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Bougainvillea plants are native of South America from Brazil west to Peru and south to southern Argentina (Chubut Province). A native to coastal Brazil, the bougainvillea was discovered in 1768 in Rio de Janeiro by French naturalist Dr. Philibert Commerçon (also sometimes spelled Commerson). The plant is named after his close friend and ship’s admiral Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, who commanded the ship La Boudeuse that sailed around the world between 1766-1769, and in which Commerçon was a passenger. Twenty years after Commerçon’s discovery, it was first published as ‘Buginvillea’ in Genera Plantarum by A.L. de Jusseau in 1789. The genus was subsequently spelt in several ways until it was finally corrected to ‘Bougainvillea’ in the Index Kewensis in the 1930s. Originally, B. spectabilis and B. glabra were hardly differentiated until the mid 1980s when botanists recognized them to be totally distinct species. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd., a native of Brazil reported to be found wild in all provinces of that large country (Taillemite 1977, Forzza 2010). The oldest herbarium specimens of Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. were collected during the brief stop of the Étoile in Rio de Janeiro. Two are kept in the General Herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris (P 00169376, images in Monnier et al. 1993 : 176 and Jolinon 2004 : 79; P 00307018), and two in the Jussieu Herbarium conserved in the same institution (PJuss.; IDC 6206, No. 

Bougainvilleas are widely grown in India for multipurpose uses.  There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Bougainvillea profusely flowers almost all the year round except in rainy season and very severe winter. It has earned a pride place in the floriculture and landscaping due to its variegated foliage and colourful bracts. Bougainvillea belongs to the family Nyctaginacea and in the tribe Mirabileae. It is the only genus in the monotypic subtribe Bougainvilleineae (Gills 1976, Hammad 2009). The first generic name as Bouginvillea was published by A.L. de Jussieu (1789) in his work ‘Garden Plantarum’. The spelling of the generic name subsequently changed about half a dozen times. Finally as per International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, it was spelt as Bougainvillea as used by Spachs (1841) and published in the Index Kewensis (Suppl. 9 : 1931-1935; c.f. Sharma 1996). Heimerl (1900) recognized 10 species, three of which (B. spectabilis Wild., B. glabra Choisy and B. peruviana Humb. and Bonp.)

In the orchard, several cultural operations like weeding, mulching, etc. are very important. Similarly protection from fire is also essential. The points are discussed here.

Weed Management

The Luxuriant weed growth is a common sight in neglected old cashew gardens. Weeds are not only harmful by competing for the nutrients and moisture but also cause inconvenience to take up effective plant protection measures and harvesting of fallen nuts; thus resulting in loss of yield. Therefore, sanitation of cashew orchard is very essential, it also minimise the incidence of cashew stem and root borer (CSRB). Careful weeding-clearing the area within 2 m radius of the trunk is essential. Clearing of weed growth is to be carried out twice in a year. Weeds may compete for nutrients and moisture with cashew. The weeding cycles are generally confined to the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods to coincide with the fertilizer application.

Weeds should also be controlled between the rows. This can be done by inter-cropping with certain crops for 3/4 years before the tree canopies close in. In addition a legume can be grown to both control weeds and fix nitrogen for the trees. This improves the soil and makes the nutrient available.

Raw cashew nuts are a seasonal commodity and the trading season is from March to May. Growers usually supply the primary or village markets where small traders collect and supply the urban markets. The cashew trade is seldom handled by exclusive traders. Usually, those traders who collect other plantation products also trade in cashew. Due to the highly competitive nature of the cashew trade, growers have few marketing problems. When large quantities are collected by middlemen, the processors enter the marketing chain and make wholesale purchases. Grades and standards for cashew are yet to be introduced in India. Quality is generally determined by appearance and cutting tests that traders employ prior to purchase. The raw cashew nut market involves a large amount of capital where nearly 80 per cent of the produce is transacted within a period of 35 days. The current value of Indian production is estimated at around Rs. 10,000 million. This capital is made available by industry for procurement and processing operations.

There are no growers’ cooperatives or organizations for cashew marketing. In Kerala, however, the government has been involved in the procurement process and supply to large-scale processors. This adversely affected the cashew trade and has now been replaced by a free market policy.

In addition to the local production of nearly 7 lakh tonnes, India also imports a considerable quantity of raw nuts from several African and South-east Asian countries to satisfy the national processing capacity of about 12-14 lakh tonnes established in the country.

Cashew is one major crop of Konkan region of Maharashtra and requires comparatively less expenditure for cultivation as compared with other crops. Under normal planting density (7m x 7m), about 200 plants/ha are occupied. If the cashew grower has its own land, then for first five year of orchard establishment and maintenance, total expenditure of Rs. 47447 is come up. Year wise expenditure (first five years) on cashew cultivation per hectare is presented in Table 61.

Sex hormone plays a vital role in the occurrence of canine mammary cancer. It is well established that canine mammary cancer is sex-hormone dependent. The risk of developing canine mammary tumour is 0.05% if the dog is spayed before its first estrous and the risk of developing a mammary cancer is increased as the number of estrous cycle increases. Mammary cancer is often hormone responsive, since growth or regression of tumours can be modulated by suitable hormonal manipulations. Estrogen and Progesterone appear to be major hormones in regulation of mammary tumour development. It is also reported that about 40-50% malignant mammary tumour in the dog have either or both estrogen and progesterone receptors. Benign tumours in dogs have also female sex hormone receptors and they can be stimulated by hormonal cycling. Mammary carcinoma can be induced in male and female rodents by administration of estrogen. Transsexual males given high doses of estrogen to induce mammary development have developed mammary cancer. So measurement of different sex hormones or sex steroids is an essential step during any study related to development and efficacy of treatment of canine mammary cancer.

Depressed immune responses have been observed frequently in cancer patients. Cancer and other stress are known to affect different components of the immune system. Cancer treatment is relying mainly on surgery, anti-cancer chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Most chemotherapeutic agents are responsible to myeloid toxicity, which leads to leukemia and immunosuppression affecting both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. This is a very serious disadvantage of chemotherapy besides they are cytotoxic drugs.

Radiographic examination of mammary tumour patients should be done prior to any treatment to detect the chances of lung metastasis. Radiographs of the thorax helped to provide information pertaining to the extent of organs involved and the presence of metastasis in the lungs. Lateral radiograph of thorax revealed absence of pulmonary metastasis in normal cases. Lung metastasis may observe in animal characterized by radioopaque soft tissue scattered in the lungs indicating pulmonary metastasis.

Jaboticaba : It is a Brazilian tree (Myrciaria cauliflora) of the myrtle family cultivated in warm regions for its edible purplish fruit.

Jack salmon / walleye : A large vigorous American freshwater food and sport fish (Stizostedion vitreum) that has large opaque eyes and is related to the perches but resembles the true pike sometime also called walleyed pike

Jaggery : Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap.

Yabby : It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori : A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam : It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas.

Common name:     English – Lady’s finger
    Hindi – Bhindi
    Odia- Bhendi      
Family:     Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 1 a), widely cultivated as vegetable in the tropical countries including India.

Common name: English- Indian liquorice
                           Hindi- Ratti/Gunchi 
                           Odia- Kaincha
Family : Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a common weed (Fig. 2 a) found in forest and it is also seen growing on road sides, gardens, waste places and sometimes planted in gardens.

Common name    :    English- Indian mallow
        Hindi- Kanghi 
        Odia- Pedipedica

Family    :    Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig.3 a) commonly found in waste places, along road sides, as weeds in garden and in forests. It is distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red hot cat’s tail
        Odia- Bilei lanja
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant usually seen along the road sides and often grown in gardens (fig 4 a).

General Characters
It is a bushy shrub grows up to 1.8 to 3.7 meters in height. The leaves are ever green, oval, 10-23 cm long and 7.5-10 cm in width with pointed ends. Flowers are borne in attractive shades, ranging in colour from deep purple to bright red and clustered in velvety catkins, which are about 30-50 cm long. The plant flowers throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Prickly chaff flower
        Hindi- Chirchita 
        Odia- Apamaranga
Family    :    Amaranthaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig 5 a), fairly common weed that grows on waste lands and distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red Lucky Seed
        Hindi- Badi gumchi
         Odia- Manda kaincha

Family    :    Mimosaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree (Fig. 6a) often found in gardens and village sides and distributed in different states of India.

General Characters: 
It is a large tree with grey bark. The leaves are compound bipinnate, green when young, turning yellow when old and having 5-6 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are yellowish, small and grow in dense drooping and about 5-15 cm long. Fruits are curved, hanging, green pods that turn brown, coil up and split open as they ripen to reveal small bright red seeds. The plant flowers during March-May.

Common name    :    English- Pith plant
        Hindi- Sola
        Odia- Sola
Family    :    Fabaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig.7a), commonly found in ponds, swampy areas, lakes and other water bodies. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is an erect, perennial herb. Its stem is about 2 cm in diameter. The leaves are sessile reaching up to 15 cm long, leaflets 25-50 pairs, alternate or opposite. The flowers are yellow in colour and about 8 cm long, broadly ovate and acute. The plant flowers between August and October.

Common name    :    English- Wood apple
        Hindi- Bel
        Odia- Bela
Family    :    Rutaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a tree, (Fig 8 a) common in scrub and open forests, also planted near temples and villages. The plant is usually distributed throughout the greater part of India.

Common name    :    English- Rain Tree
        Hindi- Gulabi Siris 
        Odia- Chakunda
Family    :    Mimosaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree common in dry, lowlands ,grasslands, coastal bush lands, forests and also planted in avenues. It is distributed throughout the tropical countries (Fig 9 a).

Common name     :    English- Onion
        Hindi- Pyaz
        Odia- Piaja

Family    :    Amaryllidaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a herb (Fig. 10 a). The plant is commonly cultivated along the river banks during winter season.

General Characters
The leaves of the plants are cylindric, fistular and look like tubes. Flower of the plant is white or greenish white with a short pedicel. The plant flowers during January- February.

Common name    :    English- Betelnut
        Hindi- Supari
        Odia- Gua
Family    :    Arecaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree, (Fig. 11 a) naturalized and commonly cultivated throughout India.

General Character
The plant is perennial, grows up to 20 meters in height and 8-12 inches in diameter. The stem is solitary, slender and erect. The leaf of the plant is 1.5-2 meter long, pinnate with numerous crowded leaflets. Fruit is a coriaceous drupe, ovoid, 3.7-5 cm, smooth orange, with a single seed with truncate base. The plant flowers and bears fruits throughout the year.

Common name    :    English - Wire grass/spread grass
        Odia- Suan
Family    :    Poaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig. 12 a) widely found in agricultural lands, hill sides, road sides, river bank etc. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant ascending to erect, grows up to 3-4 feet in height. The leaves may be flat or rolled. The inflorescence either panicle like or raceme with spiky branches. Flowers are tiny and hairs like awns seen protruding from each flower. The plant flowers during September-November.

Common name    :    English- Jack Fruits
        Hindi- Kathal
        Odia- Panasa

Family    :    Moraceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a tree (Fig. 13 a) found in wild as well as cultivated in farms. It was introduced and has become naturalized in many parts of India.

General Characters
The plant is an evergreen tree that grows up to 20-30 meter tall and 80-200 cm in diameter with evergreen, alternate, glossy, leathery leaves reaching up to 9 inch long. Leaves are oval in mature trees. All parts of the plant contain sticky, white latex. Inflorescence is solitary, borne axillary on special lateral short leafy shoots arising from older branches. Fruits are large arising from the tree trunk and weighting about 10-50 kg. the exterior of the fruit is green or yellow when ripe and composed of numerous hard, cone like points attached to a thick and rubbery, pale yellow or whitish wall. The plant flowers during December-February and bears fruits during June-July.

Common name    :    English- Neem tree
        Hindi- Neem
        Odia- Nimba
Family    :    Meliaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree (Fig. 14 a), very commonly planted and often self shown. Also seen in forests as well as in wild. It is cultivated and naturalized throughout India.

General Charcter
The leaf of the plant is about 20-38 cm in length, leaflets 5-9 pairs and obliguely lanceolate. Flower is white in clolour and fragrant. The plant bark, leaves and flowers are bitter in taste. The plant bears flowers during February to May. The plant fruiting occurs during June to July.

Common name    :    English- Bamboo
        Hindi- Bans
        Odia- Baunsa
Family    :    Gramineae (Poaceae)

Habit & Distribution
It is a perennial tree (Fig. 15a), family common in mixed forest or dry hills, and often found in shady slopes and allovial plains.

Common name    :    English- Percupine Flower
        Hindi- Jhinti 
        Odia- Daskaranta

Family    :    Acanthaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub (Fig. 16 a), common in waste places, roadsides and dry places. It is distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Indian spinach
        Hindi- Poi 
        Odia- Poi
Family    :    Basellaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a twining herb (Fig. 17 a), commonly cultivated and often found in wild state on rocky grassy hill sides. Also widely cultivated throughout India.

General Characters
It is a twining succulent herb with green stem and petioles. Leaves of the plant are broadly ovate and green to purplish in colour. Flowers are pinkish or purple in colour. Fruits are berries, ovoid or depressed-globose, turns black after ripening with deep purple juice.

Common name    :    English- Butterfly tree
        Hindi- Khairwal
        Odia- Kuilari          
Family    :    Caesalpiniaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a moderate sized tree (Fig. 18a), seen frequently in forests and often planted. It is distributed in foothill areas also and cultivated throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a moderate sized tree with ashy or dark brown bark color. Leaves are often oblong, about 5-18, deeply lobed from one third way down to nearly the base with scarcely overlapping. Flowers are purple, large on terminal panicled racemes. Pods are 15-30×18-25 cm long, narrow below, somewhat broadening upwards. The plant flowers during September-February and bears fruits during February-March.

Common name    :    English- Annatto
        Hindi- Latkan/Kumkum 
        Odia- Kumkuma

Family    :    Bixaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a shrub (Fig. 19 a), cultivated and naturalized, also planted in gardens. It is frequently cultivated throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red silk cotton
        Hindi- Shalmali 
        Odia- Simili
Family    :    Bombacaceae 

Habit & Distribution: 
It is a tree (Fig. 20 a), fairly common throughout India. It is found in hot, dry river valleys, and the deciduous belt of the hills.

General Characters
The plant is a tree with prickly trunk and branches when young and grows up to a height of 25 meters with a spreading crown. Leaves are compound, stipulate, and clustered at twig ends with 12-25 cm long. Flowers are bright red in colour, 10-12 cm across, solitary or in fascicles and usually on leafless branches. Fruits are woody capsule, 5-valved with many seeds. The plant flowers during January-March and bears fruits during March to May.

Common name    :    English- Palm
        Hindi- Taad
        Odia- Tala
Family    :    Arecaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a large tree and widely planted crop (Fig. 21a). The plant is native to tropical Africa but cultivated and naturalized throughout india.

General Character
The plant is a large tree and grows upto 30-40 m. in height. The trunk may have a circumference of 1.7 m at the base. The leaves are palmate, leathery, gray green and 1-3 m in wide with folded along at the midrib. Inflorescences are 90-150 cm long and branched. Fruits are ovoid, 15-20 cm in diameter with fibrous and fleshy mesocarp. The plant flowers during February to March and bears fruits during April to August.

Common name    :    English- Miracle leaf
        Hindi- Zakhm-haiyal 
        Odia- Amarpoi

Family    :    Crassulaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a herb (Fig. 22 a), mostly found in rocky areas and also in plains. It is widely distributed in tropical area.

General Characters
It is a succulent herb, grows upto 1-2m in height. The leaves of the plant are simple, opposite, 3-5 lobed, thick and fleshy with crenate margins. Flowers are pink, or purple in colour. The plant has thick, flexible and short stems. The plant flowers during November to March. Fruiting occurs between January and February.

Common name    :    English- Bastard teak
        Hindi- Palash
        Odia- Palash

Family    :    Fabaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree distributed throughout India, fairly common especially in the drier parts of north-west odisha.

General Characters 
It is a small or medium sized dry deciduous tree, reaching to 15 m. in height. It is a slow growing tree. The leaves are pinnate, with about 8-12 cm long petiole and three leaflets, each leaflets of about 10-20 cm long. The flowers are 2.5 cm long, bright orange red, and produced in racemes up to 15 cm long (Fig. 23a). The fruit is a pod. The plant flowers during February and April, and bears fruits during May-July. The plant is popularly known as flame of the forest.

Common name    :    English- Fever nut/Grey Nicker
        Hindi- Kat-karanj 
        Odia- Gila

Family    :    Caesalpiniaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 24 a), commonly found in hedges, thickets, scrub forests etc. and is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It is a large climber with staright or recurved prickles. The branchlets are hairy and leaflets are 8 pairs with elliptic and lanceolate shape. Flowers are yellow, simple and usually supra-axillary. The pods are broadly oblong with 5-7.5×4 cm in size. It is 1-2 seeded and the seeds are large and round, 1-8cm diameter. The testa is very hard. The flowering time for the plant is August to October and it bears fruits during December to April.

Common name    :    English- Peacock flower
        Hindi- Guletura
        Odia- Godibana

Family    :    Caesalpiniaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a shrub (Fig. 25a), commonly found in gardens and sometimes in wild. It is cultivated throughout India and probably native to tropical America, now widely cultivated in the tropics.

General Characters
The plant is a branched shrub or small tree that reaches up to 3-4 m in height. The leaves of the plants are bipinnate, 20-40 cm long, bearing 3-10 pairs of pinnae, each with 6-10 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are yellow or red in colour and borne in racemes up to 20 cm long. Petals are four in number, subequal and transversely oblong above the long claw. The plant flowers and fruits during most parts of the year.

Common name    :    English- Gaint milk weed
        Hindi- Akoa
        Odia- Arakha

Family    :    Asclepiadaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub. (Fig. 26 a) The plant is frequently found in waste grounds and roadsides. It is widely distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a stout-tomentose shrub. Leaves of the plant are 10-16×8-10 cm size, smaller in branchlets with elliptic-ovate to obovate in shape. The fowers are pale purple or greenish white in colour, 3 cm across having 5 pointed petals. The fruit is saccate, 6×3 cm ovoid, inflated and boat shaped. The plant flowers during December and July and bears fruits during February and June.

Common name    :    English- Rubber bush
        Hindi- Akada
        Odia- Arakha

Family    :    Asclepiadaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig. 27 a), common weed, mostly found in disturbed sites, roadsides, and wastelands and roadsides. It is widely distributed in hot and dry areas of India.

General Characters
The plant is a shrub that grows up to 4 m in height. Leaves of the plant are opposite, gray green, broadky elliptic, large upto 15 cm long and 10 cm broad with a pointed tip. Flowers are waxy white, 5 petals, purple tipped inside and with a central purplish crown. Fruits are gray-green, inflated 8-12 cm long and contain numerous seeds. Flowering and fruiting occur during December and July. 

Common name    :    English- Papaya
        Hindi- Papaya/Papeeta
        Odia- Amruta bhanda

Family    :    Caricaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a small tree (Fig. 28 a), commonly cultivated throughout India. The plant is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions.

General Characters
It is a soft tree. The leaves are large, palmately lobed, long petiole with hollow and swollen base. Sepals and petals are in alternate whorls. The flowers are yellowish-white in colour, and fruits are large and 1 celled. It bears flowers and fruits throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Golden shower
        Hindi- Sundaraj 
        Odia- Sunari

Family    :    Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a medium sized tree (Fig. 29 a), fairly common in forests and often also planted. It is widely distributed throughout India.

General Character
It is a medium sized tree having smooth bark. The leaflets are up to 4-8 pairs, ovate and oblong. Flowers of the plant are light yellow, and at least 30-60 cm long. The fruits are dark brown, long and cylindrical pods. Plants do flower during April and June, and fruiting occurs during March.

Common name    :    English- Orange
        Hindi- Santra 
        Odia- Kamala

Family    :    Rutaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a small tree (Fig.30a), commonly cultivated in hilly areas and widely seen in India and other subtropical countries.

General Characters
It is a small tree of moderate size, and grows up to 15-20 ft in height. The branches are slender, erect or spreading and spinous. The leaves of the plants are shiny and leathery, oblong to elliptic and grow up to 10 cm long having narrow wings in their petioles. The flowers are white in colour and are seen arranged in clusters of 1-6. Fruits are variable in size and shape, oblate and 7.5 cm in diameter ripen to light or deep yellow in colour. The plant flowers during January to June and bears fruits during November and December. 

Common name    :    English- Hill glory bower
        Hindi- Bhant
        Odia- Genguti

Family    :    Verbenaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub (Fig. 31a), common in shady waste places, edges of forests, waysides etc. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It grows up to 1-2 m high, with quadrangular branches covered with silky hairs. Leaves are oval, hairy and oppositely arranged with 10-20 cm long. The base of leaves is heart shaped. Flowers are white, tinged with pink, occur in large panicles. The 5 white petals are tinged pink at base. Four long stamens, 3 cm in size, protrude out of the flower. The plant flowers during January-March and bears fruits during April-July.

Common name    :    English- Coconut
        Hindi- Nariyal
        Odia- Nadia

Family    :    Arecaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a large palm (Fig. 32 a), commonly cultivated, especially in the coastal belts. It is cultivated in the hot and damp regions of India mostly near the sea.

General Characters
It is a large palm reaching up to 30 m in height with pinnate leaves, 4-6 m long and with pinnae 60-90 cm long. The fruit of the plant is a drup and it carries 3 layers; the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The plant has fibrous root system. The tree bears both male and female flowers on the same inflorescence, thus the plant is monoecious. It bears flowers and fruits throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Croton
        Hindi- Croton 
        Odia- Baska

Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is an evergreen shrub (Fig. 33 a) widely planted in gardens and also cultivated. It is distributed throughout tropical region.

General Characters
The plant is a shrub which grows up to 10 ft in height and having large, leathery and shiny leaves. Depending on the cultivar, the leaves may be ovate to linear, entire to deeply lobed and variegated with green, white, purple, orange, yellow, red or pink colours. It bears long clusters of small inconspicuous white or yellow flowers. The plant bears flowers and fruits during dry seasons (March-June).

Common name    :    English- Adlay/Job’s tear
        Hindi- Gurlu 
        Odia- Garagada

Family    :    Poaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 34 a), usually found near water bodies, way sides of agricultural lands etc. It is widely distributed throughout the hot and damp parts of India and commonly seen in tropics.

General Characters
The plant is an annual grass rooting at the lower nodes, spongy, glabarous and grows up to 0.9-2 m in height. The leaves are flat, linear, and acuminate with a strong midrib and 10-40 cm long and 205-4 cm in width. The spikes are 6-10 cm long, erect and penduncled. The fruits are hard, bony, ovoid, shining white or nearly black in colour. It bears flowers during September to November and carries fruits during December to February.

Common name    :    English- Elephant ear taro
        Hindi- Kachu/Kachlu
        Odia- Saru

Family    :    Araceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig. 35 a), commonly found in damp, shady places and also cultivated. The plant is widely distributed throughout the hotter parts of India.

General Characters
The plant is a tuberous bulb plant growing about 3-5 ft in height. The plant has large leaves. The leaves are heart shapes, 2-3 ft long with a long stalk of about 3 ft height. The flowers are yellowish-white spathes and spadixes are frequently produced. It bears flowers and fruits during June-November. 

Common name    :    English- White jute
        Hindi- Titapat 
        Odia- Jhota

Family    :    Tiliaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig. 36 a), commonly cultivated throughout India for fiber purpose.

General Charcaters
The plant is an erect, annual herb reaching up to 1-2 m height. The stems are usually purplish white. Leaves are ovate-lanceolate, 5-12 cm long, pointed at the tip and rounded at the base. The flowers are borne in small groups in the axils of the leaves about 4 mm long. The capsules are round to ovoid and about 1 cm in diameter. The plant flowers and bears fruits during July-November.

Common name    :    English- Indian cherry
        Hindi- Lasora 
        Odia- Ambota/Gualikoli

Family    :    Boraginaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a small tree (Fig. 37a), found frequently in mixed forests and distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a small tree with ususaly drooping branches and spreading crown. The stem bark is grayish brown, smooth or longitudinally wrinkled. Leaves are orbicular, elliptic-oblong, entire with 6-12.5 cm long. Flowers are white, pinkish white, fragrant, short stalked. The fruit is a yellow shining globose or ovoid drupe seated in a saucer like enlarged calyx and it turns black on ripening and the pulp gets viscoid. The plant flowers during March-April and bears fruits during July-September.

Common name    :    English- Rattle pods
        Hindi- San 
        Odia- Junujhunuka

Family    :    Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution: 
It is a shrub (Fig. 38 a), common in waste places, roadsides and river banks. It is widely distributed in India.

General Characters
The plant is a perennial shrub, with stems ascending or erect, 1-2 m tall. Leaves are trifoliate, leaflets elliptic, ovate, 2.8-9.5 cm long and 1.2-4.5 cm wide. Flowers are yellow, 1-1.5 cm long, somewhat long inflorescence about 15-40 cm long. Pods brown at maturity, 3.5-3.8 cm long. The plant flowers and bears fruits during April.

Common name    :    English- Wild cucumber
        Hindi- Khira
        Odia- Pita kakudi

Family    :    Cucurbitaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a herbaceous climber (Fig. 39a) apparently wild in open waste lands and distributed all over India.

General Characters
The plant is a herbaceous climber with simple tendrils. Leaves are entire or shallowly 5 lobed with 12 cm across and 15 cm petiole. Flowers are yellow in colour, 1.7-2.5cm across. The fruits are oblong, yellowish-green, glabrous and covered with rigid hairs or soft spines. Flowering and fruiting occur during September-November.

Common name    :    English- Giant dodder
        Hindi- Amar bel
        Odia- Nirmuli
 
Family    :    Cuscutaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a parasitic plant (Fig. 40 a) that usually grows in a profilic manner over other plants as support. It is widely distributed throughout India. 

General Characters
The plant is a creeper with yellowish-green or yellow stem and often in dense mass. The flowers of the plant are white or pinkish and almost 6-7.5 mm long. The corolla of the flower is tubular with short reflected lobes. The fruits are fleshy and globose with conical in shape. It bears flowers during October to December and bears fruits during December-Jnauary.