eChapters

Time Series

A series of observations recorded over time is known as a time series. In other words, a time series is a set of observations taken at specified times, usually at equal intervals. For example: Annual retail sales, rainfall measurements, heartbeats per minute, etc. Such studies are to be based on the analysis of time series data collected over time. Thus, the analysis of time series plays an important role in an investigation of economic, social, commercial and even biological phenomenon.

Components of time series

In a long time series, generally, there are following four components:

• Secular trend or long term movements

• Seasonal variations

• Cyclic variations • Random or irregular movements

• Secular trend or long term movements: It is that characteristic of a time series which extends consistently throughout the entire period of time under consideration. It shows a long term tendency of an activity to grow or to decline. The term long period of time in a relative phenomenon and cannot be defined exactly. For some cases a period as small as a weak may be fairly long while in other cases, a period as long as two years may not be assumed long.

Abstract

Being the junction between the continental and the oceanic plates, the coastal zones are always tectonically alert and hence vested with number of aults. The study of LANDSAT ETM FCC imagery revealed one such a major fault along NNE-SSW aligned Tamil Nadu coast from Chennai in the North northeast to Cape Comorin in the South southwest. This Precambrian boundary fault shows signs of repetitive reactivation during Gondwana, Tertiary and Late Holocene periods. While in former two periods it shows indications of faulting, in the latter period, it is manifested in the form of drainage deflections indicating sinistral movements of beds. While such sinistral morphology of the fault seems to be related to the Post collision compression, the seismicities in and in its close proximities indicate the seismic significance of this fault. In the context of natural resources and disasters viz: geothermal springs, flooding and seismicities, this fault demands deeper studies.

Introduction

The coastal regions in general form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. Hence, the coastal regions are always tectonically active and thus vested with coast parallel, tangential and conjugate faults depending upon the tectonic history of the area. In the Indian subcontinent too, all along the 9000 km long east and west coast margins, number of major faults were mapped by the earlier workers. Significantly, Vardarajan and Ganju (1989) have brought out a comprehensive picture on the lineaments of the entire coastal zone of India using Landsat images. Vemban et al. (1977) earlier inferred faults along certain segments of east coast of Tamil Nadu and observed them to be lithological contacts and also seismogenic in nature. Raiverman et al. (1966) have again inferred earlier a N-S curvilinear fault in Thanjavur deltaic region and attributed it to post drift kinematics of the Indian plate. Ramasamy (1989) has brought out the morphotectonic and morphodynamic model of the east and west coasts of India on the basis of tectonic and geomorphic signatures using Landsat satellite images. Ramasamy (2006) developed a first time comprehensive model on the active tectonics of the Indian Peninsular and in which he brought out detailed information on the varied geomorphic, tectonic and hydrological anomalies and inferred them to be related to the whirling and fracturing of the Indian plate due to the still prevailing N–S to NNE – SSw compressive force which originally drifted the Indian plate to the present position after the breakup of the Gondwana land.

15.1 Introduction

Plant breeding aims at developing genetically improved crop cultivars with economic benefits for small-scale and commercial farmers. Population growth, dwindling agricultural land and global climate change present increasing risk to crop production. Consequently, plant breeding aims to constantly develop crop cultivars with improved yield and quality and tolerant to drought, diseases and pests. Use of genetically improved crop cultivars and better management practices are among the best strategies to increase food production and meet a projected doubling of food demand in the next 40 years. Both the public and private plant breeding sectors face several constraints, including a shortage of professional plant breeders and breeding technicians, limited budget, inadequate facilities and lack of access to information. Successful plant breeding requires adequate infrastructural investment, in addition to the actual breeding activities. The benefits of plant breeding research and development can only be realized on a long-term basis because of the inherent nature of the crops and the eminent breeding procedures involved. Plant breeding involves two main activities, i.e., pre-breeding/ germplasm enhancement and cultivar development per se. These interdependent activities are the controlling factors that determine the pace at which cultivars are released timeously and consistently to farmers. The two phases, in turn, depend upon various factors, e.g., breeding goals, genetics and agronomy of the crop, breeder’s long-term objectives, availability of testing facilities and national cultivar-registration requirements. Despite these factors, there are certain clear steps and breeding procedures found in any conventional breeding programme. These include choice of parents, making crosses among chosen parents, and selection from recombined parents followed by extensive field testing of the candidate cultivars. Maintenance, multiplication and distribution of the seed are the ultimate stages of a breeding programme. Systematically outlined conventional breeding procedures, timeframes and estimated breeding generations are essential to objectively consider the ultimate timescales required to release new and improved cultivars of all crops. The information may assist plant breeding- students, educators, researchers, project advisors, administrators and funding agencies. Dear students, in this chapter we outline the timeframes of conventional breeding procedures of clonally (also called vegetatively) propagated, self-fertilizing (also called self-pollinated) and cross-fertilizing (also called cross-pollinated) crops.

ABSTRACT

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thoms. is a versatile liana rich in various active compounds having diverse chemical structures. Limited research has been done on the biological properties and the probable medicinal applications of the individual isolated molecules actually responsible for the medicinal nature of the plant. Recent advances in the discovery of active constituents from T. cordifolia and their biological impact in disease cure has led to an increase interest on this plant across the globe. The therapeutic virtue of giloy used in traditional and Indian System of Medicine (ISM) has been well established through advance testing and evaluation, both pre-clinical and clinical trials in different diseased conditions. These studies make this indigenous drug plant a novel candidate for bio-prospection and drug development for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, ulcers, liver disorders, heart diseases, diabetes and post-menopausal syndrome where sufficient treatments are still not available. Over the past few decades, a noteworthy progress has been achieved in cancer prevention and treatment, and still there remains a need for effective treatment program. One of the best possible approaches with immense potential is chemoprevention, which involves the use of natural, synthetic or biological molecules to suppress, reverse or prevent cancer or the progression of cancerous cells. It is most likely that many agents present in specific herbs, herbal products and natural dietary factors will have an effect throughout the process of carcinogenesis. Thus, a detailed chemical investigation with the aim of isolating novel molecules, their structure elucidation, quantification, validation and pharmacological evaluation in terms of its anticancer potential was carried out on T. cordifolia. The present study was designed to isolate and identify new promising anti-cancer candidates from the aqueous alcoholic extract of T. cordifolia using bioassay-guided fractionation.

24.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in hills of South Western India, Indo-Malaya region.

24.2. Economic importance

• Used to improve appetite and digestion and treat stomachache, heart burn, indigestion, intestinal gas, diarrhoea and cholera.

• Fruits are stomachic and carminative.

• Used for lung problems including Asthma, bronchitis and cough.

24.3. Varieties

• Vellanikara -1 (Visvum tippili) and Yercaud (Pl) - 9.

24.4. Climate

• Elevation between 100 and 1000 m.

• Shade intensity: 20-25%.

• Lower elevations with high humidity

Microgreens are tiny seedlings of some wild species as well as edible herbs, cereals, and vegetables. They are developed from the seeds of vegetables, legumes, herbs, and cereals and are regarded as immature greens (requiring light for photosynthesis and growing medium). They are picked shortly after the single set of true leaves has emerged from the cotyledon leaves. According to Xiao et al. (2012), microgreens have 4-6 times the nutritional density of their mature counterparts.

8.1. Vegetables

8.1.1. Tomato (Lycopsarsicon Esculentum)

Temperature: A warm climate crop can tolerate high temperature but cannot withstand frost. Minimum temperature for germination of seed is 8 to 10°C. Night temperature for fruit setting is 12 to 22°C. Critical night temperature for fruit setting is below 12°C. Critical day temperature for fruit setting is above 32°C. If the greenhouse can maintain the temperature as mentioned above then the non-terminal or indeterminate tomato crop can be grown for 10 to 12 month duration.

Variety: Indeterminate (producing flowers and fruits continuously along the stem as it grows) hybrid varieties resistant to nematodes or fusarium or verticilium wilt disease may be selected.

Computer Purchase

With so many factors to consider, deciding which omputer to buy can be a real challenge. From components to software to accessories, new PCs offer a bewildering array of choices. Sifting through the large number of options can be a daunting task. Almost any PC on the market today can more than adequately handle such standard office chores as word processing and spreadsheets, as well as basic Internet functions like e-mail and general browsing. If you want to edit digital video or manage a large database, however, you may need more than the basics.

The best way to pay only for what you need is to carefully consider what you want to do with your system now, and try to anticipate what might interest you next 2-3 years. Specific applications call for certain types of hardware, whether at home or in the office. When you’re ready to buy a computer, here are some recommendations for the average user’s basic requirements:

Introduction

This chapter outlines recently developed and traditional statistical techniques, which are increasingly being applied in social science research. The social sciences cover diverse phenomena arising in society, the economy and the environment, some of which are too complex to allow concrete statements; some cannot be defined by direct observations or measurements; some are culture-or region specific, while others are generic and common. Statistics, being a scientific method as distinct from a ‘science’ related to any one type of phenomena is used to make inductive inferences regarding various phenomena. The chapter addresses both qualitative and quantitative research a combination of which is essential in social science research and offers valuable updates for advanced level for researchers. In this chapter, I will attempt to addresses the gaps between the research and data analysis faced the professionals and researchers working under different environment with multitude of problems particularly in the social science sector. It provides students with theoretical perspectives and methodological tools to explore the social and cultural systems that influence policy interventions.

The Social Science: Social science is the field of study concerned with society and human behaviors. Social science covers a broad range of disciplines like demography and social statistics, methods and computing; education, social anthropology, and linguistics apart from anthropology, archaeology, criminology, economics, education, history, linguistics, communication studies, political science and international relations, sociology, geography, law, and psychology. Further, it covers development studies, human geography and environmental planning; law, economic and social history; politics and international relations; psychology and sociology; and social policy and social work. Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world around us. Social science tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help explain how our own society works from the causes of unemployment or what helps economic growth or what makes people happy. It provides vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-governmental organisations and others. Economics seeks to understand how individuals interact within the social structure, to address key questions about the production and exchange of goods and services. Management studies explores a wide range of aspects relating to management of fisheries activities, such as strategic and operational management, organizational psychology, employment relations, marketing, accounting, finance and logistics.

Insect Control and Insecticides

Control Tips

Practicing Integrated Pest Management can significantly reduce the amount of insecticides needed to control many insect problems.

Broad-spectrum insecticides are effective against all insects, even the good ones. Other insecticides target certain insects. Using a targeted insecticide minimizes the risk to beneficial or non-target insects.

Some insecticides work immediately to kill insects while others may need some time to take effect.

Using more than one insecticide product in the same location can increase or decrease each one’s effectiveness. It may also result in a greater risk to health and/or the environment.

Insect growth regulators like pyriproxyfen and methoprene do not kill insects; they make it impossible for exposed insects to molt (grow) or lay eggs properly.

Insecticidal baits can be used instead of spraying large areas, especially for social insects like ants. This can decrease the risk of exposure, but remember to place baits where children and pets won’t have access.

2.1. Biotechnology institutes

Regional office of ICGEB (International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology) at New Delhi (Headquarters at Trieste, Italy established in 1983).

Lal Bahadhur Shastri Centre for Advanced Research in Biotechnology at IARI, New Delhi

National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Hyderabad

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) provides the highest oil yield per hectare among all oil crops (Corley and Tinker, 2008; Rival and Levang, 2014). Examining the global palm oil production statistics, which is extracted from the mesocarp of the oil palm, the total world production stands at 79.464 million tonnes. Indonesia leads the world production with 59%, while India ranks 13th with a production of 0.305 million tonnes, contributing insignificantly to the world palm oil production. Additionally, India imports about 19% of the world’s palm oil, accounting for 9.3 million tonnes, with a net worth of 11.7 billion U.S. dollars (USDA IPAD, 2024; Statista, 2024).
In this challenging scenario, expanding the cultivation area of oil palm with high-yielding, disease-resistant, and dwarf statured varieties is imperative. The National Mission on Edible Oil-Oil Palm has set a target area of 27,99,087 hectares, but the achieved area is only 3,70,028 hectares (NMEO-OP). To meet this target, obtaining quality planting material is crucial. Traditionalvegetative propagation is not viable for oil palm due to its lack of axillary branching or axillary meristem. Given its highly cross-pollinated nature and long breeding cycle, obtaining true-to-type progeny is challenging. Therefore, the importance of propagation through in vitro mass multiplication techniques in this crop cannot be overstated.

ABSTRACT

Cassava, sweet potato and yams are root and tuber crops propagated through vegetative parts. The CTCRI is maintaining a large collection of (3985 accessions) these crop germplasm in field gene banks. Studies were conducted to transfer these collections to in vitro storage so as to clean off systemic infection and protect them from loss due to biotic and abiotic stress. Suitable media protocols, method of surface sterilization, inoculation and incubation were developed for these different crop species in order to establish initial cultures, for their multiplication and storage under slow growth. Meristem, shoot buds and tuber sprouts were used as propagules for culture initiation.Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium was found suitable for all the species studied with variations required in the concentration of growth regulators (NAA, BA and GA ) for meristem culture and micropropagation. Slow growth of cultures was induced using osmotic retardants like mannitol and sorbitol. Addenda like silver nitrate and activated charcoal was found effective in reducing leaf chlorosis and preventing leaf shedding, thereby contributing to culture life and regeneration capacity. The slow growth media developed were effective in prolonging the subculture period to 18 months (cassava), 10 months (sweet potato), and 20 months (yams). The studies have helped in establishing 400 accessions of cassava, 272 accessions of sweet potato and 166 accessions of yams in In vitro Active Gene Bank. The results are presented and discussed.

Introduction

Indian horticulture sector contributes about 38% to the agriculture Gross Value Added (GVA) making very significant contribution to the Indian economy. Apart from ensuring nutritional security of the nation, it provides alternate rural employment opportunities, diversification in farm activities, and enhanced income to farmers. India is currently producing about 283.5 million tones of horticulture produce which has surpassed the food grain production, that too from much less area (24.2 mha. for horticulture against 125 mha. for food grains). Productivity of horticulture crops is much higher compared to productivity of food grains (11.96 tones/ha against 2 tones/ha.). India has emerged as world leader in the production of a variety of fruits like mango and banana and is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Besides, India has maintained its dominance in the production of spices, coconut and cashewnut. Among the new crops, kiwi, gherkins, kinnow, date palm and oil palm have been successfully introduced for commercial cultivation in the country. Launch of National Horticulture Mission has spurred the production and productivity of horticultural crops. Productivity of horticultural crops has increased by about 32% between 2004-05 and 2015-16. Increase in demand for horticultural produce due to greater health awareness, rising income, export demands and increasing population poses the challenge for further increasing the production and productivity of horticultural crops. The issue of climate change has thrown up greater uncertainties and risks, further imposing constraints on production systems. Therefore, continuous crop improvement programmes are the way forward for sustainable fruit production with greater opportunity of value addition of surplus produce.

Tissue culture refers to the collection of techniques used to maintain or grow of cells, tissues and organs under controlled environment. The German botanist G. Haberlandt (1854-1945) originated the concept of cell culture in which he described his pioneering experiments with isolated plants cells and developed a concept of totipotency (potential of a cell to reproduce entire plant and all of its characteristics). He is considered as father of tissue culture.

Floriculture has become very important industry as a result of science based techniques and steady supply of improved plant materials. One of the major constraints of floriculture industry is non availability of large scale quality planting materials. Conventional methods of propagation can not meet the increasing demand of propagating materials. Micropropagation is perhaps the most widely used biotechnology tool for large scale propagation of floricultural crops. This economic proposition has led to intensive practical research to evolve tissue culture techniques for mass propagation and production of virus-free plant material.  Since most of the ornamental crops are highly heterozygous, their seed progeny is not true-to-type. Conventionally in these plants vegetative reproduction method is followed to produce genetically identical plants at commercial scale. But the main constrain of this method is that only a limited number of plants can be raised in a year from a single mother plant and often fail to meet the market demand. Therefore, most of the modern floriculturists follow the micropropagation technique for rapid multiplication of ornamental plants.

The tissue system

A group of tissues performing a similar function irrespective of its position in the plant body is called a tissue system. In 1875, Sachs recognized three tissue systems in the plants.

a) Epidermal tissue system

b) Vascular tissue system

c) Fundamental tissue system.

a) Epidermal tissue system

Epidermal tissue system is the outermost covering of plants. It consists of epidermis, stomata and epidermal outgrowths. Epidermis is generally composed of single layer of parenchymatous cells compactly arranged without intercellular spaces. But it is interrupted by stomata. In leaves, some specialized cells which surround the stomata are called the guard cells. Chloroplasts are present only in the guard cells of the epidermis. Other epidermal cells usually do not have chloroplasts. The outer wall of epidermis is usually covered by cuticle. Stoma is a minute pore surrounded by two guard cells. The stomata occur mainly in the epidermis of leaves. In some plants such as sugarcane, the guard cells are bounded by some special cells. They are distinct from other epidermal cells. These cells are called subsidiary or accessory cells. Trichomes and root hairs are some epidermal outgrowths. The unicellular or multicellular appendages that originate from the epidermal cells are called trichomes. Trichomes may be branched or unbranched. Rhizodermis has two types of epidermal cells - long cells and short cells. The short cells are called trichoblasts. Root hairs are produced from these trichoblasts.

Most of the fruit, vegetables, and their products contain acid or a mixture of acids. These acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste. The level of acidity is estimated to measure the degree of tartness/sourness in the product.
Principle
Acidity in the sample is measured by titrating a known volume of sample against a standard alkali solution of known concentration using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The appearance of a light pink color indicates the endpoint of titration. However, for highly colored products like tomato sauce/ketchup, jamun juice, Rhododendron juice, mixed fruit jam, etc., accurate determination of endpoint may be difficult by using an indicator. Therefore, for such samples, acidity is measured by using electrometric methods i.e. titration to a predetermined pH value, or the sample is further diluted with distilled water to mask the interfering color. The level of titratable acidity is expressed in terms of the predominant acid. Different fruits, vegetables, and their products have different predominant acids. A list of some products having predominant acid is shown as under:

Historically, the terms alternative, complementary or traditional medicine (TM) all referred to a genre of health care practices or services that got bound together as a class through the logic of reductio-ad-absurdum, or because of their “absence from the mainframe of” what has come to be known as Modern Medicine (MM). However, since Stephen Fulder¹ , the identities of TM have become more distinct, MM-TM blending more active and, the line separating the two more fuzzy. To date, the World Health Organization offers the most comprehensive definition of TM² .

WHO defines traditional medicine as including diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, and/or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose or prevent illness.

The phraseology MM/TM is syntactically incorrect because it is contended that medicine as such, modern or otherwise, evolves and progresses through traditions. The major difference between the various traditions of health care practices is that MM rode the crest of the high wave of reductionist-scientistic rigor of modernity³ to reach the shore of global acceptability while the others never crossed the threshold of geographical and cultural locality, remaining untested, neither proved nor disproved. Darwinian principle of survival of the fittest also endorses a truism that survival is a proof of fitness. Given this principle, it makes sense that TM as we know of it today may be useful for promoting human health. Moreover, most TM considers human beings and their health in the context of their environment. This criteria, not only defines TM apart from MM but also provides for a reason as to why lately TM is emerging out of long hibernation. Developmentally, MM isolated “human” from its global environmental context as a static, stand-alone, complete, total and delimited system in itself. While this reductionist approach has a very high pay off for the first 90% of human health problems, it fails when dynamic non-linear complex systems elements kick in (I’m not exactly sure that you mean by this phrase). TM covers some parts of those hidden variables and thats the utility to modern mankind.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
The procedure to analysethe Compatibility of Food Packaging Materials Using Shelf- Life.

Introduction

When testing a food product for shelf-life and stability, the packaging is a major factor to be considered. It is necessary to carry out stability testing in the packaging intended for marketing due to interactions that may occur between the package, the product and the environment. Testing is also important for establishing the correct specifications for procurement and quality control of incoming materials.

The standards of packaging materials play a significant role in establishing optimum packaging specification. Properties of packaging materials like plastic and paper are affected by variables like temperature and humidity. Sensitivity of the packaging material to heat, light and moisture is due to their chemical nature. Compatibility of the packaging is as significant as development of the packaging systems or selecting packaging materials for food products.

Objective

After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:

The stress-strain curve of the polymeric sample (polystyrene) and calculate the tensile strength, % elongation before break, young’s modulus.

Principle

Tensile Test (ASTM D638)

Tensile strength is a measurement of ability of plastic material to withstand forces that tend to pull it apart. It is the amount of stress at the break point.

This test also helps to determine the extent the material stretches before breaking known as elongation at break. Percentage elongation is defined as the amount of linear deformation of the sample before breakage. It is measured as strain value at the break point.

Yield Point: It is the point at which an increase in strain occurs on stress-strain curve without the increase in stress. (point C)

Yield Strength: The stress at which a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of stress-strain curve is observed for a material is known as Yeild strength.

THE DECLINE OF A COLONIAL CAPITAL TOWN

The Post Independence Scenario

It is believed that it takes more time to build and less to demolish, but strangely, in case of Allahabad, it took less time to build but much more to ruin it. As discussed in the last chapter, the peak was reached in about 34 years from 1868 to 1902, the period from 1903 to 1942 being the most constructive years in the history of Allahabad. From the inception of the High Court in 1868 to the formation of the Muir Central College in 1872, to being the capital of the provinces in 1902, Allahabad was regarded as a front runner in the field of Education and Culture.

The city regarded as a ‘production house’, nurtured talent and produced academicians and administrators, who contributed immensely in the process of nation building. The scenario after 1947 however changed drastically, it seemed, as if the city of Allahabad had exhausted its definite role in the freedom struggle, serving only as a preparatory ground which guided young minds to face the future with confidence. Its literary associations, libraries, university and other schools created an intellectual environment which propelled young talents to national fame. The civil services examinations were successfully cleared by many students of the university in those times, this was a result of quality education and an intellectually surcharged environment.

Independent India had lot of promises to fulfill and great expectations from the citizens. Delhi, the capital of Free India, was the focus of these activities. The emergence of new power centers and subsequent development of business and industrial centers, namely, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and later Bangalore, shifted the focus of development from regional, small cities to these new centers. This quantum jump, saw cities of the like Allahabad, Lucknow, Varanasi, trail behind, as they were suddenly reduced in the current perspective and referred to as places in a historical perspective. Post Independence phase created huge opportunity for talented people, academicians, politicians, members of the judiciary, were asked to participate in the running of the nation. Allahabad’s role probably at this point of time, around 1947, seemed to be receding and the city was beginning to be ignored and conveniently forgotten. It slowly became a museum, with only old tales to tell.

This chapter discusses the decline of Allahabad, particularly institutional decline and also traces the earlier efforts in planning of the city. It is here we look for grey areas which would help in finding the exact causes of the physical decline that beset the city.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to:
Calculate the Burst strength of the given paper and Board.
Introduction

Bursting strength is defined as the measure of resistance to rupture in various materials. A test specimen is held between two circular clamps and subjected to an increasing pressure from a rubber diaphragm. The rubber diaphragm keeps on expanding with the help of a controlled pneumatic pressure until the test specimen ruptures. The pressure required to rupture the specimen at the time of reading is known as bursting strength.

Principle

The bursting strength of paper, paper board, including linerboard and corrugated board, is a combined measure of properties of the sheet, like tensile strength and elongation. In general, bursting strength is dependent on the type, proportion, preparation and amount of fibres present in the sheet and their formation, internal sizing, and to some degree, the surface treatment. Since bursting strength is an empirical property, this test serves to define “standard grades” in commercial activity in combination with basis weight.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn :
The Scuff Resistance of the Printed Sample.
Introduction

Scuff resistance or abrasion resistance is a desirable and sometimes critical property of printed materials. Abrasion damage can occur during shipment, storage, handling, and end use. The result is a significant decrease in product appearance and legibility of product information. A printed substrate's level of abrasion damage is influenced by numerous factors, including time, temperature, humidity, and shipping circumstances. This procedure offers a means of comparing printed materials' resistance to scuffs in a lab setting. The relative scuff resistance of printed inks, coatings, laminates, and substrates can also be assessed using this technique. This procedure can be changed to assess how a product—food, drink, powdered detergent, etc.—affects scuff resistance, which might happen when something spills or leaks while being transported. Labels, folding cartons, corrugated boxes, circulars, inserts, and other packaging materials with applied graphics on a flat substrate can all use this technique.

Objective
After performing this experiment, you will be able to learn
Sorting of given samples by selective dissolution technique.
Introduction
Sorting process is the process of separating the mingled and mixed plastic before the recycling process. 

Selective Dissolution Technique (SDP)

Recycling of plastic has become the major focus nowadays. Sorting of plastic materials is the major step towards recycling. One of the sorting techniques is selective dissolution although it has not found major usage in industry for various drawbacks. This technique uses the solubility parameter of different polymers for segregation purpose. Each polymer owing to its chemical structure has different solubility parameters. Hence, the solvents for each and every polymer are different. This difference in solubility in different solvents is used here for separating them from one another.

Recycling of plastic has become the major focus nowadays. Sorting of plastic materials is the major step towards recycling. One of the sorting techniques is selective dissolution although it has not found major usage in industry for various drawbacks. This technique uses the solubility parameter of different polymers for segregation purpose. Each polymer owing to its chemical structure has different solubility parameters. Hence, the solvents for each and every polymer are different. This difference in solubility in different solvents is used here for separating them from one another.

Objective

After performing this experiment, you will be able to learn

Sorting of samples by sink-floatation technique.

Introduction

Sink float is the simplest and cheapest method among all the wet sorting techniques in which polymers are separated based on their density. This technique is extremely fast, environment friendly and cost effective process for sorting of plastics. Since, the separations are done based on density, so any factor which may change the density of the pure polymer like blending, composite formation of multilayer structures etc. will not be separated well using this method. Moreover, if any two polymers are very close in density, they cannot be separated easily. That is why PVC and PET which are very close in their density can not be separated using sink floatation method.

Initially the plastic waste is added to the container containing water and the system is gently stirred to evenly wet the surface of plastic and remove any air trapped on the surface. Since the density of polyolefins is near/close to each other but lighter than water, they all float in water whereas the heavier plastics sink. This technique is primarily used to separate polyolefins from other plastics. Now to further segregate the polyolefinic fraction, this method is extended by adding the polyolefin mixture to another container containing water and alcohol. As dropwise more and more alcohol are added to the water, the density of the medium will decrease and the polyolefins start separating. For separating the heavier fraction of the polymer, the mixture of polymers is added to water. To this water, dropwise salt water is added and stirred. Salt water increases the density of the medium slowly and at one point, the polymers which were sinking in water, will start floating depending on their density.

Object: To demonstrate anaerobic respiration. 

Material required: Soaked pea or gram seeds, mercury, test tube stand, forceps and KOH pellets. 

Theory: Generally, plants at certain stage have the capacity to respire in absence of oxygen i.e. anaerobic respiration. In this process, oxidation of carbohydrate takes places, ethyl alcohol and CO2 being end products and only a little amount of energy is liberated-

Object: To demonstrate chlorophyll fluorescence.

Material required: Spectrophotometer, fresh green spinach, mortar, pestle, acid washed sand, acetone, funnel, filter paper and test tubes.

Principle: Chlorophyll molecule absorbs light in the blue (450nm) and red (660nm) region and get into excited state and emits an electron. The electron drops back to the ground state within 10-9 seconds and some energy (which is not used in biochemical reaction) are given out as the observed fluorescent far red light.

Procedure and observation: Take some soft green spinach leaves. Grind these with a pestle -mortar in acetone adding a pinch of acid washed sand. Make a fine paste. Filter to get a clear solution in a test tube. Take the test tube in bright sun light.

Object: To demonstrate that light and carbon dioxide are essential for photosynthesis (Moll’s half leaf experiment). 

Material Required: A potted plant, a wide mouthed bottle, caustic potash, splits of rubber Cork and vaseline etc. 

Object: To demonstrate that O₂ is evolved during photosynthesis. 
 

Material required: Hydrilla plant, beaker, test tube, funnel, pond water and pyrogallol. 
 

Theory: Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is evolved in presence of light and chlorophyll during photosynthesis.

Object: To demonstrate that oxygen is used up during respiration. 

Material required: A conical flask, some germinating seeds, glass tube having two bends at right angles, mercury, beaker, small tube and caustic potash (KOH).

Theory: Plants at some stage have a capacity to respire more rapidly in presence of oxygen i.e. aerobic respiration. In this process, oxidation of carbohydrate occurs resulting in conversion of carbohydrate into carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water with release of large amount of energy.

Object: To demonstrate that water is lost from a living plant during transpiration. 

Material Required: A potted healthy plant, a bell jar, a rubber sheet or oil cloth, a glass sheet and grease.

Theory: Transpiration: Loss of water in the form of water vapour from the internal tissues of living plants through aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.

Object: To demonstrate the measurement of growth in plants with the help of Arc auxanometer. 

Material required: Potted plant, Arc auxanometer, rope and weight.

Theory: Growth is a permanent change in plants with respect to its size, form, weight and volume.

Object: To demonstrate the optimum conditions for seed germination. 

Material required: Beaker, glass slide, bean seeds, thread and water.

Theory: Germination is a process by which the embryo in the seed becomes activated and begins to grow into a new seedling under favorable conditions. Food is stored in the seeds in dry conditions but the developing embryo cannot utilize this dry food. Food can be utilized in liquid form only and seeds can utilize only dissolved oxygen. Excess water stop germination because once all the dissolves oxygen is utilized by the seed, further germination is not possible as the life supporting oxygen is lacking. Suitable temperature is necessary because low temperature retards the embryo activity and high temperature destroys the delicate embryo tissue. Seed usually germinate between 0oC to 50oC temperature and the optimum temperature is lies between 25 to 30oC. During germination rapid cell division takes place. Energy is required for cell division. This energy is obtained from oxidation. The oxygen is required for oxidation is supplied by the air.

Object: To demonstrate the phenomenon of endosmosis and exosmosis by using grapes and raisins.

Material required: Grapes, raisins, beaker or petridish, water and sugar solution.

Object: To demonstrate the phenomenon of osmosis using potato osmoscope. 

Material required: A potato tuber, sugar solution, beaker, water, petridish, knife, measuring cylinder, and stand.

Theory: Osmosis is a phenomenon in which water molecules diffuse through the semi permeable membrane from region of its higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.

Object: To demonstrate the process of diffusion.

Material required: Beakers, copper sulphate, distilled water and sugar solution.

Object: To demonstrate unequal transpiration by the two leaf surfaces from four leaf method. 

Material required: four leaves of china rose or any dorsiventral leaves, two stands, thread and grease or vaseline. 

Theory: Transpiration is a process in which loss of water occurs in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts of the living plant. 

Method: Take four leaves of equal size from a plant (e.g. China rose). Now apply or smear the vaseline on the four leaves as follows:

Object: To determine respiratory quotient of different types of respiratory substrates.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
How to  determine the caliper/GSM of paperboard.

Introduction

Thickness is calculated as the perpendicular distance between the two principle surfaces of paper or paperboard as measured under specified conditions. The GSM of paper may be defined as the thickness of a paper that is measured in a roundabout way. GSM stands for Gms per Square Metre - and is used to check the quality of the paper to be measured.

It is a very simple to perform test but tells a lot about the basic properties of the material which are very important to decide the quality of the material. Also, the quality of the material is measured with its GSM value. The heavier a paperboard is, the better the quality.

Principle

Packaging materials are chosen by estimating the GSM of the sample material. High Grammage defines the strength of the paper. In certain applications high Grammage is desired, where the paper will be subjected to load and harsh working conditions.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
The impact properties of polymeric film.

Introduction

Dart impact test is performed on plastic films and laminates to determine the effect of free falling dart on plastic films. The energy created by the falling dart causes the film to fail under some specified conditions. The test is widely performed by the manufacturers in plastic industries and paper & packaging industries to assess the durability and strength of the plastic films and other related products.

Dart impact strength is dependent on film thickness as the test is sensitive to orientation of the chains in the film. The tackiness of the film (slip additives) and the condition of the dart surface also influence the values determined by this test. As dart impact is not tested in any specific film direction, it is sensitive to chain orientation in both directions. Best impact strength are usually obtained when the orientation is balanced in the Machine Direction and Cross Direction.

Principle

The test method is according to ASTM D1709

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to:
To determine the peel strength of a given samples.
Introduction

Packaging is a key element to quality branding for an organisation, ensuring that the product labels are securely attached to products. Adhesion bond strength of a film to a surface can be quantified in terms of peel strength, bonding strength, and shear strength. Many protective covers are used as required for various applications. In most of such applications plastics films are used as the first preference of the manufacturers. In applications like, protective LCD screens and other scratch-prone surfaces very low peel force films are used. The force required to remove the protective films or the label is very important for both the consumer and the manufacturer. For example, for protective film application, the film must be easy to remove, yet the bond must be strong enough to remain intact for product security. Whereas, in a typical adhesive application, like laminated cups, the bond between the surfaces should be strong enough to withstand various environmental impact.

Objective

After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:

To determine the tear resistance of polymeric film.

Introduction

Tear resistance testing is often used in the plastic film, paper and textile industries. Tear resistance is measured as a sample's ability to resist tearing. Tear strength is the maximum london the sample divided by the thickness of the material. Typically used for testing of plastic film, plastic sheets and other rubber products. Tear strength is calculated by force (in Newtons) divided by thickness (in millimeters, centimeters, inches, etc.): Tear strength = F/t

A tear is generally uneven and usually unplanned. In cases like a packaged chips, already tear cuts are made following a perforated line so that the effort of tearing is less and the action will most likely produce a straight line.

The speed at which a tear resistance test is conducted can affect the test significantly. Tear transmission resistance is common for acceptance testing with materials such as paper and rubber. Tear resistance in textiles involves the load required to spread a single "rip-tongue" type of tear or the type of tear where the material is initially cut.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
To determine the tensile properties of polymeric sample.
Principle

ASTM D638 covers the tensile properties of both reinforced and unreinforced plastics in the form of dumbbell-shaped molded plastic test specimens.

Yield strength is measured as the highest stress where a film, when deformed, will resume its original dimensions when the force is removed. The yield stress is expressed as force per unit area (engineering stress) and is calculated as per Equation (1) and the elongation at yield as per equation (2).

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
Thermal Shock Resistance in Glass.

Principle

Thermal shock occurs when different parts of an object expand at different rates due to a thermal gradient. This differential expansion creates stress or strain within the material. If this stress exceeds the material's strength, it can lead to the formation of cracks. If these cracks are not stopped from propagating, they can cause the material to fail structurally. Thermal shock is quantified by the temperature difference between the heated temperature T1 and the cold water bath temperature T2 to which the object is subsequently exposed, which can reveal any cracks or damage.

Purpose of Thermal Shock Test

Glass items often experience significant temperature changes during normal use, and the thermal shock test is designed to ensure their resistance to such conditions. For example, moving a casserole dish from a hot oven to a cool countertop might be enough to cause it to break. This test evaluates the quality, durability, and strength of glass packaging materials used for both solid and liquid food products.

Aim: To study the effect of variation of field current upon the stator current and power factor with synchronous motor running at no-load, hence to draw V and inverted V curves of the motor.

With constant mechanical load on the synchronous motor, the variation of field current changes the armature current drawn by the motor and also its operating power factor. As such, the behavior of the synchronous motor is described below under three different modes of field excitation.

Objective

After performing this experiment, you will be able to learn

Sampling methods and procedures of packaging material.

Introduction

The objective of sampling of a packaging material is to obtain a representative sample of a whole lot for the required testing and/or grading. It is expected that the test results and grading will reflect the average quality of the PM from which the sample was taken.

Principle

The sample techniques and processes outlined in this publication are grounded upon scientific principles. Since the validity of any later test result depends on the quality of the sampling and the information given with the sample, the sampler is essential to the process of selecting lots for testing and/or grading.

Every PM in the population being sampled has an equal chance of being selected, according to the random sampling principle. Usually, the sample size that is tested is very small in relation to the size of the lot that it represents. The sample must be taken carefully and in a way that gives assurance that it is genuinely representative of the lot. Similarly, in order to reduce the composite sample, all necessary.

Object: To find out the relation between transpiration and absorption. 

Material Required: Wide mouthed glass bottle, with a narrow graduated side tube, split rubber cork, water and a plant with intact root system.

Theory: The loss in weight of plant indicates the amount of water transpired. And fall in water level of the side tube indicates the amount of water absorbed. This shows that amount of water transpired is normally equal to the amount of water absorbed by the plant roots.

Date:

Objective: To get acquainted with classmates.

Description: This is the first lab activity and has been designed to make the students feel comfortable in their new surroundings. The aim is also to help them get acquainted with their classmates as they are still new to each other. This short fun activity will help them mingle and set the tone for upcoming activities.