eBook Chapters

22.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of herbs

• Native to India

• Wide distribution covering entire Indian sub-continent up to 1800m in Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Ocimum tenuiflorum (Ocimum sanctum) - Holy basil

• Ocimum basilicum (2n=48) - Culinary or ornamental basil

22.2. Economic importance

• Have a religious attachment and grown in shrines and homes as an aromatic perennial shrub.

• Part of routine worship and scientific background as antimicrobial and antiviral properties and purifies the air.

Introduction
Basil/Tulsi is a popular name given to any aromatic herb that belongs to genus Ocimum and family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). The word ‘basil’ was derived from Greek word ‘Basilica’ which means the royal plant. It comprises over 160 species spread over the tropical, sub-tropical, and warmer part of temperate regions of both the hemisphere ranging from sea level to 2000 m height with their diversity met in West Africa. Tropical Africa has maximum diversity with 59 species, followed by sub-tropical region of South Africa with 19 species and India with 9 species only.
 

A tumor is said to be an abnormal growth of cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. A cell has a particular life span;when it dies a new cell is generated. In normal condition, this system is regulated through cell cycle and cell division but at the time of any abnormality this growth mechanism is totally disturbed and failed. These cells give rise to clone of the cells and eventually produce tumor.

A tumor or neoplasm is an abnormal growth of the cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. 

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs) ?
Ans.     Some antigens present on the surface of malignant cells are unique to the cancerous cells and are not present on their normal counterparts. They are called tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs).

Q.2.     What are tumour associated antigens (TAAs) ?
Ans.    Some antigens present on the tumour cells that are not different qualitatively from those found on normal cells but are overexpressed and present in increased number on the cancer cells as products of cellular oncogenes. They are called tumour associated antigens (TAAs). Ex the high level of a growth factor receptor due

Introduction

The hot arid region of the country is spread over nearly 31.7 million hectare land area in different states. The major part of hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62mha) followed by North-western Gujarat (2.16mha). The major natural constraints in arid vegetable production comprise of very low and variable rainfall (100-450mm), very high potential evapo-transpiration rate, intense solar radiation (320-619/cm²/day), high wind velocity (20km/hr), high infiltration (9cm/hr), extremes of temperature (0 to 48^ºC), low relative humidity, high soil salinity, very deep ground water, etc. These bio-physical constraints reduce the productivity of cucurbits many fold. Despite  several constraints, the hot arid areas of western Rajasthan offers very good opportunity for cultivation of cucurbits like, watermelon, muskmelon, longmelon, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, tinda, summer squash, cucumber, etc.

Introduction

Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts of the world of which 20% is arid and rest is semi-arid. Hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha area and mainly confined in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. The major part of hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 mha) followed by North-western Gujarat (2.16 mha). It is characterized by high aridity index, extremes of temperature low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storm, high soil pH, high infiltration rate, very limited availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water (More, 2010). Under such harsh climatic conditions cultivation of vegetable crops in open condition results in very low and poor-quality yield which fetches less return per unit area. By creating the suitable micro-climate for plant growth round the year cultivation of vegetables can be done under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country (Singh and Sirohi, 2004). It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world next only to China. Presently India has 178.17 million tonnes of total vegetable production, but the productivity and quality of most of the vegetable crops is very poor (17.40 t/ ha) due to several biotic and abiotic stresses due to open field cultivation. In Rajasthan, the total production of vegetables is very less i.e. only 1.81 million tonnes from an area of 0.17 m ha with a productivity of 10.66 t/ ha.

The Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world, of which 20% is arid and the rest is semi-arid. A hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha and confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana. The major part of the hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 million ha), followed by north-western Gujarat (2.16 million ha). It is characterized by a high aridity index, extremes of temperature, low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storms, high soil pH, a high infiltration rate, and minimal availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water. Under such harsh climatic conditions, cultivating vegetable crops in open conditions results in meager and poor-quality yield, which fetches less return per unit area. By creating a suitable microclimate for plant growth throughout the year, vegetables can be cultivated under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation, which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country. It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the world’s second-largest producer of vegetables, next only to China.

7.1 Tuple Introduction

A tuple is a collection which is order and unchangeable. In python tuples are written with round brackets. Tuples in python are very similar to list which contains different types of elements with the following major differences.

It is declared as

tuple1=(1,2,3,“ram”,“shyam”)

Program implementation import timeit

listtime=timeit.timeit(stmt=“[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]”,number=1000000)

tupletime=timeit.timeit(stmt=“(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)”,number=1000000)

print(?List takes time:”, listtime)

print(?Tuple takes time:”, tupletime)

The decreased ability of water to transmit light which is caused by suspended particulate matter ranging in size from colloidal to coarse dispersions is refers as turbidity.
Principle
Turbidity is measured by its effect on the transmission of light, which is termed as Turbidimetry or by its effect on the scattering of light, which is termed as Nephelometry. Turbidimeter can be used for sample with moderate turbidity and Nephelometer for samples with low Turbidity. Higher the intensity of scattered light higher the turbidity.
1 mg SiO2/L = 1 unit of turbidity

I. General information

1. Cool season turf grasses are Perennial rye grass, Creeping bent grass, Colonial bent grass, Kentucky blue grass, Canada blue grass, Poa spp, Festuca spp, Agrostis spp, Lolium spp
2. Warm season turf grasses (25-35^oC) are Cynodon sp, Zoysia sp, Stenotaphrum secundatum, Paspalum notatum, Eremochloa ophiuroides, Axonopus sp, Pennisetum clandestinum, Buchloe dactyloides
3. Broad leafed turf grasses are Arachis pintoi, Dichondra repens
4. Based on mowing height, turf grasses are classified into tall, medium & dwarf
5. Turf grasses which needs high mowing height of>3.5 cm are Tall fescue, sheep fescue, Canada blue grass, fine fescue, wheat grass, orchard grass
6. Turf grasses which requires medium mowing height of d” 3.5 to 1.0 cm are perennial rye grass, Kentucky blue grass, Buffalo grass, etc.,
7. Turf grasses which requires low mowing height of d” 1.0 cm are colonial bent grass, creeping bent grass, Annual blue grass
8. Turf grasses are classified based on their recuperative capacity into fast, medium & slow

Turf is an English word, which traces its origin to India from the Sanskrit word “Darbha” means “tuft of grass” or “Kusha” in hindi. Kusha has been mentioned numerous ties even in Hind mythologies (Turgeon, 1985). Turf, is a grass which is smooth, has quality texture and a soothing colour surface that is used in the golf courses, lawns, fields, nurseries, gardens, etc. Turf is a piece of earth of about 5 cm thickness with grass thickly grown over it. Turfgrass has become increasingly important in today’s society as people’s needs increase for recreation, comfort and aesthetics. Turfgrasses are considered as major component of landscape industry which provides aesthetic value. They provide arena for various functional, recreational and social activities.

Turfgrasses enhance the appearance of land and increase the utility of sports fields, lawns, parks, golf courses and other greenbelt areas in and around urban as well as sub urban centres. They improve the environment of urban centres by reducing erosion, temperatures, noise, dust and glare. And, turfgrasses improve the safety of sports fields and playgrounds by adding resiliency to the playing surface. Turfgrasses are increasingly being used by National Highway Authority of India for reducing dust pollution and decreasing vehicle glare by planting on central verge and sides. Only turfgrasses are used by airport authorities for planting besides runway. The grasses being of perennial nature also help in carbon sequestration thus helping combat climate change. The grasses which grow well on sandy soil will help to reduce the dust and control erosion and dust pollution on river banks.

The turfgrass industry is growing rapidly due to strong demand for residential and commercial property development, rising affluence, and the environmental and aesthetic benefits of turfgrass in the urban landscape. Increased area under aesthetic and utility turfs is mainly because of increasing awareness about the sports, degrading environment and the increase in real estate value. The economic value of the turfgrass industry in India is yet to be determined as there is no single government agency handling or collecting the authentic data on turfgrass cover, use or import. All the agencies dealing with turfgrasses are either private companies, nurseries or corporates. But, according to the scarce data gathered by golf associations, sports experts and Association of Indian Nurserymen, turfgrass industry covers an area of more than 30000 acres, in which around 6000 acre is under turfgrass cultivation (sod production). States leading in turfgrass cultivation and marketing are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, etc. The total number of international cricket grounds in India are 50 and 8 are under construction, more than 520 domestic cricket grounds and athletic fields are also in operation. Indian turfgrass industry is growing around 10 per cent annually. Landscape business contributes 2-3 per cent of total construction and turf has 50 per cent of landscape business.

1. Introduction

A lawn is an indispensable feature of a landscape with a sizeable proportion of space relative to other garden features. It is regarded as the heart of a garden that enhances the beauty of a landscape providing both functional and aesthetic utility. A well maintained lawn at a residential, public or institutional places can be used both for active and passive recreation. It enhance the beauty of surroundings and contribute to real estate value. The turf industry is being viewed as an integrated sector of ornamental horticulture in the developed countries like USA, Australia, China, Netherland, UK, Japan and Denmark. Globally, the turf grass industry has employed skilled workforce for maintaining more than 700,000 athletic fields and over 17,000 golf courses, with an annual worth of $ 20 million each year (Aldous and Chivers, 2002).

Introduction

Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) domestication occurred in Central Meso America at least 2000 years ago from wild turkey. Domestic turkey is a popular and it is raised throughout the world. Commercial industrial farming has made it very economical for the amount of meat produced. Commercial turkey farming is a profitable business. Turkey grows faster like broiler chicken and become suitable for slaughter purpose within a very short time. Turkey farming for meat production is very popular than egg production. Turkey farming is similar to other poultry farming like chicken, duck, quails etc. Turkey is a very social with human; and raising it is really very fun and enjoyable.

Turkey farming is a big business in U.S. and some other western countries. It is almost non-existent in India. America is leading producer (55%) and after that >France>U. K.>Netherland. It is one of the white meat choices famous for its leanness and delicacy. In India, small flocks reared in C.A.R.I., Haryana Agriculture University, Bangalore University, Kerala Veterinary University.

1) Leaf Spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves.
• Large number of spots may be found on a single leaf and as the disease advances, spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf blade.
• Severly affected plants dry and wilt.
• Black dots acervuli formed in concentric rings on spot.The grey centres become thin and get teared(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

Structure of turmeric process

Boiling

• Boiling figures in water in copper vessels/galvanized iron/earthen vessels
• If water is acidic then add NaCO₃
• Stopped boiling when froth starts coming out and white fume appears
• Then dried in the sun for 10-15 days till they become hard and brittle

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South and South East Asia, from there it is spread to Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Pacific Islands

6.2. Economic importance

• Used as condiments.

• Rhizomes are boiled in water, dried, ground into a deep orange yellow powder and used as a colouring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for dyeing.

• Has a warm, bitter, black pepper like flavor and earthy, mustard like aroma.

• Yellow color is due to curcumin (3-9%)

• Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

• Protect against heart disease

• May prevent cancer

• Ease symptoms of osteoarthritis

• Treat or prevent diabetes

• Treating depression

Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of livestock in India. The major growth promoters used in broiler diets in the past were antibiotics, which have been found helpful in improvement of growth performance and feed conversion ratio in poultry (Miles et al., 2006). However, constant supplementation of antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in poultry feed led to residual effects in poultry products and usage of antibiotics in sub-therapeutic concentrations resulted in development of antibiotic resistant bacteria (Diaz et al., 2015) which represent a public health hazard.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa Koenig non L.) is an important spice, a native of India and South East Asia. Chikarmane et al. (2003) by analyzing historical patterns of movement of South Asian and Southeast Asian people known to have used turmeric suggested that turmeric was introduced into Southeast Asia via Indian colonization in the early Christian centuries. An increase in colonization events from South India during this time was because of discoveries in navigational science and desires to expand civilizations, rather than military conquests. The cultural expansion from South India supports the introduction of turmeric cultivation to Southeast Asia via human means. These human migratory patterns are compared to a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data within Curcuma, and suggested that key locations such as the Isthmus of Kra were important not only to human movement but to species evolution in Curcuma (Chikarmane et al., 2003).

The symptom appears as numerous, circular, light yellow to dark yellow spots on both the surfaces of leaves but is more prominent on the upper surface. The spot may coalesce to form large, irregular patches and soon entire leaf turns yellow and dries. Affected leaves appear as reddish-brown in colour. Excessive spotting destroys green tissues and becomes weak and yield reduced drastically

English name : Turmeric
Botanical name : Curcuma longa L.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 3x= 63
Centre of origin : South East Asia
Turmeric of commerce is the dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa. Cured turmeric contains 5.8% moisture, 8.6% protein, 8.9% fat, 63.0% carbohydrates, 6.9% fibre, 6.8% mineral matter, 0.2% calcium, 0.26% phosphorus, 0.05% iron, 0.01% sodium, 2.5% potassium, 175 IU of vitamin A per 100 g, 0.09 mg of vitamin B1, 0.19 mg of vitamin B2, 49.8 mg of vitamin C, and 4.8 mg of niacin. It provides a calorific value of 390 calories per 100 g. The primary colouring agent in turmeric is curcumin. It is a significant spice, particularly in rice-based cuisines. Curry powder typically contains about 24% turmeric combined with coriander, cumin, cardamom, fenugreek, chillies, ginger, pepper, and dill seeds.

Turnip is the root vegetable cultivated in cooler season or temperate regions of the globe. Brassica rapa L 2n = 2x = 20 is formerly known as B. campastris subsp rapifera. Swede (B. napus var. napobrassica) is directly related to turnip.
Origin: It is originated in cooler part of Europe, presumably from biennial oilseed forms. It was known to Greeks and Romans at beginning of Christian era. It was introduced to Britain from France by Romans and into North America by the early European settlers in the 17th century.

Operculina turpethum (OT) Silva Manso, also known as Tihudi/Trivrit due to its triangular stem, is an Ayurvedic herb from India that belongs to the Convolvulaceae family. Indian Jalap/Turpeth root in English, Nisoth/Turpeth/ Panila/Pithori in Hindi, Trivrit in Sanskrit, Tegada in Telugu, Trikolpakkonna/ Triputa/Sivata in Malayalam, Sigade in Kannada, and Kumbham/Sivatai in Tamil are some of the other names for it. It grows up to 1000 square feet on Indian roadsides and is occasionally cultivated as an adornment in gardens.

Morphological characteristics

The crop is a fragrant perennial creeper with a basic stem that might be triangular or rectangular. The leaves are many and oval in shape, measuring 2 to 5 inches in length. It consists of cylindrical pieces of root and stem, 1.5-15 cm long x 1-5 cm diameter, with the central woody portion removed by splitting the bark on one side, external surface longitudinally furrowed giving the drug a rope-like appearance, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty, taste bland at first, then slightly acrid, fracture short in bark and fibrous in wood, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty. The root portions are cylindrical, twisted, and a dull grey tint on the outside. The flower arrangement is 1 to 4 inches long and includes three to four branches with white blooms. Fruit is round ½ or ¾ inch in diameter, it bears 4 shiny 2 inch long seeds. The plant bears fruits and flowers from March to December.

19.1 Python Turtle Graphics

Turtle is a special feathers of Python. Using Turtle, we can easily draw in a drawing board.

First we import the turtle module. Then create a window, next we create turtle object and using turtle method we can draw in the drawing board.

19.2 Some Turtle Method

Example

from turtle import *

t = Turtle() #object in python

wn=Screen()

wn.title(?my first graphic”)

wn.bgcolor(?yellow”) #color filling in window

t.shape(?turtle”) #turtle shape given

t.color(?red”, “green”)

Abstract

Complex industrial wastewater by using conventional treatment method is a significant challenge for its safe disposal. Recently, two step treatments by aerobic bacteria using activated sludge process followed by rhizofiltration has been recommended as a promising technology for detoxification of complex industrial waste. In activated sludge process recalcitrant compounds are biotransformed along with biodegradation of organic waste. Aerobic treatment may be activated sludge process, trickling filter or aerobic lagoon process, which one is used for treatment  it is based upon the characteristics of wastewater. Carbon and nitrogen ratio along with other organic compound is also play important role for microbial growth and degradation of pollutants. During degradation of various pollutants, metal microbes interaction play significant role for its bioremediation either through adsorption or bioaccumulation.

• In most insects, life begins as an independent egg (ovipary).

• Majority of insects are oviparous. Egg stage is inconspicuous, inexpensive and inactive. Yolk contained in the egg supports the embryonic development.

• Eggs are laid under conditions where the food is available for feeding of the future young ones.

• Production of eggs by the female’s body is called oogenesis and the egg laying process is known as oviposition.

• The outer protective shell of the egg is called chorion. Near the anterior end of the egg, there is a small opening called micropyle which allows the sperm entry for fertilization. Chorion may have a variety of textures.

• Size and shape of the insect eggs vary widely.

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and devices connected to each other. The network allows computers to communicate with each other and share resources and information. The Advance Research Projects Agency (ARPA) designed “Advanced Research Projects Agency Network” (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defence. It was the first computer network in the world in late 1960’s and early 1970’s

There is only one type of scientific research and that is to solve a real problem or to understand the universe and provide a solution –either with the experiments or by putting a hypothesis. However, we have classified the research in various types as per our comfort. But for the employed researchers, it may be a matter of concern if they are working on time bound research schemes as their services may be co-terminus with the project and they may face the problem of un-employment, after termination of the scheme. According to the scholars’ activities and type of research being carried out in the country, we can discuss the subject under following topics.

Crops are grown in soil. There are different types of soil. The soil type helps farmers decide what crops will grow best because some crops do better with particular types of soil. Testing the soil helps determine what nutrients are available or unavailable for growing certain crops. Farmers usually have local agricultural experts test the soil on their land for information on how to proceed in growing crops. The best soil has a balance of nutrients, such as potassium, magnesium, and others. Certain crops may need more of one nutrient, so farmers put back those ingredients into the soil for better crops.

Six different types of soil are listed below along with the crops which do well in these soils.

1.Loam: This type of soil helps grow the best possible crops because it provides the necessary elements for plant growth and development. Loamy sand contains mostly sand plus clay and silt. Such soils are good for root vegetables, such as carrots, radish, turnip, beets, leafy vegetables, potatoes and tomatoes.

2.Clay: Cabbage and broccoli grow well in clay soil, but it is not good for root vegetables because of its dense texture which does not allow free flow of water.

3.Sand: Root vegetables, such as turnips, parsnips, and carrots, grow well in sandy soil.

4.Silt: Silty soil is fertile and offers nutrients for plant development. Lettuce, cabbage, carrots, turnips, and many other vegetables flourish in silt. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries do well.

5.Peat: Peaty soil provides plant growth when mixed with rich organic matter, lime, and compost that reduces its acidity. Legumes, root crops, cabbage, and spinach are easily grown in soil that’s well-drained.

6.Chalk: Sweet corn, beets, spinach, and cabbage are among the vegetables that benefit from chalkier soil. It is recommended that farmers use fertilizers and balance the pH levels to deal with the alkaline that can sometimes stunt growth.

16.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the definition of plastic, its types and characteristics. For each type of plastic, its molecular structure, properties, advantages and disadvantages and applications are presented.
16.1.1 Origin of Plastic
Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanization, a process that increased rubber’s elasticity and resilience, in 1839, which resulted with the discovery of plastic. One of the earliest known polymer combinations was the creation of Charles Goodyear. Celluloid, or Parkesine was discovered in 1855 by Alexander Parkes. This substance is a blend of cellulose nitrate and camphor/lime. Additionally, it was the first thermoplastic to become rigid when cold and flexible when heated. In the years that followed, several noteworthy discoveries were made, such as the separation of PVC in 1835 by the French physicist Victor Regnault, the invention of the first synthetic polymer (or industrial plastic) in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, and the introduction of transparent food packaging in 1900 by Edward Brandenberger.
16.1.2 Plastic and its Constituents
Plastic is a class of materials that is utilised in electronics, construction, medical equipment, packaging, etc., because of its extreme versatility. This synthetic or semi-synthetic material can be moulded using a variety of methods. It is created from petrochemicals or natural materials like cellulose or starch. The basic components are chemically altered to create polymers, which are lengthy sequences of molecules. Then, these polymers can be moulded using blow, extrusion, or injection moulding techniques to create a variety of shapes. Another name for some plastics is resins. Based on their chemical makeup, plastics can be divided into two primary categories, viz. thermoplastic and thermoset/ thermosetting plastic. The thermoplastics can be moulded, melted, and remoulded repeatedly. Thermoset/ thermosetting plastic cannot be heated again. Polymers come in a variety of forms, both synthetic and natural. Among the materials most frequently used in the creation of plastic are coal, natural gas, cellulose, starch, crude oil, and salt. Plastics are mostly made by two processes that call for certain

Introduction

Green house is a structure in which external climatic factors can be controlled for cultivation and protection of crops. It has mainly two parts. (a)  a frame or the basic structure and (b) the cladding or covering material (U.V. film) Frame can be made of G.I. pipes, bamboos, woods or iron rods while the cover can be of glass or plastic films. In India the technology is primarily used. Greenhouse technology is more suited to vegetables crops (such as tomato, cauliflower, capsicum, cucumber, leafy vegetables etc.), and flowers (like rose, gerbera, carnation, etc).  This technology is mainly suitable for commercial farming, as it requires investment in setting up the entire framework.  Based on cooling systems of the greenhouse, it can be classified as naturally ventilated and fan-pad type greenhouse.

2.1. Types of plant diseases

2.1.1. Types of infection

1. Localized diseases

Garden

Garden is a place where vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants are grown mainly for recreation. The garden incorporates both natural and man-made materials.

Types of garden

The major garden types which shall be discussed are: English garden, Mughal garden, Persian garden, Italian garden, French garden, Japanese garden etc. Out of these the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal style of gardening.

5.1. Types of farming

Arable: Crops.

Pastoral: Animals.

Mixed: Crops and animals.

Subsistence: Grown just for the farmer and his family

Commercial: Grown to sell.

Intensive: High inputs of labour or capital usually small.

Extensive: Low inputs of labour or capital.

Sedentary: Permanently in one place.

Nomadic: The farmers move around to find new areas to farm.

Classification of the farming systems based on following criteria

Available natural resources, include water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate especially altitude; landscape including slope; farm size, tenure and organization.

Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, include field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

Introduction

Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customers by delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.

1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.

Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption

In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving. Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print

Introduction
Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customersby delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.
Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption.
In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving.
Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print advertisements have been a hallmark of Indian advertising.

Introduction
Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customers by delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.
Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption. In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving.
Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print advertisements have been a hallmark of Indian advertising.
2. Broadcast Advertising (Television & Radio): Television advertising has been a dominant force, particularly for consumer goods and lifestyle products. With advancements in technology, ad placements on streaming services like Netflix and Hulu have become popular.
Example: Coca-Cola’s global campaigns, including the “Share a Coke” initiative, were widely broadcasted through TV commercials. Radio advertising, though declining in some markets, still holds significance, especially for local businesses.

Aquaria, commonly known as fish tanks, are mainly categorized by the type of water they use—freshwater, brackish, or marine—and the kind of habitat they aim to recreate. They may also be classified by size, function, or the species they are intended for. Generally, aquaria fall into categories based on water composition, user intent, and maintenance complexity.
Freshwater aquaria are the most widely kept due to their simplicity and suitability for beginners. These tanks typically house species like guppies, mollies, and goldfish. Brackish water aquaria contain water with intermediate salinity, ideal for species such as archerfish and scats, requiring specific care conditions. Marine aquaria, designed for saltwater organisms like clownfish and coral, demand precise salinity levels and advanced filtration systems, making them more challenging to maintain.
By purpose, aquaria include community tanks, which accommodate multiple compatible species, and species-specific tanks, dedicated to observing the behavior and breeding patterns of a single species. Breeding tanks are specialized setups designed for reproduction and fry care, ensuring optimal water quality and feeding conditions. Planted aquaria focus on cultivating live aquatic plants alongside fish, combining aesthetic appeal with ecological stability.
Additionally, commercial aquaria are typically large-scale setups used in public displays, pet trade, or scientific studies. In contrast, domestic aquaria are maintained at home for personal recreation or hobbyist-level breeding activities.

Types of Bakery Products

Baked goods are produced from either doughs or batters which are a mixture of flour and water made by mixing, beating, kneading or folding. The processing method depends on the ingredients being used and the product being made. Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened bread is made from a mixture of flour, yeast, salt and water. Unleavened bread does not contain yeast and therefore does not rise. It is flat bread that is quicker to make than yeast-bread.

Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. The many approaches to biological control can be categorized conventionally into regulation of the pest population (the classical approach); exclusionary systems of protection (a living barrier of microorganisms on the plant or animal that deters infection or pest attack) and systems of self-defense (resistance and immunization) (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). The agents of biological control include the pest- or disease-agent itself (sterile males or a virulent strain of pathogens), antagonists or natural enemies, or the plant or animal managed or manipulated (immunized) to defend itself. Principles of plant health care are offered, know the production limits of the agro-ecosystem, rotate the crops, maintain soil organic master, use clean planting material, plant well-adapted, pest resistant cultivars, minimize environmental and nutritional stresses, maximize the effects of beneficial organisms and protect with pesticides as necessary.

Biological control is the control of one organism by another. This control may be expressed as either a longer population of the pest or as a restriction or prevention of the severity or incidence of pest damage without regard to the pest population (Cook and Baker, 1983). Biological control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem, organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is usually also more stable and longer lasting. In spite of biological controls having been used in agriculture for centuries, as an industry biological control is still in its infancy. Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered as the era of modem biological control (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). No microorganism or beneficial insect deliberately introduced or manipulated for biological control purposes has, itself, become a pest so far as can be determined, and there is no evidence so far of measurable or even negligible negative effects of biocontrol agents on the environment. The new tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modeling, and computer technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm, breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and technology into a new era.

2.1 Nitrogenous biofertilizers

These biofertilizers augment nitrogen to the plants through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, either symbiotically or asymbiotically. The major nitrogenous biofertilizers are:

2.1.1 Rhizobium

The word Rhizobium is a Greek word where “rhiza” refers to root, and “bios” refers to life. Rhizobium was first named by Frank (1889) which means ‘root living’ in Latin (Fig. 3). Some species of Rhizobium were later moved to new genera based on phylogenetic analysis. It consists of 49 rhizobial species and 11 non-rhizobial species.

Once entrepreneurship is decided upon, there are three main routes an entrepreneur may follow. He can start a new livestock business, he can also purchase an existing livestock business or he can take over a family livestock business. In the first case the entrepreneur begins from scratch on all his own ideas, as there are no existing problems or concerns from a previous owner. He has the freedom to start the business in his own way. However, the risk is higher and he has to devote time, effort, and money—especially for startup expenses such as equipment, building, etc. When the entrepreneur purchases an existing business he has advantages of smaller startup costs and building on the existing goodwill or loyalty of established customers. This option is good if the entrepreneur does not have a great deal of business experience. Disadvantages might include inheriting existing problems such as poor location, stiff competition, fluctuating market, equipment problems, and poor reputation. In the third instance an entrepreneur takes over family business. In this situation, an entrepreneur has the support and training available from the family members, creating trust and togetherness that bonds the business as one entity. Maintaining separate family and business relationships is the biggest obstacle to overcome, making it difficult to get away from the business. Personality conflicts, different interests, changed values, and burnout are a few reasons that familyowned businesses don?t survive to the second generation. A person who grows up in the family business may be ready to spread his or her wings and explore new career aspirations.

Mammary tumors are either of benign or malignant types. Benign tumors are defined as mass or lump of cells unable to invade the neighboring tissue/ organ and less likely to re-grow after removal. However, malignant tumors are the tumors which have the ability to invade other tissues/ organs and tend to re-grow even after surgical removal. Malignant tumors grow at faster rate as compared to benign tumors. Nearly, 40-50% of canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are malignant.

Types of cells : Animal cells are usually defined by the tissue of their origin. On the basis of morphology, they can be divided into 5 types.

    1.    Epithelial cells : Epithelial tissues consist of a layer of cells which cover organs and line cavity. Example skin and the lining of alimentary canal. They grow well as single cell monolayer in culture.

    2.    Fibroblast cells : Connective tissue form the major structural component of animals. The tissue contains fibroblasts and most widely used cell in the laboratory. Fibroblasts are bound to the fibrous protein collagen in the connective tissue. They have excellent growth characteristics.

The word communication comes from the Latin communis meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish commonality with someone through a message. Communication then is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

According to Thayer (1968) there are four types of communication. They are:

Intrapersonal Communication

This refers to communicating with one’s self. It refers to organizing and converting sensory data into meaningful messages having some relevance or utility for an individual’s past, present or future behaviour. Because the psychological system of a human being is constantly engaged in making sense of its environment in the service of that orgnaism’s adaptive and goal seeking needs, the question is not whether communication is going to occur, but what communication and with what consequences. Communication is a continuous process and is determined by an individual’s take-into-account abilities and take - into - account susceptibilities. However, these take - into - account abilities are a function of the capacity of an individual’s conceptual system to ascribe meaning or significance to certain patterns and sequences of the events going on in his internal and external environment.

Intrapersonal communication is a co-function of the individual and of what is going on in his environment that has immediate relevance for him. All that we perceive and comprehend, must be perceived and comprehend through ourselves.

Types of Confectionery

Confectionery also called sweets or candy is sweet food product. Confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, Bakers’ Confections and Sugar Confections. Confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods. Many confections are considered to give empty calories.

Baker’s Confectionery

Baker’s confectionery also called flour confections includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar baked goods. In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Baker’s confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course. Baker’s confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, and cookie.