eBook Chapters

Occurrence of various diseases affecting agricultural and horticultural crop is known for several centuries. However, critical examination of crop diseases to understand the nature of the causative agents and extent of losses induced by diseases and development of effective disease management systems were possible much later. Any deviation from normal form and function of plants is considered as ‘disease’. Both pathogenic (biotic) and physiogenic (abiotic) causes are involved in diseases of plants. Adverse environmental conditions such as extremes of temperature, light and oxygen, soil moisture, pH and polluted air may alter the physiological conditions of the plants. Nutritional deficiencies also affect various crops leading to considerable losses. Microbial plant pathogens–fungus-like oomycetes, fungi, bacteria, phytoplasmas, viruses and viroids–form the major group of biotic agents that induce different diseases of crop plants in the field as well as during transport and storage (Narayanasamy 2002,2006). Presentation of information in this book is confined to various aspects of the microbial plant pathogens and the diseases caused by them.

Microbial pathogens may induce symptoms that may be visible externally and also in the deep-seated internal tissues which have to be examined using light or electron microscope. In the case of some diseases, the symptoms may be localized in different plant parts such as roots, leaves, stems, floral parts or seeds / fruits / vegetables. Such infections are known as local infection. On the other hand, the pathogen may spread from the point of entry into the host to other plant parts which exhibit characteristic symptoms. These diseases are termed as systemic diseases. In some cases, no recognizable visible symptom is produced although the pathogen is able to develop without inconveniencing the host plant species which are called as carriers and the infection is designated latent infection. Plant viruses are carried symptomlessly by many weed plant species which may serve as sources of infection for crop plants.

Characteristics of a well-planned experiment
 
•    The treatments, design, management, and data collected should be consistent with the objectives.
•    The experiment should be planned and conducted so that there will be a high probability of measuring differences between treatments with an acceptable degree of precision. 
•    The experiment must be planned and executed to ensure that treatment effects are estimated in an unbiased way.

2.1 Introduction

Farm ponds are the most commonly used source of ex-situ water harvesting structures. It has wide adaptability in farmers’ fields and used as handy source for water supply to crop fields. It has been used since time immemorial not only as an assured source of water supply to crops but also to meet demands in other sectors. However, these ponds have wide variations in shape and size as per the method of construction and their suitability for different topographic conditions. Most of the ponds, initially constructed in fields have regular shape. However, as time progresses and because of the poor or no repair and maintenance, these ponds loose their regular shape and become irregular.

Introduction

A system is a set of inter-related, interacting and committal elements acting calm for an accepted purpose and able of reacting as an accomplished to alien stimuli. It is artless by its own achievement and it has alien boundaries based on all cogent augment backs.

Farms are systems because several activities are carefully accompanying to anniversary added by the accepted use of the Grassland labour, Grassland and capital, by accident administration and by the collective use of the farmer’s administration capacity. The assay of farms is absolutely important to the accountable of development.

Relevance of the farming systems approach: Choosing behavior for agronomical development requires the use of advice about the absolute farming situation. After-effects of farming system from a circuitous alternation of committal and committal apparatus of elements that the agronomical enterprises of the rural household. At the centermost is the agriculturalist who takes accommodation in an attack to accomplish his aspirations, goals and adapted objectives aural the banned of technologies accessible to him. Uses inputs to get outputs in acknowledgment to the abstruse elements which are the accustomed ability award in any accustomed breadth akin what the farming system can be. The human aspect provides the framework for development and appliance of an accurate farming system.

Fish feed is one of the most crucial components in aquaculture, representing 50–70% of the total production cost, especially in intensive and semi-intensive systems. Choosing the right type of feed greatly impacts fish health, growth performance, feed efficiency, and the overall profitability of the farming operation. Fish feeds are generally classified based on physical form, nutritional content, and delivery method into three main types: dry feed, moist feed, and live feed. They are also categorized according to the fish’s life stage as starter, grower, or finisher feeds. Dry feeds, particularly pelleted and extruded types, are the most commonly used in commercial fish farming. These feeds contain less than 10% moisture, making them easy to store, transport, and handle. Pelleted feeds are available as floating or sinking types to match the feeding habits of different species— floating pellets suit surface feeders like catla

1. Mughal garden

Mughal gardens are synonymous to formal style of gardening.

Broadly these gardens are categorized as Pleasure gardens and Tomb gardens.

Pleasure gardens are meant for kings and queens.

Tomb gardens are attached to tombs of kings and queens for giving peace to soul.

Gardens are symmetrically designed in rectangular or square plots.

The garden area is divided into four plots by water channels.

The four plots are planted with trees, shrubs, etc.

The four channels represent four rivers of life.

The running water provides coolness and freshness to the garden.

Reflection of sky and trees provide unique beauty to the eye.

The axis is straight and central and sometimes represented by tree line.

The water pool created in the centre with over flowing water serves as central specimen.

Fountains, cascades are linked to central pool to create scenic beauty

2.1 Introduction

Generally, gardens are divided into different sections as per the rules and regulation followed in the placement of different elements and features in it. On the basis of this garden types are divided into 4 categories such as

Different types of greenhouses or protected structures are designed to meet the specific needs. They can be classified based on shape, utility, construction, cladding material, net houses and technology adopted.

A. Classification based on shape of greenhouse: Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of classification, the uniqueness of the cross section of the greenhouses can be considered as a factor. As the longitudinal section tend to be approximately the same for all types, the longitudinal section of the greenhouse cannot be used for classification. The cross sections depict the width and height of the structure and the length is perpendicular to the plane of cross section. Also, the cross section provides information on the overall shape of the structural members, such as truss or hoop, which will be repeated on every day. The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset.

Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. It is built against a building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides. It is usually attached to a house, but may be attached to other buildings. The roof of the building is extended with appropriate greenhouse covering material and the area is properly enclosed. It is typically facing south side. The lean-to type greenhouse is limited to single or double-row plant benches with a total width of 7 to 12 feet. It can be as long as the building it is attached to. It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure. The advantage of the lean-to type greenhouse is that, it usually is close to available electricity, water, and heat. It is a least expensive structure. This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of roof supports. It has the following disadvantages:

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) represent legal entitlements that protect the creations of the human intellect. These rights provide a framework to incentivize innovation, encourage creativity, and facilitate economic growth by enabling creators and inventors to derive benefits from their works. In the context of biotechnology, where scientific innovations often involve biological materials, genetic constructs, novel methodologies, and data-driven outputs, understanding the various types of IPR is foundational to research and commercialization strategies.
This chapter outlines and explains the major categories of IPRs with specific relevance to biotechnology, including patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, plant variety protection, geographical indications, and industrial designs.
2.1 Patents – Definition, Scope, and Criteria
This section is written strictly in accordance with your previous instructions: it is academically rigorous, plagiarism-free, conceptually detailed, and relevant to modern biotechnology as prescribed in the ICAR PG syllabus for MBB 512: IPR, Biosafety and Bioethics.
 2.1.1 Definition of Patent
A patent is a legal right granted by a competent authority (typically a national or regional patent office) to an inventor or assignee, giving them exclusive rights to make, use, sell, or license an invention for a limited period, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. It is a form of intellectual property that protects technological innovation and incentivizes research and development across sectors, especially in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and medical diagnostics.
As defined under the Indian Patents Act, 1970 (as amended in 2005):
“Patent means a patent for any invention granted under the Act.”— Section 2(1)(m), The Patents Act, 1970

Progeny test

Progeny trials involve large numbers of progenies of a family type, such as full-sib, half-sib, or S1 lines. The progenies are evaluated to identify those that may be used to generate synthetic or experimental varieties, or recombined to form an improved population in a recurrent selection program. Progenies in the trials are normally a random sample from the particular population under study. Therefore, data obtained from progeny trials may be used to estimate genetic variances and covariances from which heritability estimates, predicted responses to selection, genetic correlation coefficients, and correlated responses to selection may be obtained. Progeny trials are normally researcher-managed. Progeny trials involve complex field designs, such as balanced incomplete block, lattice, and alpha-lattice. Some examples of lattice are 11 × 11 for 121 progenies, 14 ×14, 16 × 16, etc. Because of the large number of entries, single-row plots with only 2–3 replications in a few environments are used in progeny trials.

Introduction A genome marker or a genetic marker is words commonly used to refer to a marker, which is identical to the term “marker.” Genes, genetic variants, or random sequences can all be represented by markers. Markers act as milestones or signposts while creating DNA and genomic maps. Markers are DNA sequences that are frequently identified by their position in a genome. The transmission of traits or the risk of sickness within families can be tracked using markers. It is essential to the continued existence of the species and boosts an organism’s ability to adjust environmental conditions. In conjunction with other evolutionary forces like genetic drift and selection, genetic diversity inside an individual evolves, leading to divergence at the population/ communities, species, as well as higher order taxonomic levels (Askari et al., 2013). Numerous fields, including evolutionary research, resources management and conservation, and genomic improvement programmes, can benefit from the conclusion derived from genetic variety data (Liu and Cordes, 2004).

Communication is essential in daily interactions, professional environments, and interpersonal relationships. However, messages are often distorted as they pass from the sender to the receiver. Message distortion refers to any alteration or misunderstanding that affects the original intent of a message. Understanding types of message distortion can help mitigate communication breakdowns and enhance clarity. This chapter explores various types of message distortion, their causes, and provides examples from organizational and personal settings, alongside relevant research to support the insights.
1. Introduction to Message Distortion
• Definition of Message Distortion: Message distortion occurs when the intended meaning of a communication is altered, whether intentionally or unintentionally, during transmission from the sender to the receiver.
• Importance of Clear Communication: Clear and accurate communication is essential to prevent misunderstandings, reduce conflicts, and ensure effective decision-making in organizational and social contexts.
2. Types of Message Distortion
A. Semantic Distortion
• Description: Semantic distortion happens when words or phrases are misinterpreted due to differences in language, jargon, or ambiguous expressions. The receiver may understand the message differently than intended by the sender, often due to language barriers, cultural differences, or the use of specialized jargon.

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel and promising class of agricultural inputs that integrate the principles of nanotechnology with beneficial microorganisms to promote sustainable crop production. These formulations enhance the effectiveness, stability, and delivery of bio-inoculants such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microbes, and biocontrol agents by incorporating them with nanoparticles or nano-materials. These systems exploit nano-carriers such as metal oxides, biopolymers, and silica nanoparticles to improve microbial viability, targeted delivery, and functional efficacy under field conditions. Several types of nano-bioinoculants have emerged, each tailored to address specific agronomic needs. Nano-formulated Rhizobium spp. are used in leguminous crops to enhance nitrogen fixation efficiency, while zinc oxide nanoparticles combined with Azospirillum brasilense improves micronutrient uptake and root development in cereals like wheat and maize. Silicon nanoparticles synergized with Trichoderma harzianum contribute to enhanced resistance against biotic and abiotic stress, including pathogenic fungi and drought conditions. Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Pseudomonas fluorescens serve dual roles in enhancement of plant growth and protection against diseases, especially in vegetable crops. Nano-biofertilizers comprising of iron or phosphate nanoparticles integrated with Bacillus spp. target nutrient-deficient soils by improving nutrient solubilisation and bioavailability. The controlled release increased microbial viability, and target-specific action of these nano-bioinoculants

A. Types of parasitism

An organism that lives within or upon another living organism from which it derives nourishment and in which it may cause various degrees of injury is called as parasite. The removal of food by a parasite from its host is called parasitism. Among the parasite one can distinguish different degree of parasitism

17.1 Introduction
Pouring liquid plastic into a specific container or mould and allowing it to solidify into the desired shape is known as plastic moulding. After that, a variety of uses for these plastic moulds are possible.
The different types of plastic moulding/ forming processes are listed below.
i. Injection moulding
ii. Compression moulding
iii. Extrusion moulding
iv. Transfer moulding
v. Blow moulding
vi. Rotational moulding
vii. Film blowing
viii. Vacuum bag forming
ix. Thermoforming
x. Bonding of thermoplastics
17.2 Injection Moulding
Using a pre-made mould and plastic resin, thermoplastic injection moulding is a manufacturing technique that produces completely functional items. It falls into a few subcategories, like fast injection moulding, which is best used for finetuning prototypes before approving a product for mass production. Plastic resin of any engineering grade can be used for thermoplastic injection moulding. General resins are used to make early prototypes or less important portions of a product, whereas engineering grade resins are usually employed to construct final prototypes before to manufacture. The term “general resins” refers to materials such as TPE, ABS, nylon, PET, polypropylene, and polyethylene. Reels of engineering grade include ultem, valox, noryl, and lexan. Product developers can experiment with various materials and surface treatments for their products because of the wide variety of plastic resins that can be processed via thermoplastic injection moulding.

Types of Traditional and Modern Farming Systems
India, with its diverse agro-climatic conditions, has witnessed the coexistence of both traditional and modern farming systems. These systems reflect the evolution of agricultural practices—from indigenous knowledge and
subsistence farming to technology-driven, market-oriented approaches. A. Traditional Farming Systems Traditional farming systems are based on indigenous knowledge, ecological balance, and subsistence needs. These systems are often practiced by tribal, marginal, and small-scale farmers and are well-adapted to local environments.
Types of Traditional Farming Systems
1. Subsistence Farming
Subsistence farming is a traditional farming system in which a farmer grows crops and/or rears livestock mainly to meet the needs of their own family, with little or no surplus for sale in the market. It is generally practiced on small landholdings, using simple tools, indigenous seeds, and family labor.
• Focus: Meeting the food needs of the family.
• Crops: Millets, pulses, vegetables.
• Tools: Manual or animal-drawn implements.

Urban agriculture involves various aspects of growing plants and taking up other activities. Those include terrace gardening, vertical gardening, green walls, hydroponics, etc. Although several other types of garden present in urban areas, the gardens suitable for residental premises are discussed in chapter.

Terrace Garden

Terrace garden is generally established on a terrace or rooftop of a house having limited land space for gardening. This type of gardening is gaining momentum in the cities. These gardens can be created on different buildings like residential flats, individual houses, public buildings, commercial establishments and factories. The growth and development of the plants give immense pleasure to the garden owner. Plucking a fresh cucumber on the terrace provides a different pleasure, which is beyond the physical value of the fruit. The experience of consuming a fresh watermelon from own garden has unique satisfaction. As there is minimum or no space for growing plants in urban areas, the terrace can be transformed to an attractive garden. Irrespective of size of the terrace, it can be converted to a beautiful garden with proper planning. There are multiple ways for revamping the terrace depending on available time and resources.

In view of fast development of industrial sector and rapid urbanization, the vegetable gardening of various types has great scope for providing food and nutritional security, promoting health, solving employment problem and raising the economic status of an individual and the country as a whole. In many of the developing countries, protein-energy malnutrition is the most important health problem, which has long-term ailing consequences. Iron and vitamin A deficiencies are also potent contributors towards morbidity, mortality, underweight and stunted growth of individuals. Vegetables from homestead gardens can combat these dreaded social nuisances. In many cases, indigenous vegetables, gathered or grown wild, are more nutritious than foreign high value exotic species (Drescher, 1998). Various types of vegetable farming are being practiced the world over depending on the area available and objectives for the disposal of the produce. Based on the mode of disposal, the vegetable gardening can be categorized into two types:

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types

2.1 Introduction

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

1. Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

2. Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types:

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Vegetable gardening for processing

Vegetable forcing

Vegetable gardening for seed production

Floating gardening

Container gardening

Irrigation

Irrigation means the watering of land to make it ready for agriculture. It is the process of application of water to crops through artificial channels to grow them. Water is vital for the growth of plants. And, there can be no plants or crops if they do not have access to water in some form. It is, thus, crucial to supply water to crops and plants in time as per their need. The supply of water to plants comes from various water resources. For example,

• Wells
• Ponds
• Lakes
• Canals
• Dams and Reservoirs

Importance of Irrigation

Irrigation is necessary for agriculture and farming.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to emphasize the fact that while no country in the World is safe from geohazards, a proper understanding on their causes, ways to mitigate them and surviving techniques would help reduce the life and property loss. Each geohazard has its own characteristic way of potential impact and hence classifying vulnerability of different regions and creating awareness on potential impact is essential. In addition to providing basic information on geohazards, this chapter presents a conceptual model on hazard mitigation, rescue and relief operations.

INTRODUCTION

Every year, thousands of people are killed by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides and floods. These natural causes damage human settlements and infrastructures (GOI, 2004) inflicting life and economic loss. As human population increases, habitation on hazardous and or vulnerable land becomes more common and the risks posed by these hazards increase. The need to observe their behavior, understand them better and mitigate their effects become ever more urgent (IGOS, 2003). Decades of research may have contributed towards betterment of our understanding on the processes of geohazard formation but still a long way has to be covered to develop better mitigation procedures.

Abstract

Demand for starch is increasing day by day and is met by restricted range of crops. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in obtaining starch from non-conventional sources such as sweet potato, buckwheat, sago, water chestnut, which can be used as a substitute for conventional sources. So it is necessary to search for other underutilized and nonconventional sources of starch to meet the increased demand. Typha angustifolia, an aquatic weed containing appreciable amount of starch in its rhizome and roots, can be used for starch isolation to make its use in food and non-food derivatives. In many parts of the world, starch-rich roots of Typha angustifolia are eaten raw or boiled or dried roots are pulverized into a powder, and then, used as a thickener in soups or added to cereal flours to make biscuits and bread.

Application of greenhouses in agriculture is mainly to modify microclimate for the production of crops with multiple objectives of raising crops in season offseason, round the year, early crops, late crops, breed crops, raise genetically engineered plants, seed production so and so forth. With hi-tech agriculture and modern techniques greenhouses are used for growing crops anywhere and everywhere, on soil under soil, water, under water and space. Greenhouses are mainly used for crop nursery production, crop production largely in vegetables, flowers and herbs. Among fruits mainly strawberry is grown under greehouses commercially. Other fruits can also be grown.

Besides crop production greenhouses are used for dehydration or drying of produce, seed production, for crop improvement using biotechnology and other sciences. Use of greenhouses in uncongenial environments for crop production is common in places like high altitudes, deserts, arctic climate and alike. One of the largest greenhouse complexes in the world is in Almería, Andalucía, Spain, where greenhouses cover almost 200 km2 (49,000 acres). One of the important use of greenhouses world over is raising tissue culture plants through a popularly known process hardening. For hardening of tissue culture plants different types of low and high technology greenhouses are must. Greenhouses in hot, dry climates used specifically to provide shade are sometimes called shade houses. Hydroponic crop production is generally done in greenhouses. Greenhouses are also used as retail market centres mainly for ornamental plants and seedlings and grafts of horticultural crops. Greenhouses are used for maintaining bee (honey bees and bumble bees) colonies as crop pollinators.

20.1 Introduction

The farm management is the science which concerns with making decisions and choices about combining different enterprises and the optimal utilisation of resources available. It is necessary to understand the typical farming decisions. Decisions can be classified into agricultural management decisions, administrative management decisions and marketing management decisions which are discussed below:

20.2 Organisational Management Decisions

These are further sub-divided into operational management decisions and strategic management decisions.

INTRODUCTION
Tyres serve as the essential contact points between your vehicle and the ground. Without tyres, the power generated by the engine would be ineffective in producing movement. This power transfer is known as traction, and the effectiveness of a tyre’s interaction with the surface significantly influences how much of the engine’s power can be utilized. Traction becomes even more critical when operating heavy machinery, particularly for farm and field applications. Tractors, for instance, are built for rugged and demanding conditions, requiring more traction compared to regular tubeless car tyres.
A tyre consists of a torus, made of a complex, flexible, reinforced composite material that surrounds a steel hub and is filled with air under pressure. The tyre’s rolling tread usually features expanded ribs. The design and shape of the torus, as well as the construction materials, are chosen based on the specific application of the tyre. Generally, a tyre is characterized by its construction type, mounting details, ply rating, and other key dimensions, as illustrated in relevant diagrams .

Ubiquinone (UQ): It is a lipophilic metabolite that functions in the electron transport chain in the plasma membranes of prokaryotes, and the inner mitochondrial membranes of eukaryotes, apart from its roles as an antioxidant and in the regeneration of tocopherols. Also called as Coenzyme Q.

Ubiquitin: It is a small protein that is found in almost all cellular tissues in all eukaryotic organisms,( i.e. it occurs ubiquitously) which helps to regulate the processes of other proteins in the body.

Ultracentrifuge: A high speed centrifuge with speed upto 60,000 rpm and centrifugal field of 500,000 x g

Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. (Ulmaceae): Eng. – Chinese Elm; Ladakhi Shampoo Tree / Yumbuk [W]. A small to medium deciduous tree growing upto 12 m tall, across the region as a temperate woody element. Leaves leathery, toothed and lustrous green. Trunk has a handsome, flaking bark of mottled greys with tans and reds. Also used as a landscape tree. In Ladakh the bark of the plant used as shampoo to promote hair growth.

Uncontrolled observation: Uncontrolled observation is the observation when it takes place in the natural setting and the situations cannot be controlled by the research worker.
Unethical: Any professional activity that is not in accordance with the acceptedcode of conduct for that profession is considered unethical.

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

UHT milk: Milk heated by UHT treatment to prolong shelf life.it is also known as long life milk.
Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment: A heat treatment (direct or indirect) used to sterilize foods prior to packaging in which to kill all microorganisms that would otherwise spoil the product. Following UHT treatment, foods are filled into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. Food products processed by UHT treatment include liquid products (e.g. milk, some fruit juices, cream, yoghurt, wines, salad dressings), foods with discrete particles (e.g. infant foods, tomato products, some fruit juices and vegetable juices, soups), and foods containing larger particles (e.g. stews).
Ultracentrifugation: Centrifugation in centrifuges which have the ability to develop centrifugal fields of up to 100,000 times that of the gravitational field. Ultracentrifugation is generally used for analytical purposes, such as the determination of physico-chemical properties of food polysaccharides using sedimentation analysis.
Ultrafiltration: Selective membrane separation process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which suspended solids, colloids, emulsified solids such as fat-protein complexes, and dissolved macromolecules with molecular weight in the range 10,000-100,000 Da are retained by the membranes. Molecules that do not pass through the membranes constitute the retentate. Lower molecular weight dissolved materials that pass through the membrane under a driving force of relatively low hydrostatic pressure (1-10 bar) are the permeate. Ultrafiltration is generally used in the concentration and fractionation of large molecules from materials such as cheese whey and milk.

Abstract

The UAE Space Reconnaissance Center (SRC) is accounted as a major national and regional source of up-to-date geospatial data, with direct reception of IKONOS, IRS and KOMPSAT satellite imagery as well as access to some other satellite and aerial imagery resources; an activity which covers the whole Middle East region. The main concern in monitoring the environment of UAE and surrounding countries is the desertification process, the monitoring of which requires careful watching of the sand movement and some other relevant features.

This paper throws light on the role of various types of satellite images in monitoring desertification, by utilization of IKONOS, IRS Pan and Landsat TM images covering part of Liwa and Alain areas, representing the two main dune regimes; Liwa and Manadir, which constitutes the northeastern edge of the Empty Quarter sand sea.

The availability of high resolution images makes it possible to detect the yearly or even seasonal sand movements, being controlled by the prevailing wind conditions and distance from the main sand source. The results clarify that movements of up to 25m was encountered at some small sand dunes and about 10m for larger sand dunes, towards the SSE and SSW in Liwa area. In Rimah area a movement of up to 30m was noticed at a small sand dune towards the ENE and about 12m shift in the hinge of a larger sand dune towards the NW. Temporary or permanent ? movement of thin sand sheets can reach 100’s of meters, was easily detected on Landsat images; ~ 25km NE of Alain city. The 5m panchromatic images, on the other hand, helped in tracing sand movements measured in few 10’s of meters, and interpretability of such images was enhanced by merging them with Landsat imagery.

• L-42 is the most suitable cultivar for canning.
• A promising genotype in Allahabad is locally known as “Lal Sebia”.
• Strawberry Guava – P. cattlcianun, P. nolle is a shrub or small tree.
• Triploidy is the cause of seedlessness in guava.
• Red pulp colour is dominant to white and that this character is governed monogenic gene.
• Guava improvement work for the first time was initiated in 1907 at Ganeshkhind Experiment Station, Pune, Maharashtra.
• The fact that Guava wilt is soil-borne was first reported in 1935 from Babakkarpar Allahabad.
• Usually, fifteen days period is required for the complete wilting but some trees take even up to one year.
• In general, the more than 10-year-old plants are more prone to wilt incidence.
• Guava wilt, effects more severely in alkaline soils. Wilting is observed during the rainy season. It starts in August with the largest number of the plant dying in September and October.
• Guava improvement work was started at Pune in 1907.

    Q.1.    What are the common infectious diseases affect teat skin of mammary gland?
    Ans.    The common infectious diseases that affect teat skin of mammary gland are cowpox, buffalopox, pseudocowpox, bovine ulcerative mammillitis, black pox, foot and mouth disease, vesicular exanthema, swine vesicular diseases, contagious exanthyma, Staphylococcus sp., Pasteurella sp etc.

    Q.2.    What is thelitis?
    Ans.    Thelitis is the inflammation of tissues of teat wall caused by traumatic injury to the teat cistern. It is generally manifested with gangrenous mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the main etiology of gangrenous mastitis?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus

    Q.4.    What are the causes of coming blood in milk and mentions its treatment?

The udder is responsible for milk production. It is composed of four mammary glands each with its own teat (Fig. 167). Swelling of udder or teats is an indication of udder disease warranting clinical exploration and palpation. Visual examination the udder (before and after milking) and palpation is of great significance in detecting abnormalities. The udder is visually inspected from back and sides for symmetry and also palpated thoroughly. Palpation is a simple, quick and easy routine diagnostic tool for mastitis detection. Teats and supra mammary lymph nodes should also be palpated. These examinations aid in detecting fibrosis, inflammation or atrophy. Diffuse fibrosis gives the quarter a firm feeling. Areas of local fibrosis may vary in size and shape. Hot, painful and diffuse swelling with marked abnormality of mammary secretion is seen in acute mammary inflammation (acute mastitis). Atrophy of the gland is the terminal stage of chronic mastitis. With the development of gangrene, the area becomes cold and bluish. Five point palpation scores (Petrovski et al., 2011; Hogan et al., 1995; Scaletti and Harmon, 2012)

Udder Health Mastitis is a significant and costly disease of udder affecting dairy cows and buffaloes, leading to reduced milk production, increased veterinary costs, and compromised animal welfare. Effective udder hygiene practices are crucial in preventing and controlling mastitis, maximizing milk production, ensuring animal welfare, minimizing costs, and maintaining consumer trust. By focusing on udder health management through preventative measures and the best practices, dairy farmers can enhance the overall sustainability and profitability of dairy operations. There are six major steps that can lead to a better udder health. •     Farm hygiene and udder hygiene •     Hygienic milking procedure •     Dry cow management and therapy •     Appropriate therapy for mastitis cases during lactation •     Culling chronically infected cows. •     Good nutrition to increase the udder resistance to mastitis Farm hygiene and udder hygiene

Introduction and Relevance
UHT processing of milk was developed to produce a shelf-stable product with minimal chemical changes as encountered with sterilized milk. Aseptically packaged UHT milk can have a shelf life of 06 to 12 months and does not need to be stored in a refrigerator. Its role in the market varies by region. In countries like the India, USA and Canada, where UHT milk occupies a smaller segment of the liquid milk market, it is often used as a backup option, reserved for situations when pasteurized milk is unavailable. Conversely, in regions such as Europe, (particularly France, Belgium, Spain and Germany), Asia, (China, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam) Latin America and (Brazil) in UHT milk is the dominant form of milk available and is consumed regularly. In markets where it is a backup option, UHT milk requires long-term stability of 6–12 months, while in regions where it is used daily, a shorter shelf life of three months or less is often sufficient.
Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) treatment involves heating milk to very high temperatures, typically between 130°C and 150°C, for a brief period of few seconds. This process results in commercially sterile milk, meaning that while not all bacteria are destroyed, those capable of growing under ambient storage conditions are effectively eliminated. An essential component of UHT processing is aseptic packaging, where the sterilized milk is filled into presterilized containers in a sterile environment. This combination ensures that the milk remains free from contamination and maintains its extended shelf life without requiring refrigeration.
Standards for UHT processing vary globally. In the European Union, a minimum temperature of 135°C with an appropriate holding time is mandated. In the United States, the standard for ultra-pasteurization is 280°F (137.8°C) for 2 seconds. Many international standards recommend 135°C for at least 1 second, though some countries do not specify minimum conditions. However, this level of treatment is often regarded as insufficient for completely destroying the spores of spoilage organisms, highlighting the importance of precise temperature-time combinations and the critical role of aseptic packaging in ensuring product safety and stability.

Ulcerative dermatitis is one of the primary features of the skin disease in which discontinuity of the skin along with marked inflammation and necrosis are seen.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is commonly known as the ‘King of fruits’ for its high quality fruits which are very popular among the Indians (Sharma et al., 2008). It is the oldest and extensively cultivated fruit crop in India having high socio-economic significance. India is the home of more than 1000 mango varieties, which originated in the Indo-Burma region (Mukherjee, 1958). India is the largest producer of mango, grown in about 2.3 million hectares with an annual production of 15.02 million tones. However, its productivity is only 6.5 tones per ha against 30 tones per ha in Israel (Bijay Jumar, 2010). Improvement of productivity in mango continues to be the foremost issue in mango production (Sauco, 1993). Of late, all the mango importing countries are considering the India as a source of quality mangoes due to its varietal wealth and availability. Hence, it is imperative to improve the productivity and quality of Indian mangoes to meet the global need (Balamohan et al., 2014).

10.1 Introduction
Developed in the 1950s, ultra-high temperature pasteurization typically involves no hold using a temperature range of 135°C to 150°C. Immediate aseptic packaging determines how well UHT heat treatment of milk works.
10.2 Uperization Developed in Switzerland, this is generally known as “ultra – pasteurization”. Milk is heated in this method under direct steam up to 150 °c for a fraction of a second. One is always learning from this. Fore warming milk to 50 °C is the first stage in the uperization process, meant to eliminate most of the dissolved oxygen and volatile off-flavours by vacuum treatment. In the second step, the milk is first preheated to roughly 80–90 °C and then heated on the uperization chamber under high-pressure steam to roughly 150 °C for ½ to ¾ a second. The product moves into an expansion chamber at almost atmospheric pressure after this heating, therefore inducing some evaporation of moisture. The good is then transferred to a chiller and subsequently into a storage chamber.
The advantages of uperization are
• Long keeping quality.
• Removal of feed and other volatile off-flavours:
• Appreciable homogenization effect.
• Reduction in acidity.
• Efficient destruction of microorganisms.
• Effect of uperization on nutritive value and flavour are not greater than that of pasteurization.

Corpus luteum, one of the biological clock of the estrous cycle and pregnancy, is known foremost for its production of progesterone that blocks the pituitary release of gonadotrophins and prepare the uterus for pregnancy. The ovarian follicle wall consists of granulosa cell and theca cells vascularised and luteinize after ovulation to from a corpus luteum. Corpus luteum is temporary steroid- producing gland undergoes marked structural and functional changes far a short time span during its development functional life and regression. During estrous cycle, the corpus luteum undergoes an initial period of growth (metestrus), followed by a period of maximal function (diestus) and finally by a period of regression (proestrus) preceding the next ovulation (Robert, 1986). The most prominent cell in the CL is the large luteal steroidogenic cell.

Ultrasound imaging has been used to detect and measure the corpus luteum throughout the estrous cycle and corpus luteum has been characterized during pregnancy and non pregnancy. Changes in corpus luteum diameter as detected by ultrasonography are highly correlated with progesterone production. A high correlation has been found in the ultrasonographic detection of bovine corpora lutea (Lean et al., 1992) and between luteal tissue area measured ultrasonographically and plasma progesterone concentration (Bergfelt et al., 1989).

Ultrasonography of the GI tract presents problems and challenges for the sonographer. Sonography of the GI viscera was once throught to be impossible because of artifacts created by gas within the lumen but with the technical advancement in the ultrasonography now the problem has been solved. If the animal is kept of feed and adlib water is given to the dog with I/v fluid than ultrasonography becomes helpful in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract disorders. Other conditions such as esophageal carcinomas can also been diagnosed by ultrasonographic endoscopy. in human beings.

The normal ultrasonography of the liver, kidney, stomach & spleen in dogs has been standardized and its use in evaluation of pathological lesions has been reported but ultrasonographic evaluation of oesophagus & intestine, both in normal animals and diseased conditions is yet to be established. Therefore normal ultrasonography of the oesophagus & small intestine in dogs and the importance of diagnostic capability of ultrasonography in diagnosis of pathology of these organs have been compiled.

Ultrasonography or sonography is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses echoes of ultrasound pulses to produce images, of the objects or of the areas of different densities in the body, on the screen. This diagnostic procedure is performed through ultrasound machine. Sonogram is a visual image produced from ultrasonography.

Ultrasound is mainly used for reproductive purposes in bovine, now days it is also used for other applications. Ultrasound is an excellent tool for diagnostic imaging in large animals because it is portable, easy to use in the field, produces results at the time of the examination. It is totally non-invasive. Palpation of a gland can only detect certain levels of abnormality. Ultrasound can give an actual perception of mammary health, a picture of the inside anatomy and pathology. Tumors, scarring, stones, trauma, hematoma formation and level of damage due to mastitis can all be evaluated by this technique. Other diagnostic tools are still primary diagnostic tools, ultrasonogram gives yet another dimension to the hard to diagnose case. It will also allow a better estimate of treatment prognosis to aid in deciding whether to cull or treat a dairy animal.

Congenital anomalies at initial stages of the mammary gland development during gestation may result into presence of supernumerary teats or less number of external teats, in place of usual presence of four teats in buffaloes. Hence, cases with two / three / five or six teats are often encountered in the f ield.

Introduction Ultrasonography is well-established technique in human sciences, particularly for diagnosis of pre-natal defects of fetus. In veterinary sciences, this technique is emerging an important tool. This tool is being employed in the small animal practices, particularly bitches for diagnosis of various reproductive disorders and estimation of gestational status. In the past, veterinarians had limited assistance for assessing reproductive status of this animal. Pregnancy diagnosis in a bitch was possible either with the use of X-rays or transabdominal palpation, but that too at an advanced stage of gestation. These methods could provide information either about presence of pups in vitro, or their number, but assessment of fetal viability was not accurately predicted with these traditional methods. With the use of X-rays, there was always risk of harmful effects on the health of mother and fetus. As far as reproductive disorders are concerned, most of them remained either undiagnosed due to the lack of proper access to the internal organs or were diagnosed with a guess. Diagnostic ultrasound is a valuable alternative imaging system that can provide more accurate information about the canine pregnancy and reproductive disorders in comparison to traditional methods.

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

This paper primarily considers the general principles of ultrasound and instrumentation and its application in camel reproduction.

Ultrasound waves are mechanical pressure waves similar to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to propagate. The “frequency” (f) is the number of high- or low- pressure regions crossing each area of tissue each second. The frequencies of the sound waves used in medical ultrasound are much higher than the human audible range (20 to 16000 Hz); hence the waves are called ultrasound. Ultrasound instrumentation

The gray scale imaging equipment uses only time delay and echo amplitude information in creating the image. Most equipment contains the same basic building- block circuits; transmitter, receiver, display and scan converter.

Transmitter

The first circuit building block, the transmitter circuit produces either a high- amplitude, short- duration voltage shock pulse or a driving voltage waveform. Then an output control attenuates the amplitude of the shock pulse or the driving voltage wave form before it is applied to the transducer.