eChapters

2.1 Present Situation
Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, which, for centuries, has shaped the thought, the outlook, the culture and the economic life of the people of India. Agriculture, therefore, is and will continue to be central to all strategies for planned socio-economic development of the country. Rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only to achieve self-reliance at national level but also for household food security and to bring about equity in distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in poverty levels.
The onset and growth of extension strategy has so far been in a response to the socio-economic milieu across the World. In addition to socio economic dimensions, the other dimensions like temporal, geographical, ecological, managerial, technological and so on are being ascribed towards modeling extension researches.
The North East part of India is not only unique but also solitary examples in these arenas by having a huge score of bio-diversity, geo-morphological variation and ethno cultural diversity. Still the agriculture is running there with low productivity, poor accessibility to market and splashed with traditional rigmaroles. In hunting out the crux of problems, it has been one of the options to deal with the problems of lithospheric barriers or opportunity, if any, on shaping the extension strategy for upgrading and uplifting the agricultural status of hill eco-system of Manipur.
The present study well encompasses the issues of hilly terrain including the slope and runoff directions for deciding on the befitting extension strategy. The entire slice of research has divided the terrain into high, medium and low altitude to elucidate the altitude specific factors impacting on the crop stands, yield behavior, technological options and market responses.
The empirical study has elicited a unique pattern of altitudinal change on crop husbandry, bio-diversity score, livelihood pattern and situation specific need perception to present ultimately a geo-sensible extension perception. This will be applied towards having a sustainable and comprehensive agro-economic

Theoretical Probability Distribution

Many random variables associated with statistical experiments have similar properties, and as such can be described by the same probability functions. The distribution obtained from a theoretical listing of outcomes and probabilities, which can be described by a mathematical formula representing same phenomenon of interest is called a theoretical probability distribution. The distributions of discrete and continuous random variables are accordingly called discrete or continuous probability distributions.

Discrete Probability Distribution: It can be defined as a probability distribution of discrete random variables. Such a distribution will represent data that has a f inite countable number of outcomes. If the random variable X is a discrete random variable, the probability function P(X) is called probability mass function and its distribution is called discrete probability distribution. There are two conditions that a discrete probability distribution must satisfy. These are given as follows:

Types of Discrete Probability Distributions

There are several important discrete probability distributions-

• Uniform distribution

• Binomial distribution

• Negative Binomial distribution

• Geometric distribution

• Poisson distribution

• Hyper-Geometric distribution

Little and Watts (1994) define contract farming as a system of vertical coordination between growers and buyers, in which production decisions are directly shaped by contractual agreements. These contracts specify obligations related to market parameters such as volume, value, quality and in some cases price. Beyond market terms, contracts often extend to the supply of inputs, technical guidance and a degree of control exercised by the contracting firm over the farmer’s production process. At its core, a contract serves as a mechanism for risk-sharing between the farmer and the contracting firm. It is not merely a transaction but a reflection of the broader relationship between the two parties. Importantly, the nature and effectiveness of such contracts are influenced by the larger political and economic environment in which they operate. Thus, while contracts provide structure and certainty, their success ultimately depends on contextual factors such as governance, market stability and institutional support. In practice, contract farming typically involves the purchaser providing production support-supplying inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and even technical advice-while committing to purchase the produce at pre-agreed conditions. Farmers, in turn, commit to supplying the required crop or livestock product of specified quality, within a defined timeline and in the agreed quantity.
Dimensions of contractual agreements
The intensity and complexity of contractual agreements vary, often depending on the scope of support provided by the contracting firm. The provisions generally include:
1. Market provision: A binding agreement on the future sale and purchase of a particular crop or livestock product.
2. Resource provision: In addition to marketing arrangements, the buyers may provide essential inputs, such as seeds, fertilizers or even land preparations and technical advice.
3. Management Specification: The farmers agree to follow recommended cultivation and harvesting practices, input usage norms and other quality control measures.

Theories of entrepreneurship
1. An economic theory
2. Leibensteon’s X-efficiency theory
3. Dynamic entrepreneurship innovation theory
4. Harvard School theory
5. Theory of high achievement
6. Theory of change
7. Theory of profit
8. Theory of adjustment of price
9. Theory of market
10. Theory of social change
11. Theory of entrepreneurial supply
12. Theory of personal resourcefulness
13. Theory of cultural values 

Mass Communication

The term ‘mass communication’ was coined at the end of the 1930s. The term ‘mass’ denotes great volume, range or extent (such as of people or production), while ‘communication’ refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the transmis- sion and reception of messages.

The term ‘mass’ was first formally defined by Herbert Bhumer (1939) as a new type of social formation in modern society, by contrasting it other formations, es- pecially the group, crowd and public.

Gerbner’s (1967) definition of mass communication is hard to beat. He defined it as social interaction through messages.

Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which special- ized groups employ technological device (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content of large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience.

Entrepreneurship Development
Entrepreneurship Development (ED) is a recent perspective in extension approaches. It attempts to integrate sociological nature of agricultural sector with capitalistic entrepreneurship. The terms like social entrepreneurship, corporate social responsibility and agricultural entrepreneurship have recently come in vogue. It is the most significant factor to bring about transformation of agricultural sector.
Theories of Entrepreneurship Development
The word entrepreneur is derived from a French root entreprenerd, meaning. to begin something, to undertake. Entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement [N-Ach] who is energetic and a moderate risk taker. An entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits opportunities. Entrepreneur is an innovator and dynamic agent of change, a catalyst who transforms increasingly physical, natural and human resources in a corresponding production possibility. Entrepreneurship is a means by which economy and society are transformed. The emergence of entrepreneurs in a society depends upon closely interlinked economic, social, religious, cultural and psychological variables.
Personality traits perspective of entrepreneurship
In this approach, the entrepreneur is assumed to possess a particular personality type and thus much research has been to enumerate a set of characteristics possessed. The main Concepts studied include innovativeness, dynamism, risk taking, creativity, alertness, need for achievement, aspirations, self-confidence and being ambitious. An entrepreneur is an individual who possesses qualities of risk-taking, leadership, motivation, and the ability to resolve problems. Entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviour also include openness to new information and people, motivation, making independent and self-directed decisions, the ability to see opportunities in a rapidly changing and uncertain environment, persistence, the motivation to achieve, technical know-how, taking ownership, personal integrity, accountable, capacity to manage and
organise.

Production- Function- The technical law relating inputs to outputs has beengiven the name of production function. Production function expresses the relationship between physical input and physical output of a firm for a given state of technology.
Law of Variable Proportion or Law of Diminishing Returns (Short Run Production Function)
This law explains the relationship between inputs and outputs in the short period. According to this law, output can be changed by altering variable factors (such as labour and feed) while keeping other factors (such as land and infrastructure) constant. The law states that with an increase in variable factors, keeping other factors constant, total product initially increases at an increasing rate, then increases at a diminishing rate, and finally starts decreasing.
1. Total Product (TP) - Refers to the total output of the firm per period of time.
1. Example: Total litres of milk produced by a dairy farm per day.

Migration reflects the patterns of societal transformations. From a historical perspective, throughout the process of industrialization and economic advancement, individuals relocate from agricultural areas to industrial sectors, from rural areas to urban centres, from one urban centre to another, and from one nation to another. Currently, Asia, Africa, and Latin America are seeing significant technical advancements, leading to a substantial movement from rural to urban areas in these countries. Economists research migration because to its impact on the availability of skilled and semi-skilled workers, the growth of industries and commerce, and the resulting changes in the employment patterns of migrants. The formulation of economic policy is closely intertwined with the phenomenon of migration, since migration significantly impacts a country’s economic and social progress. The study of migration is crucial due to its impact on population dynamics, including population size, growth rate, and demographic structure, as determined by birth rate, death rate, and migration. Furthermore, migration significantly influences the geographical spread of the population and the availability of workforce inside the nation. Therefore, the analysis of occupational migration is valuable in developing economic and other governmental policies, as well as informing the work of economists, sociologists, legislators, planners, and demographers
Current ideas on labour migration
Overview
Since ancient times, humans have struggled to meet their fundamental needs for food, housing, and other necessities. They naturally gravitate toward personal development. Human life has always involved migration in one form or another. believes that migration is a permanent or semi-permanent shift in residence, regardless of the length of the journey (Lee, 1966). People have been moving throughout the world for a variety of reasons since prehistoric times, both within and between regions. In the past, geographical elements such the atmosphere, soil fertility, native vegetation, etc., had a major impact

This chapter deals with some important terms and their concepts related to the study which are essential to convey the ideas of the study effectively and also to provide a theoretical base for the empirical investigation and guidance for the selection of relevant predictor variables.

3.1 Human Happiness and Estimation

A state of mental or emotional wellbeing known as happiness is characterized by pleasant or good emotions, which can range from contentment to ecstatic delight. Happy emotions can also be a reflection of how someone feels about their general well-being.

3.1. Entrepreneurship and its allied concepts

3.1.1. Concept of entrepreneur

The word “entrepreneur” has its roots in the french verb “entreprendre,” which means “to undertake.” It means “to start a business” in a business environment. Entrepreneurs are self-employed individuals who not only create jobs for themselves but also generate jobs for many others. An entrepreneur is someone who can identify and seize opportunities to transform inventions or technologies into new products. They can also see an invention’s commercial potential and put together the funds, talent, and other resources needed to transform an idea into a product that can be distributed.

3.1 Conceptual Framework

Aconceptual framework is an analytical tool that is used to get a comprehensive understanding of the study. It embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. It is generally constructed to provide the researcher the element ofattainable and researchable problems and ideas supported by methodology, design, prospective analysis and empirical conclusion. The conceptual framework is often called as the research paradigm.

The subject matter of the present research is Resilience and productivity of agriculture in different social-ecology: the farmers’ perception, status and interpretation. It is expected that the terminologies and concepts used to frame up the topic need to undergo brief explanation for the better understanding of its meaning.

Resilience: Resilience is about anticipating, planning and reducing disaster risk to effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socio-economic assets and ecosystems. The ideas of ‘bounce back’, ‘spring forward’ and ‘build back better’ are often used in the context of resilience.

Productivity: Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio between the output volume and the volume of inputs. It measures how efficiently production inputs, are being used in an economy to produce a given level of output.

Agriculture: The word agriculture derives from the Latin ager (field) and colo (cultivate) signifying, when combined, the Latin agricultura: field or land tillage. But the word has come to subsume a very wide spectrum of activities that are integral to agriculture and have their own descriptive terms, such as cultivation, domestication, horticulture, arboriculture, and vegeculture, as well as forms of livestock management such as mixed crop-livestock farming, pastoralism, and transhumance. The Oxford English Dictionary (1971) defines agriculture as “The science and art of cultivating the soil, including the allied pursuits of gathering in the crops and rearing livestock; tillage, husbandry, farming.”

The chapter covers some important terms and their concepts connected to the research that are necessary to effectively communicate the study’s ideas, as well as to give a theoretical foundation for the empirical investigation and direction for the selection of pertinent predicting factors.
3.1. Health, hygiene, nutrition
For the development of human resources, prerequisites include education, health, cleanliness, and nutrition. Women have trouble determining their level of hygiene and wellness. Proper nutrition and basic cleanliness are essential for maintaining a decent health status. Health is more than just the absence of sickness and disability; it is of overall physical, mental and social wellbeing. A nation’s female population’s health has a significant impact on children’s health and education, as well as the household’s economic well-being. According to the WHO, hygiene is the practice of particular behaviors to preserve good health on both a personal level including personal hygiene, cleanliness, exercise, proper rest, sleep, bathing, avoiding smoking, drinking alcohol, using drugs and a community level. The state of human society’s health is significantly impacted by hygiene practices. Accordingto WHO, ?Nutrition isthe intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs. ''An important health indicator for both children and adults is proper nutrition. The lack of primary and specialized care is one of several problems affecting all rural women. Chronic disorders like cancer, diabetes, and heart diseases are alsomore prevalent in rural settings.
3.2. Hunger and malnutrition
Malnutrition includes both overeating and undereating and involves an insufficient, excessive, or unbalanced intake of nutrients for healthy tissue and organ function. Inadequate care, such as inadequate breastfeeding or poor dietaryintake during pregnancy, as well as a lack of public health services and access to clean water, are some of the underlying causes of malnutrition. These factors may also contribute to inadequate care and poor nutrition. Global hunger has increased since 2016, affecting 815 million people, according to a United Nations assessment on world food security and nutrition. According to WHO,98 million children under the age offive, or around one in every six children, are underweight. This increase attributed to climate change and rising violence. According to the director of the world food program ?In the fight against hunger we could now be facing a perfect storm of challenges, including climate change and increasingly severe droughts and floods, soaring food prices and the tightest supplies in recent history, decline levels of food aid, and HIV/AIDS, which is also aggravates food insecurity?.

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

Theoretical orientation involves the scholarly and theoretical process that shapes the precise definition and written content of a complete research project. It involves incorporating conceptual ideas, logical discussions, and the quest for knowledge to develop a theory that aligns with the defined objectives and research design established during the research process.

3.1 Migration

Migration refers to the process of individuals or groups of people moving from one place to another with the intention of establishing a new permanent or semi permanent residence. It involves the relocation of people across geographical, political, or social boundaries, typically over long distances. Migration can occur within a country (internal migration) or involve crossing international borders (international migration).

People migrate for various reasons, including economic opportunities, seeking better living conditions, escaping persecution or conflict, joining family members, pursuing education or career opportunities, or being forced to leave their homes due to natural disasters or environmental factors. The motivations behind migration can be complex and multifaceted, influenced by a combination of push factors (negative circumstances in the home country) and pull factors (attractive opportunities in the destination country).Migration can take different forms, such as labour migration, where individuals move to another region or country for employment purposes, or refugee migration, where people flee their home countries due to fear of persecution or violence. It can be temporary or permanent, with some migrants returning to their home countries after a period of time, while others settle permanently in their new location and may eventually become citizens of that country.

The transition from an agrarian society to a more advanced and diversified economy represents a profound shift in how societies function and evolve. Initially, agrarian societies are primarily centered around agriculture, with the majority of the population engaged in farming and related activities. As agricultural productivity improves through technological innovations, such as advanced machinery and crop varieties, these societies begin to experience economic growth. This growth often spurs industrialization, leading to the establishment of manufacturing sectors that create new job opportunities and drive urbanization. Cities expand as people migrate from rural areas in search of better employment prospects, leading to significant social changes. Education and skill development become crucial, as improved literacy rates and vocational training prepare individuals for diverse professions beyond agriculture. The transition from an agrarian society to a more advanced and diversified economy marks a profound shift in societal functioning and evolution, encompassing multiple dimensions that can be examined through various disciplinary lenses. Economically, this transformation begins with improvements in agricultural productivity, driven by technological innovations such as advanced machinery and high-yield crop varieties. These enhancements not only increase agricultural output but also reduce the labour required for farming, thereby freeing up labour for other sectors. This shift often triggers economic growth, which spurs industrialization. As manufacturing sectors develop, they create new job opportunities, driving urbanization as individuals migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better employment prospects. This economic expansion is central to understanding the broader changes that occur as societies evolve from agrarian to industrial and post-industrial economies.
From a sociological perspective, the transition to a diversified economy leads to significant social changes. Urbanization alters family structures, social networks, and community dynamics. As people move to urban areas, traditional agrarian values give way to new social norms and practices associated with city life. Education and skill development become critical, as improved literacy rates and vocational training prepare individuals for diverse

Volumetry / Titrimetry

Process of determining the volume of solution of known concentration required to complete reaction with a solution of unknown concentration (test solution) by titration.

Definition of Demand
Demand refers to the desire for a commodity that is backed by both purchasing power and willingness to pay at a given price within a specific period. In economics, we consider effective demand—not just absolute desire. A product is in demand only when individuals are willing and able to purchase it.
For example, many farmers may desire to buy cow mats, but if they lack the financial resources or are unwilling to spend on them, it does not count as effective demand.
Demand is formally defined as a “schedule or curve that shows the various quantities of a commodity that consumers are willing and able to purchase at different prices, within a specific time frame and market conditions.”
Law of Demand
The Law of Demand states that, ceteris paribus (all other factors remaining constant), the quantity demanded of a commodity varies inversely with its price. In simpler terms:
When the price of a commodity rises, the quantity demanded decreases. When the price of a commodity falls, the quantity demanded increases. This inverse relationship occurs because consumers tend to buy less of an expensive product and more of a cheaper one, provided other factors like income, preferences, and the price of related goods remain unchanged.

13.1 Meaning of Dummy Variables

In econometrics, particularly in regression analysis, a dummy variable is also known as “Indicator variable or Binary variable or qualitative variable”. It is one which takes the value (0 or 1) to indicate the absence or presence of some categorical effect that may be expressed to shift the outcome, e.g.

i) Literate (1) and Illiterate (0)

 ii) Male (1) and female (0)

iii) Farmers in a cross sectional data in terms of year with normal weather condition (1) and year with abnormal weather condition (0).

True/False

Q.1.    The process of knowing all the relevant information from the known sample to the unknown “Population parameter” is known as “Statistical inference.”
Q.2.    The method of estimating the unknown parameter of the population on the basis of known sample values is known “Estimation method.”
Q.3.    The “Point estimation and Interval estimation” are the two methods of estimating the unknown parameters of the population.

Indicator

A substance which indicates the end point on completion of the reaction.

Helps in the visual determination of the completion of titration.

• A machine is a device which receives some sort of energy and does some work.
• A rigid link is one, which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
• A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
• A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies having no relative motion between them.
• A turning pair has a completely constrained motion.
• Cam and follower includes higher pair.
• The lower pairs are self-closed pair.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If an experiment is repeated under an identical conditions, we generally come to a result (i.e. outcome) which is unique or certain.

Q.2 In an experiment, the result (outcome) may not be unique but it is one of the several possible outcomes.

Q.3 The phenomena described in Ql, are known as “deterministic or predictable”.

Q.4 In deterministic phenomena, the results can be predicted with certainity

Q.5 A deterministic model stipulates that the conditions under which an experiment is performed, determine the ouctome of the experiment

Q.6 The phenomena which do not lead themselves to deterministic approach, are known as “Unpredictable or probabilistic” phenomena.

Q.7 The phenomena frequently occured in business, economic and social science or even in our day to day life, are known as “deterministic phenomena”.

Q.8 A manufacturer can ascertain the future demand of his product with certainity.

Q.9 A sales manager can not predict with certainity about the sales target next year.

Introduction

The age-old necessities of life are food, clothing and shelter. The 20^th century had dramatized a fourth-energy. Energy starvation of the technological complex that maintains modern society may soon be as crucial a problem as feeding the hungry. Indeed, energy starvation could well precipitate more wide spread food starvation. Solutions for the energy crisis are strongly dependent on the technology of how energy is produced and used. To make a physical change in the world it is necessary to use four resources: energy, matter, space and time. How well a task has been performed can be measured in terms of amount of fuel consumed, the mass of material used, the space occupied, the hours of labour to accomplish it, and the ingenuity with which these resources are utilized. Squandering of irreplaceable energy resources, waste of materials, or large expenditure of space and time cannot be tolerated if the necessities of life are to be provided for all. Energy is intricately linked to development of a country. Growing demand on account of industrialization, urbanization, transportation and also increase consumption in rural areas is putting added pressure on energy supply network. Electricity generation has been increased from 1,400 MW in the year 1947 to 303,118 MW up to August 31, 2016 in India but still there is 10-15% shortage of power in peak hours and all villages are not electrified. Even many electrified villages receive 6 to 8 hours of electricity per day in India. To overcome this shortage there is a need to utilise new and renewable sources of energy. Fortunately, India is blessed with abundant solar energy. The arid parts of India receives much more radiation as compared to the rest of country i.e. maximum solar radiation i.e. 7600-8000 MJm^-2 (2111-2222 kWhm^-2) per annum, followed by semi-arid parts, 7200-7600 MJm^-2 (2000-2111 kWhm^-2), per annum and least on hilly areas where solar radiation is still appreciable i.e. 6000 MJm^-2 (1667 kWhm^-2) per annum (IMD 1985). In this chapter review of different solar thermal technologies in Indian perspective has been carried out.

ABSTRACT

Supercritical fluid extraction technology specifically employing carbon dioxide as an extracting solvent under supercritical conditions have gained tremendous importance in the commercial applications as well as academic fields. The basic advantage is its operation above pressure and critical temperature. The most convenient things are variations of pressure, temperatures, batch time, flow rate and fractionation of important constituents of essential oils, herbs and petrochemicals. In the recent times most of the researchers have studied the Organic synthesis under supercritical conditions with the improved yield and reaction selectivity. The chapter also describes the thermodynamics also.

Supply is the amount of a good or service sellers are willing to offer for sale at a specific price, in a specific market, over a specific time.
Stock vs. Supply
• Stock: All the milk a farmer has—say, 1,000L in tanks.
• Supply: What he sells—500L at Rs 50/L today. Supply is different from stock, as stock refers to the total quantity of a commodity that exists in the market, while supply is the quantity that is usually offered for sale at a particular price.
Law of Supply
The law of supply explains the functional relationship between the price of a good and its supply. When all other factors remain constant, an increase in price leads to an increase in supply. This means there is a direct proportional relationship between price and supply.
Exceptions
1. Land, rare goods, and labour supply in certain cases do not follow the law of supply.
2. The supply of rare goods cannot be changed with price fluctuations.

11.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Some assumptions or guesses made about the unknown population parameters, is know as "Statistical hypothesis".

Q.2 For the normal distribution N(μ, σ²), the statement (1) μ = 25.0 and (ii) σ² = 37.0, are known as statistical hypotheses.

Q.3 Let p = 0.5 is the probability of getting a head in single throw of a coin. Ten, this statement is not a statistical hypothesis.

Q.4 The statistical hypothesis under consideration (under test), is known as "Null hypothesis".

Q.5 The null hypothesis is denoted by "Ho".

Introduction

Solar air heating is the conversion of solar radiation to thermal heat. The thermal heat is absorbed and carried by air which is delivered to a living or working space. The transparent property of air means that it does not directly absorb effective amounts of solar radiation, so an intermediate process is required to make this energy transfer possible and deliver the heated air into a living space (Fig.10.1). The technologies designed to facilitate this process are known as solar air heaters. Solar air heating technologies use only free, renewable and clean energy and can help defray the rising cost of conventional energy.

Agriculture is under increasing pressure to produce more food, feed, and biofuel from limited land resources. The current over-reliance on a few key staple crops causes a variety of agronomic, ecological, nutritional, and economic issues and is likely unsustainable in the long run.

Vegetables have a high commercial value in general and hence contribute significantly to household income. Significant research, breeding, and development initiatives are necessary for a number of promising crops to transform existing local landraces into competitive cultivars with broad adaptability and high commercial prospects. India has a good genetic wealth of domesticated crops, and 600 plant species represent the diversity in vegetable crops out of 20,000 angiosperm plants; however, only one-fourth of these are used as major vegetable crops, with the rest classified as minor, underutilized/neglected, rare vegetables, lesser-known vegetables, wild edible vegetables, and so on. Access to the genetic diversity of these selected crops is required for success

Precision medicine and personalised treatment of systemic or tumour diseases gain their acceptance and application in veterinary care, too. The application of personalised medical protocols and companion diagnostics is easier and ethically well reasoned within the veterinary medical field – and it can offer many advantageous lessons to human clinical transformation, too [1]. In vitro companion diagnostics for testing the applicability and sensitivity levels of certain kinase inhibitor and immunotherapeutic drugs offer a greatly increased efficiency for veterinary cancer patients, too. As the understanding of cancer biology has advanced, the field of veterinary oncology has grown significantly, paralleling developments in human oncology. Precision medicine is an innovative approach to disease treatment and prevention that considers individual variability in genes, environment, and lifestyle. In the context of veterinary medicine, precision medicine aims to provide tailored therapies that are specifically designed for the unique genetic and molecular profile of each animal’s cancer. This approach moves away from the traditional “one-size-fits-all” model, instead focusing on targeted treatments that maximize efficacy while minimizing side effects. Companion diagnostics, such as molecular tests, help determine whether a dog or cat is likely to respond to a particular drug. For dogs and cats, precision medicine holds great promise in improving outcomes for cancers, which are among the leading causes of death in companion animals.

Introduction

Poultry is one of the most widespread food industries worldwide. Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. The term broiler is applied to chickens that have especially been bred for meat; they grow rapidly. Broiler strains are based on hybrid crosses between Cornish White, New Hampshire and White Plymouth Rock. In broiler production there are two main production phases – keeping of parent stock and production of day-old-chicken (DOC); and growing and finishing of broilers.

The primary purpose of any enterprise is to maximize return on investment over the long-term. It is therefore necessary to market poultry, meat products, and eggs at a price which allows farmers or integrators to maintain profitability in a competitive market. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. It is emphasized that the incremental return in the form of enhanced egg production, hatchability, liveability, growth rate, and feed conversion efficiency must exceed capital and operating expenditures on disease prevention.

Introduction

Therapeutic foods are products, which are multiutility food products that may be used as nutrition as well as medicine. A nutraceutical may be defined as a substance, which has physiological benefit or provides protection against chronic disease. Nutraceuticals are used to improve health, delay the aging process, prevent chronic diseases, increase life expectancy, or support the structure and/or function of the body. Oflate nutraceuticals are receiving considerable interest due to potential nutritional, safety and therapeutic effects. The examples of therapeutic foods are the foods used for feeding of malnourished children on an emergency basis or to supplement the diets of persons with special nutrition requirements, such as the elderly. Therapeutic foods can also form a part of treatment/prevention/reduction of other health conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, anaemia and any other lifestyle disorders.

The incidences of diet-related diseases are progressively increasing due to greater availability of calorie-rich foods and a sedentary lifestyle. Obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and neurodegeneration are major diet-related diseases. Nutraceuticals and functional foods represent a novel therapeutic approach to prevent or attenuate diet-related diseases.

There is always a requirement for cheaper formulations using locally available ingredients that are processed in a safe, reliable, and financially sustainable methods. Some of the literature available on health foods for various diseases is summarized below. However, since the burden of diabetes in India is staggering. In 2017, 72 million cases of people suffering from diabetes were reported and the figures are expected to reach 134 million by 2025, this chapter more emphasis is given on the safe, natural treatment/reduction of diabetes by herbal means.

Due to the paucity of clinical data, therapeutic management measures available with domestic animal-practice needs to be extrapolated for due usage in case of captive wild animals reared in zoos, zoological parks and zoological gardens.

The practice of veterinary homoeopathy has existed since Hahnemann’s time. During recent years it has emerged from the shadows and appears to be growing exponentially, expanding in many directions. Veterinary homeopathy has strongest modern tradition in Europe particularly in Germany, France and Great Britain. European Union committee has urged recently to cut the use of antimicrobials in human as well as in animals to an essential level for maintaining the effectiveness of antimicrobials and to deal with the problems of emergence of resistance among microbes.

Tradition of veterinary homeopathy is as old as humans. Initially homeopathic drugs viz. Aconitum napellus, Camphora, Nux vomica and Opium were used for the treatment of certain diseases of horses and cattle as early as 1833 by German Practitioner – Guillaume Lux. Since then veterinary homeopathy has progressed considerably despite the apparent difficulty in adopting the patient questioning technique, lack of expression of subjective feelings and lack of experimental data.

Utility of ultrasound has extended from diagnostic realm to alternate therapies. Therapeutic ultrasound is also known as ultrasound physiotherapy. It is a commonly used modality for the rehabilitation of the soft tissues of the musculoskeletal system.

Though the treatment for arrhythmias has been recommended for even a single premature beat, in the current scenario the treatment is indicated when there are more than 17 VPCs per minute. In certain situations the side effects or proarrhythmic effects of drugs can lead to morbidity or mortality. As a result, new guidelines are proposed when evaluating the need for treatment of arrhythmias. Keeping the adverse effects of antiarrhythmic agents in mind, one should be selective about which arrhythmias are to be treated. The goal of antiarrhythmic therapy includes the treatment of an existing arrhythmia or prophylaxis for anticipated arrhythmias.

Thermal Analysis

Physical and chemical properties of any soil are governed largely by the mineralogical make up of the soil, and more specifically by the clay fraction. Identification, characterization and an understanding of properties of different minerals are important in evaluating soils in relation to classification, agronomic practices and engineering purposes.

Clay fractions of soils are usually composed of mixture of one or more secondary phyllosilicate minerals along with primary minerals inherited from the parent materials. Identification of minerals species as well as their quantitative estimation in such polycomponent system require application of several qualitative and quantitative analysis.

The methods used for identification and quantification have steadily been improved over the last 50 years. Among the several methods often used for this purpose three are very common, e.g. (i) differential thermal analysis (DTA), (ii) x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), and (iii) infrared spectroscopy (IR).

Thermal analysis is a term covering a group of analyses that determine the changes of some physical parameters, such as weight, energy, dimension and evolved volatile substances with change in temperature. Many soil constituents undergo various thermal reactions upon heating, which can be utilized as a diagnostic tool for qualitative identification and quantitative estimation of the substances. These reactions may be exothermic or endothermic, and phase change or crystal change may take place during reactions. Whatever be the reactions, if properly measured, they give some valuable information to identify the substance under consideration.

Among the several methods available for thermal analysis, three methods are frequently used in soil research: differential thermal analysis (DTA), differential scan calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetry (TG). Among these, DTA and TG will be discussed here.

Introduction

It is the process of retaining food over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. It involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity.

Objective

• To increase its shelf life, retaining original nutritional values, colour, texture, and favour.

Abstract

Application of solar energy for drying of agricultural food products is one of the most attractive and cost-effective drying techniques. However, the intermittent nature of the solar energy is one of the major shortcomings of the solar drying system that can be alleviated by storing excess energy during the peak time and using it in off sun hours or when the direct availability of solar energy is inadequate. The use of sensible and latent heat storage systems in solar dryer is an effective way of storing thermal energy for drying purpose. This chapter will present information on different thermal energy storage (TES) materials, their advantages and disadvantages. The information available in the literature regarding the studies conducted on TES assisted solar drying systems is also covered in this chapter. In addition, some of the models that have been used by different researchers to test the performance of different TES materials are also reviewed.

1. Introduction
Crop health valuation plays a vital part in modern agriculture as it positively stimulates food security, economic constancy, and ecological sustainability. This process involves monitoring and evaluating the growth and development of crops, finding possible stressors or diseases, and executing suitable management practices. Judicious and precise evaluation of crop health permits early exposure of diseases, pests, and other irregularities. Detecting these problems at their early growth stages can aid prevent extensive occurrences and decrease the need for unnecessary pesticide use, indorsing justifiable crop management practices. Assessing crop health on a regular basis help in enhancing yields by detecting factors that could inhibit crop productivity. Agricultural systems can be made resource-efficient by incorporating tools, modern technologies and information management systems that come under the precision agriculture concept. Modern scientific improvements, comprising Global Positioning System (GPS), grain yield monitoring system, Variable Rate Technologies (VRT), sensor networks, and Femote Sensing (RS), have assisted farmers to detect in-field heterogeneity of crop and soil and adopt site-specific farm management practices. Varying the application of inputs with VRT can decrease the cost of inputs and labor, increase productivity, and decrease the potential environmental influences from the overuse of farm inputs. However, the success rate of VRT needs precise and consistent information on the location and extent of crop and soil health conditions, such as crop nutrient shortages, soil and crop water deficiency, and injury caused by insect pests, weeds, or pathogens. So far, the dominant remote sensing technologies that the farming sector has used are visible (VIS), Near-Infrared (NIR), and short-wave infrared (SWIR) sensors. The use of thermal sensors in agriculture is to some extent narrow despite its wide use in the areas of medical science (Ring and Ammer, 2012), intelligence/military (Hinz and Stilla, 2006), and the food processing sector (Vadivambal and Jayas, 2011). By providing temperature variations of soil and crop canopy, thermal remote sensing has the prospective to be used for various

It is necessary to consider both micro and macro climate while planning scientific livestock management strategies. Thermal comfort of animals is the most important environmental consideration affecting the production performance of domestic animals in general and the dairy cattle in particular. Various components of climate like air temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind velocity and precipitation affect the thermal comfort of animals and their performance. As these factors produce a combined effect rather than each component alone thermal indices involving two more of these factors are useful for rational decision making information for livestock managers. Considering only the direct effects of microclimate will be an over simplification of the problems because the indirect effects of the macroclimate operating through feed supplies, feed quality, parasitism, and other factors are equally or more important. These factors confound the direct effects of climatic elements and under many situations far overshadow their effects. Thus, evaluation of the direct and indirect effects of climate independent of each other is necessary. We will also examine each factor separately for easiness of understanding keeping in mind that the heat exchange of the animals with their environment is a combined effect of all these intertwined with complex biological and physical factors. Yamamoto (1983) concluded “Heat exchanges between animal and their environment are not readily explainable in terms of physical principles because the relationships are considerably modified by animal factors”. The combined effects of the climatic factors involved in heat exchange between any homoeothermic animal and its surrounding has led to the development of Thermal Indices as a basis for assessing the biological effect and consequent impact of thermal environment (Hahn 2003). Studies on the thermal environment and methods to represent in reliable indices are more important in the tropical world in general and hot tropical humid world in particular.

The advantages and disadvantages of thermal indices and how it can be used as useful guide for environment management of dairy cows are illustrated in this paper through examples. Many salient basic aspects were noted by Thomas C.K. way back in 1969 but the exact use of this information for the farmers is a far cry.

Temperature regulates germination, plant growth, flowering, maturity and many insect and disease processes. Thermal indices integrate temperature over time to quantify biological development more effectively than simple temperature averages. This chapter introduces growing degree days, heat units, photothermal units, heliothermal units and related measures. It explains base, optimum and maximum temperatures and connects accumulated thermal time with crop phenology. These indices help predict development stages, adjust sowing dates, estimate harvest periods, schedule farm operations and assess varietal suitability. Thermal-index analysis is particularly valuable under climate variability because it enables researchers and farmers to anticipate shifts in crop development and improve climate-responsive agricultural management.

Thermal Pollution
The term “thermal pollution” refers to the damaging rise in temperature that occurs in rivers, lakes, the ocean, and streams. The local fish and plant life may perish as a result of this temperature increase.
Definition
Thermal pollution refers to the release of warm water into rivers. (OR) Any process that modifies the temperature of water results in thermal pollution, which is the deterioration of water quality.
Causes/Sources
Electric power stations are major contributors to thermal pollution. Burning coal or natural gas produces heat in electric power plants. Because of the high temperatures, water can be turned into steam, which powers turbines and generates electricity. The plant circulates cool water near to the heated steam in order to help condense it. The 15 oC above-average temperature of this heated water is released back into the body of water. Thermal pollution can also be caused by runoff water. Concrete is heatabsorbing and can get extremely hot. The problem of water temperature rise is also a significant issue when runoff from concrete surfaces enters rivers.

Thermal preservation is among the most established methods for improving the safety and storage life of food. It uses controlled heating to destroy spoilage organisms and pathogens and to inactivate undesirable enzymes. Processing intensity varies according to the target microorganisms, food composition, packaging and required shelf life. Pasteurisation reduces pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms without achieving complete sterility, while sterilisation destroys more heat-resistant organisms and spores to produce commercially stable foods. Ultra-high-temperature processing combines very high temperatures with extremely short treatment periods. This chapter also discusses retort processing, thermal-death kinetics and microbial-inactivation models used to design safe processes while minimising nutritional and sensory damage.

Introduction
Heat treatment is the most commonly used method in the dairy industry for milk processing. Its primary objective is to eliminate pathogens and reduce spoilage-causing organisms, ensuring milk is safe for consumption and has a longer shelf life. While advanced methods like high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound processing, cold plasma treatment, and ultraviolet sterilization have emerged, heat treatment remains the preferred choice due to its simplicity, reliability, and proven effectiveness. All dairy products undergo some form of heating during processing, whether through pasteurization, sub-pasteurization (e.g., for milk used in aged cheeses), or sterilization. To facilitate this, liquid heating systems such as continuous heat exchangers or jacketed tanks are widely used, typically powered by steam or steam-heated water. Consequently, steam generation boilers are a standard feature in almost all dairy processing facilities.
The Key Objectives of Heat Treatment Include
1. Elimination of harmful pathogens in milk, ensuring it is safe for consumption and protecting public health.
2. Increasing the keeping quality of milk by reducing the number of spoilage organisms.
3. Inactivating enzymes naturally present in milk or secreted by microorganisms to prevent enzymatic degradation.
4. Preventing the autoxidation of lipids, which can lead to off-flavors and spoilage.
5. Inactivating agglutinin to reduce rapid creaming and maintain uniform consistency.
6. Enhancing the growth of starter cultures by eliminating natural inhibitors and dissolved oxygen in milk, essential for producing cheese and fermented products.

Thermal processing also known as heat processing is commonly used processing method which helps in extending the shelf life of the food productswith high safety level, convenience and a healthy product.Seafood as a whole food is highly nutritious. Benefits to human health associated with the consumption of seafood is well recognized for multiple bodily organs and physiological functions but their high perishable nature is a concern. Seafoodundergoes spoilage due to autolytic, microbial action as well as oxidation of lipid. Proper handling and preservation is essential to maintain quality of fish. Heat processing is an age old preservation method practiced in many countries to extend the shelf life of food products. Heat treatment causes the destruction of microbes which increases the shelf life. There are number of thermal processing operations like- baking, blanching, canning, dehydration, extrusion, frying, pasteurization, sterilization, etc. All these operation serves various purposes and helps in manufacture of different food products.

Thermal processing is of utmost importance to low acid high water activity foods, where there are no hindrances to microbial growth. The proper delivery of heat is essential to cause the destruction of microbes to avoid food spoilage. In seafood’s processing, thermal processing through canning (retort pouch processing) is a common approach. In canning, the food is preserved by application of heat in hermetically sealed cans (pouches). Hermetic sealing means- complete airtight sealing. This prevents contamination from outside. Heating at very high temperature ranging from 110 to 135⁰C for a desirable time helps in killing all the vegetative forms of microorganisms as well as most heat resistant microbial spores. The amount of time needed for processing is different for each food type depends on hurdles present in the food and heat transfer characteristics. In thermal processing of seafood products, heat processing is aimed for the destruction of spores of Clostridium botulinum. A number of thermally processed ready-to-eat (RTE) products are available on market shelf.

INTRODUCTION

By the turn of the century, consumers have been more demanding, sophisticated and discretionary. They want much safer, higher quality, and more convenient to foods. The food processor need to get the best from their existing processing technology in addition to looking for newer ones. New and alternative food processing methods and/or novel combinations of existing methods are continually being investigated by the industry in pursuit of producing better quality foods more economically. Thermal processing is one of the most important food preservation techniques that was first introduced at the beginning of 1800 and has evolved itself in to one of the most scientific mature food processing techniques of recent times. Both science and technology have gone through tremendous transformation in the last two centuries and today it is the most reliable method to assure food safety and stability. Developments in thermal processing and evolution of non-thermal processing technologies like high pressure processing, pulsed electric field, pulsed light etc. have enhanced the utility of thermal processing principles and increased the awareness of possible alternative processing technologies.

1. INTRODUCTION

Thermal processing means preservation by application of heat. It involves heating of foods in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a specific temperature to eliminate the microbial pathogens that endanger public health and that micro-organisms that deteriorate food during storage. The credit for invention of thermal processing (Canning) goes to a French Confectioner, Nichola Appert. The application of heat is an important method of preserving foods and is also a means of developing texture, flavour and colour in some foods.

4.1 Introduction

The food preservation may be define as the state in which the food may retained over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organism or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritional value. All the methods of food preservation must provide such an environment in and around the preserved food so that it produces one or more unfavourable conditions to the continued activity of the spoilage agents. The various methods used for food preservations are: