutions of known TSS, temperature correction Tables.

Procedure

    1.    Calibrate refractometers of all ranges to be used.
    2.    The TSS of the juices/pulps/fresh fruits can be measured with the one having lowest range i.e. 0-32º Brix while, for measuring the TSS of concentrates, syrups, squashes, jams, jellies etc. refractometers of the higher ranges are made use of.
    3.    Put a drop of material on to the glass surface of refrectrometer’s prism, cover gently with the lid and observe the TSS against light.
    4.    Measure the temperature of the liquid which is being evaluated and apply temperature corrections (Annexure III).
    5.    Record the corrected value as the TSS of the sample.

Materials Required

Sample, reagents, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, weighing balance, spectrophotometer/colorimeter.

Reagents

    1.    2% Metaphosphoric Acid Solution: Weigh 20 g of HPO₃ and dilute to 1 litre in water or 4% oxalic acid.
    2.    Dye Solution: Dissolve 100 mg of 2, 6 Dichlorophenol-indophenol dye (Phenolindo-2,6- dichlorophenol sodium salt, AR, C₁₂H₆Cl₂NNaO₂ 2-3H₂O) and 84 mg of sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogen carbonate AR, NaHCO₃) in hot (85-95ºC) distilled water. Cool and make up the vol 100 ml. Filter and dilute 25 ml of the dye to 500 ml with distilled water. 
    3.    Standard Ascorbic Acid: Weigh 50 mg of ascorbic acid (AR) and make up to 50 ml with 2% metaphosphoric acid or 4% Oxalic acid solution (1000 ppm i.e. 1000 µg/ml). Dilute 4 ml of this solution to 100 ml with 2% HPO₃ or 4% oxalic acid. (1ml = 40 µg ascorbic acid).

Materials Required

Specific gravity bottles, weighing balance, sample, pipettes, thermometer, distilled water 

Procedure

    1.    Take the sample and distilled water record their temperatures (they should be same for correct estimation). If the temperatures are not same bring both to 20ºC or the room temperature.
    2.    Clean and dry the specific gravity bottles properly before use.
    3.    Record the tare weight of the specific gravity bottle (T) alongwith the stopper.
    4.    Carefully fill the specific gravity bottle with distilled water up to the brim and then place the stopper tightly so as to exclude extra water. 
    5.    Dry the exteriors of the bottle with a tissue paper
    6.    Record the weight of (bottle + water) say A
    7.    Similarly, fill the same specific gravity bottle with test sample and record the weight (bottle + sample) say B
    8.    Calculate the specific gravity of solution using the following formula

Materials Required

Spectrophotometer, ethyl alcohol, beakers, pestle and mortar etc. 

Procedure

    1.     Preparation of sample extracts
        a.    Liquids : Centrifuge the juice at 5000 rpm for 4-5 min., and collect the supernatant. For liquid samples prepare a 40 % solution in ethyl alcohol. To 30 ml of the sample add 45 ml of ethyl alcohol and mix thoroughly. Filter through Watman 
No. 1 paper.

        b.    Semi-solid samples: To 15 g of blended sample add 15 ml of distilled water and 45 ml of ethyl alcohol. Mix thoroughly and filter through Watman No. 1 paper.
        c.    Dried products: Extract known quantity of sample (4-6 g) with 100 ml of 60% ethyl alcohol for 12 hrs and filter through Watman No. 1 filter paper.
    2.     Measure the absorbance of the samples at 440 nm for non-enzymatic browning and 400 or 420 nm for measurement of colour.
    3.     Prepare 60% ethyl alcohol solution as blank. Add 30 ml of distilled water to 45 ml of absolute alcohol and use as blank.

Materials Required

Sample, Liebig condenser, digestion flasks (700-750 ml cap), conical flasks, filtering cloth (thick linen cloth for clear filtration) reagents, muffle furnace, crucibles.

Reagents

    1.    0.255 N Sulphuric acid solution : Dilute 2.5 g (1.36 ml) of concentrated H₂SO₄ to 200 ml. Ensure correct concentration by titration.
    2.    0.313 N Sodium hydroxide solution: 2.504 g NaOH / 200 ml water nearly free from sodium carbonate. Ensure correct concentration by titration.
    3.    Asbestos Chips: gooch grade, medium fibre, acid wash and ignited
    4.    10% Potassium sulphate (K₂SO₄) solution: Dissolve 10 g of Potassium Sulphate (AR) in water and make up to 100 ml.

Materials Required

Soxhlet apparatus, petroleum ether, water bath, sample, grinder, weighing balance, filter paper, threads.

Procedure

    1.    Take the given sample and weigh it (A)
    2.    Dry the samples in an oven till there is no more weight loss and weight it (B)
    3.    Grind the sample into powder.
    4.    Place a weighed quantity of sample in filter paper, wrap the paper and tie it tightly with a thread so that no powder comes out of the paper during extraction. 
    5.    Pour approximately 100 ml of anhydrous ether into the bottom flask. Turn the heaters on. Set the temperature at about 40ºC.  
    6.    The ether will evaporate and circulate through the sample and again will come back to the flask. 
    7.    Repeat the process for about 16 – 18 hrs for complete extraction. 
    8.    Remove the sample and evaporate most of the ether from the mixture of crude fat and ether obtained during extraction.
    9.    Evaporate excess of ether from the crude fat sample by evaporation on a water bath. Evaporate till it is free from the fumes of ether. Record the weight (C).

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/ pencil for coding, plain water

Procedure

    1.    Assign codes to the samples i.e. a, b, c, …… or 1, 2, 3, ….. etc.
    2.    Keep the coded samples randomly (eg. c, f, a, b, d, e) in a row for evaluation
    3.    Start the evaluation of samples for various sensory attributes one by one. 
    4.    Evaluator should rinse his/ her mouth after each sample so as to avoid overlapping of taste, flavour etc.
    5.    Assign marks from 1-9 based on pleasurable and un pleasurable experiences.
    6.    Compute the means for a particular attribute on the basis of the evaluation of different evaluators (replications).
    7.    Find out the best sample on the basis of highest average scores obtained.

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/pencil for coding, plain water.

Procedure

    1.    Take the given two samples
    2.    Make them three by duplicating/repeating either one of the two
    3.    Assign codes to the samples eg. AAB, ABA, ABB,  BAB etc.
    4.    Ask the evaluators to evaluate the samples for any differences between the 3 on the given Specimen Evaluation Card.
    5.    Find out how many of the evaluators have chosen the odd sample correctly (say it is 16 out of 20 evaluators).
    6.    Now find out the degree of difference in the samples indicated by the evaluators who correctly found the odd sample (Say it is much as per 3, moderate as per 8 and slight as per 5 out of the 16 correct evaluators.).
    7.    Find out how many of the correct evaluators preferred A sample and how many the B sample (say 11 preferred A sample and 5 B sample).
    8.    After going through Annexure II you may conclude that the two samples differed significantly from each other as 16 out of 20 evaluators found the odd sample correct. But, the preference was not significant as it should have been at least 13 out of 16 judges indicating same preference so as to make it significant. So, it may be concluded that the two samples differ significantly but both are acceptable.

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/ pencil for coding, plain water.

Procedure

    1.    Assign codes to the samples i.e. a, b, c, …… or 1, 2, 3, ….. etc.
    2.    Keep the coded samples randomly (eg. c, f, a, b, d, e) in a row for evaluation
    3.    Start the evaluation of samples one by one. 
    4.    Evaluator should rank the samples on the basis of intensity of a single sensory attribute according to his / her preference.
    5.    Compute the means on the basis of the evaluation of different evaluators (replications).
    6.    List the samples in increasing or decreasing order of preference.

Materials Required

Record book

Procedure

    1.    Follow the instructions given by the teacher and the factory representative.
    2.    Listen carefully to the explanations of the factory representative
    3.    Observe the functioning of various equipments
    4.    Ask queries wherever not understood properly.
    5.    Note down the observations in your record book  

Observations

    1.    Name and address of the factory or processing unit
    2.    Size of the Unit (Large, Small, Cottage, Home)
    3.    FPO Licence No.    
    4.    List of products manufactured    
    5.    Height of the processing plant    
    6.    Information regarding raw material store, finished product storage    
    7.    List of equipments installed in the factory
    8.    Water supply system     
    9.    Waste disposal system    
    10.    Hygiene in the surroundings    
    11.    Any other

Genetic architecture of a population is the result of prolonged natural selection. The populations which exist in diverse environments might have been strongly diversified genetically. So, it is necessary to understand the extent and rates of genetic divergence existing between the diversified forms or types. Genetic diversity must be sufficient enough to justify breeding effort. Genetic diversity may be available in improved germplasm or it may exist only in genetically inferior stocks. The availability of statistical tools to quantitatively measure the genetic divergence between two or more populations and the relative contribution of individual characters to the total divergence have permitted to trace the evolutionary patterns in some crops such as rice and tobacco and in choosing the parents for hybridization in crop plants (Rao, 1958; Blackith, 1960; Morishima and Oka, 1960; Murthy et al.,1962). Among the several statistical methods developed for measuring the divergence between population, multivariate analysis (D² statistic) developed by Mahalanobis in 1936, has been found to be potent tool.

Mahalanobis D² analysis is an effective tool in quantifying the degree of divergence at genetic level and provides a quantitative measures of the association between geographic and genetic diversity based on generalized distance.

Year         Milestones

1951       :    First amino acid was sequenced by F. Sanger and H. Tuppy.

1953    :    J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick proposed that DNA is a double helix.

1958    :    Discovery of DNA polymerase by Kornberg’s group and DNA replication studies began.

1959    :    Isolation of RNA polymerase.

1970    :    Discovery of reverse transcriptase showed that RNA can act as the template for the transcription of DNA and opened the way for cloning using cDNA libraries.

1970    :    General method was developed by M. Mandel and A. Higa for introducing DNA into cells by calcium dependent method.

1970    :    G.H. Khorana synthesized an artificial gene from DNA nucleotides.

1971    :    Restriction endonucleases for mapping DNA was first used by K. Danna and D. Nathans.

1972    :    The recombinant DNA Era begins. J. Mertz and R.W. Davis used T4 ligase to join DNA molecules.

Isolation of fungal pathogens

a. From leaves

•Choose leaves with young lesions.

•The lesions along with some healthy portion are cut in small pieces.

•The leaf portion is surface sterilized with 0.1% HgCl₂ for 10-15 seconds and washed with sterilized water 4-6 times.

•After washing, infected leaf pieces are placed on PDA plates with a sterilized forcep.

•After two days of incubation at optimum temperature, bits of mycelium from the margins of leaf pieces are transferred to fresh PDA slants.

•In certain cases the leaves are incubated in moist chamber and growth

•from infected portion is transferred directly to culture media.

Koch‘s Postulates (Pathogenicity test)

Robert Koch developed the following postulates in 1883 on the basis of which an organism could be attributed to be the cause of a specific disease.

i)Recognition: The suspected organism must be found in every case of disease (Presence of organism in the diseased tissues).

ii)Isolation: The organism must be isolated in pure culture from every case of disease (Isolation in pure form).

iii)Inoculation: The isolated pure culture when introduced into the same species or variety of susceptible host must be capable of reproducing the original disease with its typical symptoms (Pathogenicity).

iv)Re-isolation: The organism must be re-isolated from the artificially infected host and its characteristics must be exactly like those observed in step 2 (This step was added by E.F. Smith).

If all the postulates are proved true, then the isolated pathogen is identified as the actual causal organism responsible for the disease.

Introduction

Chemicals that kill or retard fungi are fungicides. Most chemicals used to control plant diseases are ”protectants“ and must be applied before infection to protect the plant from invasion by a pathogen. Protectant fungicides are usually effective against a broad range of fungi and protect the plant against infection on the surfaces of the plant to which they are applied. Often, they require multiple applications during the growing season to maintain coverage as new growth emerges and weathering removes past coverage. A few chemicals are termed ”eradicants“ since they can eliminate an established infection. Some newer fungicides are systemic, meaning that they are absorbed by the foliage or roots and move within the plant to the site of infection. Systemic chemicals may be protectants, eradicants, or both systemic fungicides can be absorbed by the plant without harming it, and transported to other tissues where they are toxic to fungi. These compounds can control and eradicate established infections, but they are also vulnerable to fungi developing resistance, as they generally only target one step in a biosynthetic pathway to kill the fungus. To minimize the development of resistance by chemical overuse, fungicides are classified into groups based on their chemical activity.

Preparation of Bordeaux mixture

Materials: Iron, beaker, copper sulphate, lime, weighing balance, plastic container, wooden stick and muslin cloth.

Bordeaux mixture derives its name from the place of its discovery, Bordeaux, France.

Ingredients required for the preparation of 100 litre of 1 percent elicoid mixture are:

1.Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) : 1 kg

2.Quick lime (unslaked) : 1 kg

3.Water 100 litres

Method

•Dissolve 1kg powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water in a mudpot or plastic bucket.

•In another 50 litres of water dissolve 1kg of quicklime.

•Stir thoroughly with the help of wooden stick.

•Put a filter cloth on the mouth of 3^rd container.

•Pour the contents of both the containers in a 3^rd container simultaneously and stir it thoroughly.

•Make up the desire volume (ie. 100 litres).

•Test the mixture before use for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plant.

Introduction

Diseases are a common occurrence on plants, often having a significant economic impact on yield and quality, thus managing diseases is an essential component of production for most crops. These fungicides are used because of three main reasons:

a.To control a disease during the establishment and development of a crop.

b.To increase productivity of a crop and to reduce blemishes.

c.To improve the storage life and quality of harvested plants and produce.

Application Methods

To protect the crop from fungal pathogens, fungicides are applied in various formulations (as dust, granules, gas and most commonly, liquid). They are applied to:

1.Seed treatment

2.Soil treatment

3.Protection of standing crop

Poisoned food technique

The principle involved is to poison the medium with fungi toxicants and then allow a test fungus to grow on such medium. The test may be performed both on solid and liquid medium.

Procedure

On solid medium

•Prepare potato dextrose agar medium.

•Add required amount of fungicide and thoroughly mixed.

•The medium is poured into sterilized Petri-plates.

•A culture of test fungus is grown on PDA for a certain period (generally seven days) at the optimum temperature for growth.

•Small disc (7 mm) of fungus culture is cut with sterile cork borer and each Petri plates are centrally inoculated aseptically containing the medium with desired fungicidal concentration.

•Suitable checks are kept where the culture discs are grown under the same conditions on PDA without fungicide.

•The fungal colony diameter is measured at every 24 hr.

Food is basic to human being and agriculture is the catalyst between the two which is basically supported by natural resources. The human being is entirely dependant on food and food is fully dependent on agriculture and humanity. Eventhough food, agriculture and humanity have their own entity; they are inseparable for the survival and existence of each other. Hence, the three pillars of food, agriculture and humanity forming a triangle symbolize the roots of human civilization.

I find myself fortunate to have the opportunihj to live and experience the working life of the farmers and the farming in Kansas (USA), Nigeria (Africa), Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Middle East), Italy (Europe) and India, Myanmar and Thailand (Asia). It zvas fiirther strengthened by visits to farmers in another about 100 countries. Day after day and month after month and even years, it made me to realize that community culture, language and farming in each state, country and continent are different from each other but some things are common and that they are all doing farming, they are growing food and they all doing for the livelihood of their families, neighbors and communities near and far (Nath, 2011).

The foundation of agriculture is laid on available natural resources e.g. land, water, sunlight, air, plant, animal and human beings. The human beings, being the leader to manage the resources have contributed to redefine agricultural science and promote and develop technology. This has led to augment agriculture and its science and technology. At the end, the human efforts have brought about changes and improved agriculture production at the cost of excessive use of natural resources, knowing well that without natural resources, without good soil and water hardly anything will survive.

Presently world produces enough to feed the present human population, but it is not available to millions of people. It is not the lack of availability of food but is the unequal distribution and lack of entitlement which are causing hunger and malnutrition in millions of population.

Objective: To estimate total protein in the plant sample by Folin-Lowry's method.

Background information:

Protein assay can be done to determine the level of protein in solution by the Folin-Lowry biochemical method. The concentration of protein leads to change in color of the solution and based on different color in different protein concentration solution the change in color may be digitized by colorimeter or spectrophotometer. This technique was developed by Oliver H. Lowry in the year 1940s. The tyrosine and trytophan amino acid residues in a protein sample produces purple or blue color in the absorption maxima at 660 nm by using Folin-Ciocalteau (having phosphate and sodium tungstate molybdate) chemical reagent. The color intensity of protein sample depends on the concentration of above aromatic amino acids (tyrosine and tryptophan), hence every sample will vary for color. For protein estimation the BSA (Bovine serum albumin) is widely used as standard protein molecule due to its cost effectiveness, purity and easy availability. This method of protein estimation is very sensitive and can detect up to 10 μg/ml. This is a relative method of protein estimation and may be interfere by salts, Tris buffer, nonionic & cationic detergents, EDTA, lipids and carbohydrates. For reproducible assay the incubation time, pH (9-10.5) is critical in this method (Lowry, et al. 1951).

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of polyphenol oxidase from plant.

Background information:

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO or monophenol monooxygenase or polyphenol oxidase I, chloroplastic) is a tetramer that contains four atoms of copper per molecule, and binding sites for two aromatic compounds and oxygen (www.worthington-biochem.com). The enzyme catalyses the o-hydroxylation of monophenol molecules in which the benzene ring contains a single hydroxyl substituent to o-diphenols (phenol molecules containing two hydroxyl substituents). It can also further catalyse the oxidation of o-diphenols to produce o-quinones.

PPO causes the rapid polymerization of o-quinones to produce black, brown or red pigments (polyphenols) that cause fruit browning. The amino acid tyrosine contains a single phenolic ring that may be oxidised by the action of PPOs to form o-quinone. Hence, PPOs are some time referred as tyrosinases (Mayer, 2006).

Jolley et al. (1974) referred to PPO as 4 electron-transferring phenol oxidase and oxygen. It is responsible for browning reactions throughout the phylogenetic scale.

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of catalase from plant.

Background information

Catalase is a commonly distributed enzyme and present in approximately all organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants and animals). Catalysis of H₂O₂ into H₂O and O₂ is done by catalase enzyme (Goodsell, 2004).

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of guaiacol peroxidase from plant.

Background information:

Peroxidases are a large family of enzymes that typically catalyze a reaction of the form:

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of Superoxide dismutase from plant.

Background information:

Superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) is the enzyme that alternately catalyzes the dismutation (or partitioning) of the superoxide (O₂^-) radical into either ordinary molecular oxygen (O₂) or hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Superoxide is produced as a by-product of oxygen metabolism and, if not regulated, may cause cell damage (Hayyan, et al. 2016). Hydrogen peroxide is also responsible for cell damage and may be degraded by other enzymes like catalase. Thus, SOD is an important antioxidant defense in nearly all living cells exposed to oxygen. One exception is Lactobacillus plantarum and related lactobacilli, which use a different mechanism to prevent damage from reactive O₂^-.