eChapters

Abstract

The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya depends on wild medicinal plants for curing a number of ailments since ages. The traditional knowledge systems which evolved through trial and error method are an integral part of their culture. The objectives of the present study were to highlight the medicinal plants used by the Khasi tribe to treat various diseases, provide scientific validation of the medicinal plants by pharmacological screening using secondary literature and suggest strategies for its sustainable management. A total of 363 plants distributed in 283 genera and 129 families were documented. The life forms of these plants were in the order of herb > tree > shrub > climber > parasite > epiphyte. The herbal remedies for treating various ailments are prepared by using the whole plant either individually or in combination with other plant parts. Cross validation with the help of secondary literature showed the presence of active compounds in these plants. Therefore, it is suggested that traditional knowledge should be properly documented and scientifically explored with more emphasis on species specific phytochemicals and their mode of action.

Introduction

The hot arid zones of the country are spread over 32 million ha in the state of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Punjab (5%), Haryana (4%), Karnataka (3%) and Maharashtra (0.4%), in addition to the cold deserts in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh which are characterized by hostile agro-climate and fragile eco-system. In Rajasthan, the hot arid zone covers 12 district of whole western Rajasthan. It covers the 61 % area of the Rajasthan State and characterized by an annual rainfall between 100 – 500 mm with a coefficient of variation (CV) varying from 40 – 70 per cent; low and erratic rainfall combined with extremes of temperature (450-500 cal/cm2/day); low relative humidity; high potential evapo-transpiration value ranging from 1600 mm in eastern part and 1800 mm in western part of the region.

The livestock sector is a pillar of the global food system and a contributor to poverty reduction, food security and agricultural development. Livestock play a major role in sustainable food systems—for example, manure is a critical source of natural fertilizer, while livestock used as draft animals can help boost productivity in regions where there is low mechanization. Livestock are important assets for vulnerable communities.

Natural Animal Farming

Government of India is promoting natural farming, through National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) and organic farming through ParamparagatKrishiVikasYojna (PKVY) and Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER).On the initiative of NITI Ayog, Natural Farming defined as is a chemical-free traditional farming method. It is considered as an agroecology based diversified farming system which integrates crops, trees and livestock with functional biodiversity. Natural farming is a system where the laws of nature are applied to agricultural practices. This method works along with the natural biodiversity of each farmed area, encouraging the complexity of living organisms, both plants, and animals that shape each particular ecosystem to thrive along with food plants. Natural Farming builds on natural or ecological processes that exist in or around farms. Several studies have reported the effectiveness of natural farming in terms of increase in production, sustainability, saving of water use, improvement in soil health and farmland ecosystem. It is considered as a cost- effective farming practices with scope for raising employment and rural development.

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.

Evolution of Traditional Advertising

Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms

• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.
Evolution of Traditional Advertising
Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms:
• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience.
• Radio Advertising: The introduction of radio in the early 20th century revolutionized advertising by allowing businesses to broadcast their messages to a vast audience.
• Television Advertising: The mid-20th century saw the rise of television commercials, providing businesses with an engaging and visually appealing way to market their products.
• Outdoor Advertising: Billboards, posters, and transit ads have been used to attract consumers in high-traffic areas.
• Direct Mail Advertising: Sending promotional materials directly to consumers’ homes has been an effective marketing strategy for decades.

Advertising has long been a powerful tool for businesses to communicate with their target audience, influence consumer behavior, and build brand awareness. While digital marketing has gained prominence in recent years, traditional advertising remains a fundamental part of marketing strategies. Traditional advertising encompasses a range of media channels such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, and direct mail. This chapter explores the various aspects of traditional advertising, its effectiveness, advantages, and challenges in the modern marketing landscape.
Evolution of Traditional Advertising
Traditional advertising has evolved significantly over the years. In the early days, businesses relied on word-of-mouth, signage, and posters to promote their products and services. With the advent of mass media, advertising took new forms:
• Print Advertising: One of the oldest forms of advertising, print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, and flyers. Businesses have historically used print ads to reach a broad audience.
• Radio Advertising: The introduction of radio in the early 20th century revolutionized advertising by allowing businesses to broadcast their messages to a vast audience.
• Television Advertising: The mid-20th century saw the rise of television commercials, providing businesses with an engaging and visually appealing way to market their products.
• Outdoor Advertising: Billboards, posters, and transit ads have been used to attract consumers in high-traffic areas.
• Direct Mail Advertising: Sending promotional materials directly to consumers’ homes has been an effective marketing strategy for decades.

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decades, as concerns about declines in local habitats, species, and livelihoods related to agriculture and allied sectors have increased, the potential contributions of local and traditional knowledge (LTK) to ecosystem research and management have been increasingly recognized (Thornton and Scheer, 2012). North Eastern region is well known as one of the 18 hotspot areas of the world and hence is blessed with rich biodiversity and fish fisheries resources. With more than 90% of population being fish eaters, there is heavy demand of fish but a wide gap exists between supply and demand. The region produces over 0.214 million tonnes of fish annually, with almost 50% coming from aquaculture.

Introduction 
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) serve as the foundation of any efficient and high-functioning laboratory, ensuring data reliability, patient safety and adherence to regulatory standards. In an environment where accuracy, consistency and data integrity are critical, comprehensive GLP training becomes the driving force behind operational excellence. A well-structured training program strengthens the capabilities of laboratory professionals, enabling them to navigate complex regulatory landscapes while upholding the highest standards of quality and safety. In today’s rapidly evolving scientific and industrial sectors, maintaining stringent laboratory standards is imperative rather than optional. GLP provides a structured approach that ensures every test, analysis and experimental procedure is carried out with precision, ethical rigor and strict adherence to safety measures. However, beyond simply following GLP principles, continuous assessment of laboratory personnel’s competency is essential to sustaining long-term proficiency and compliance. Competency assessment in GLP plays a crucial role in verifying whether laboratory staff possess the requisite expertise to perform tests accurately and generate reliable, scientifically valid results. As a framework designed to uphold the credibility of non-clinical laboratory studies, GLP is instrumental in reinforcing research integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory authorities. Laboratories that rigorously follow GLP guidelines contribute to reproducible and verifiable scientific findings, which are vital for regulatory approvals and critical decision-making in pharmaceuticals, healthcare and research sectors. Competency assessments function as both a quality assurance mechanism and a professional development tool, guaranteeing that laboratory personnel not only comprehend standard protocols but can also execute them effectively in real-world scenarios. With the continuous evolution of laboratory sciences, training and assessment methodologies must also advance to meet new challenges. This chapter explores the transformation of GLP training and competency evaluation, emphasizing their significance, diverse methodologies and essential components. Additionally, it highlights best practices for implementation and introduces innovative strategies designed to complement established global standards, such as those outlined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). By embracing these advancements, laboratories can not only achieve regulatory compliance but also cultivate a culture of excellence, ensuring that their workforce remains agile, skilled and prepared to meet the demands of modern scientific landscapes.

Training represents a systematic process of developing knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies that enable individuals to perform their current and future roles more effectively. It involves planned learning experiences designed to bring about relatively permanent changes in behavior, performance, and capabilities through the acquisition of new information, skills, and attitudes. The essence of training lies in its purposeful nature, distinguishing it from informal learning or casual instruction by its structured approach to achieving specific learning objectives within defined timeframes and contexts. The contemporary definition of training has evolved from narrow skill-based instruction to encompass broader developmental approaches that address cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of human performance. Modern training is understood as a strategic organizational investment that enhances individual capability while supporting broader business objectives such as productivity improvement, quality enhancement, innovation promotion, and competitive advantage development. This expanded conceptualization recognizes training as both a human resource development tool and a strategic business process that contributes directly to

Horticultural plants are grown for their diversified produce like fruits, vegetables, flowers, aromatic (essential oils) or medicinal components, spices (oleoresins), etc. if these plants are allowed to grow naturally, they will grow wild with very less potential yield. Therefore, it is essential to train and prune these plants not only to develop the proper framework in manageable shape but also to improve the potential yield in terms of quality and quantity.

Once the sapling is planted, it is essential to maintain the proper framework by cutting certain branches as well as some parts of branches. In the initial period, it is essential to maintain well distribution of flower or fruit bearing parts growing in four directions. Once the plant achieves proper framework after a certain period; then also some of the plant parts, namely branches or certain portions of branches, are removed to achieve potential yield.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Most botanists identify trees by their leaves, f lowers and fruit. However, the plant architecture specialist is interested in trunks, branches and twigs. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning, e.g., mango, sapota, while some fruit trees can grow well naturally, e.g., pineapple, papaya as they do not require pruning. Most deciduous trees like apple, pear, almond etc. and grapes, ber, fig, citrus, pomegranate, guava etc. require pruning to train them for desired shape.

10.2 TRAINING

Training is an operation by which the plant is made to develop an orderly structure or frame work. This is done by staking, tying, supporting, propping, trailing or spreading on certain structure with or without pruning of plant. Training is usually done when plants are young. Bending, twisting, decapitations are done by using springs of hard wire, where it is required. It is a physical technique which controls the shape, size and direction of plant growth known as training or in other words, training in effect is orientation of plant in space through techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts.

The following special terms are used in grape cultivation:

1. Training: Consists chiefly in giving a shape to the vine to the various forms of support.
2. Pruning: Consists in removing canes, shoots, leaves diseased, unproductive and other vegetative parts of the vine.
3. Thinning: Thinning is the removal of flower cluster, immature fruit cluster or parts of cluster.
4. Shoots: Shoots are the current season’s top vegetative (succulent) growth arising from a bud after pruning.
5. Canes: Canes are the woody matured shoots.

Objectives

1. To study the objectives and principles of training and pruning.
2. To study the methods of training and pruning.

Training: It refers to judicious removal of part to develop a proper shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load.

Objectives of Training

1. To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun
2. To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
3. To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
4. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.

Horticultral plants are grown for their produce like fruit, vegetable, flower, medicinal, aromatic, spices etc. Therefore, these plants should be managed in such a way that human desires for the purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in terms of quality and quantity of produce. This demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself or plant environment through various inputs. In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are important in fruit crops.

Training: Physical techniques that control the shape, size and direction of plant growth are known as training or in other words training in effect is orientation of plant in space through techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts.

Training

• Training is related to shape and size of the plant.
• In this process, removal of part of the plant to develop a proper shape.
• It develops strong frame work of tree, balance between vegetative and reproductive growth and facilitate interception of sunrays to each and every part of trees.

Methods of training

Central leader system

• Main stem of tree is allowed to grow continuously.
• First branch is allowed to grow 45–50 cm height from ground level and other branches are allowed to grow on main stem at a distance of 15–20 cm.
• The tree attained Robust shape
• It is not suitable for high altitude and hot arid areas.

Training and pruning are an important activity in fruit crops to have better frame work and optimum fruiting area. Training refers to giving a desired shape to the plants by tying or staking or supporting over a structure and or selective pruning for a good strong frame work. Pruning refers to cutting of certain portion of plants for maintenance of fruitfulness and quality besides vigour of the trees or vines. Pruning affects the functions of the plants and assists in better fruiting and in getting more quality fruits. It is one of the most crucial operations and require some scientific knowledge regarding bearing behavior of the plants.

Horticultural plants are grown for their produce like fruit, vegetable, flower, medicinal component, spices etc. Therefore, these plants should be managed in such a way that human desires for the purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in terms of quality and quantity of produce. This demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself or plant environment through various inputs. In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are important in fruit crops.

Importance of training and pruning

1. To control the habit of vegetative growth and regular bearing.
2. Remove all limbs and dead branches.
3. To improve flowering, fruiting and fruit quality
4. Remove all broken shoots, diseased, or pest infection branches from all trees and shrubs.
5. It is usually best to prune temperate fruits and shrubs during early spring before full leaf.
6. Maintain balance between shoots and roots at planting and nutrients uptake
7. Provide the basic tree form and to aid the development of a strong tree framework by encouraging strong wide crotch angles
8. Stimulate shoot growth near a cut.
9. Permit proper light distribution and penetration to the tree canopy.
10. Increase insect and disease control by allowing for better spray penetration.
11. Facilitate harvesting.
12. Achieve orchard uniformity.
13. Produce the proper amount of well distributed fruiting wood.
14. Encourage a structurally sound tree by removing branches with weak narrow crotch angles or those with diseased, damaged, or unproductive wood. Invigorate and renew the bearing area of older trees.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

Training

It is a physical manipulation technique that provides proper shape, size and direction to the plant in initial stage of growth. The techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts are are followed.

Objectives

• To improve physical appearance and usefulness of plant by providing appropriate shape and size to the plant and maintaining proper root-shoot balance.
• To facilitate easy cultural operations including canopy management, inter-cropping, plant protection and harvesting.
• To develop strong scaffold branches with better crotch angles in all directions that are capable of bearing heavy crops over the years without breakage of limbs.
• To provide adequate sunlight and air to the centre of the tree.

Training is a major manpower management function. No organization can afford not to train its employees, regardless of his previous education, training, and experience. He has to be introduced into the work environment of his new employer inducted and taught to perform his assigned tasks in a new milieu. Moreover, changing technology, increasing automation in offices and factories and in almost all institutions is bringing about redesigned or altered jobs. People are constantly being “trained” and retrained by the way their superiors and other employees associate them with work. 
Training is a part of management development and also a form of organizational development. The most effective managers are those who can best develop the human resources of an organization for the purpose of achieving organizational goals and objectives. If the employees perceive training as a means to achieve their personal goals at work, they will welcome such opportunities. Some essentials about training may be borne in mind and they are:

The various systems of training the vines adopted in the vine-growing centres in India are as follows:

1. Head system
2. Bower system
3. Kniffin system
4. Overhead trellis

Training Need Assessment

Training Need Assessment (TNA) is the method of determining if a training need exists and, if it does, what training is required to fill the gap. TNA seeks to identify accurately the levels of the present situation in the target surveys, interview, observation, secondary data and workshop.

An assessment process that serves as a diagnostic tool for determining what training needs to take place. 

Training helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates the employees’ learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives.
 
Training needs refer to the gaps between desired and expected levels of performance. Needs may be numerous. Besides they also need group, affection, recognition and fulfilment of their talents.

Training need may be defined as difference between existing and desired performance of person(s). In other words it is a gap between job requirement and job performance. That means it is gap between the existing and desired level of competency. Thus, the attitude, knowledge and skills of a person are lower than desired if the gap is significant there is a need for training.

In India, for centuries women have been pushed aside from the race of development in the name of customs, traditions and religion. As a result they have been denied the opportunities for their social, economical and political development leading to the lower status in society. The present situation demands active participation of women along with men in all walks of life. Involvement of women in all development activities. Based on the recommendations of National Policy of empowerment of women, Tenth Plan suggests a three fold strategies for empowering women through social empowerment, economic empowerment and gender justice.
 
Women play a significant and crucial role in agriculture and allied fields including crop production, dairy husbandry, horticulture, post harvest operations etc. It has been estimated that about 86% of the total rural women are working for various agricultural operations. They play an important role not only in maintaining their home task but also managing their farms and animals, depending upon the situation, personal and socioeconomic characteristics of the family to which they belong.  Women are also partners in animal husbandry activities management as manager or skilled workers.

The term empowerment has different meaning in different socio-cultural and political context and does not translate easily into all languages. The term include self strength, control, self power, self reliance, own choice, life of dignity in accordance with one’s values, capable of fighting for one’s right, independence, own decision making, being free, awakening and capability of mention only a few.

Introduction

Organic agriculture is defined by Food and Agricultural Organisation / World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission as “a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off farm inputs. This is accomplished by using, where possible agronomic, biological and mechanical methods as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system”.

Though gender is universally one of the key ways in which societies and culture allocate rights and responsibilities, yet the different roles of women and men in agriculture production have frequently been ignored in research and extension activities. Farming is a family enterprise involving both men and women. The role of women and their involvement is more important in production, processing and storage of grains and vegetables. Women in India constitute nearly half of its population and have a strong influence on the growth of the remaining half of population.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra imparted learning through work experience and concerned with technical literacy. Krishi Vigyan Kendra imparted training to practicing farm women. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra of Gandhigram Rural Institute was established in July 1989 specifically to cater the needs of the peasants of the Dindigul district.  Inspite of these efforts, there exist a wide gap-between the availability of production technologies and adoption of those technologies. Evaluation of training programmes organised for farm women would provide an understanding of their effectiveness so as to improve them. Hence, a study was undertaken to assess the training needs, appropriate season, venue, type, frequency, duration and method of training in paddy crop as perceived by the respondents.

Introduction

Today we are part of a highly complex and dynamic society. The complexity and dynamism are primarily due to the chain of changes induced by the scientific and industrial developments. The impetus provided by the information explosion coupled with scientific and technological developments to human life has triggered several unimaginable developments in the number, structure and functions of formal organizations. Realization of the supremacy of human mind over the tangible and exhaustible organizational resources like money, material and machine has led to the concept of ‘human capital’, which is now being considered as the most critical organizational resource to ensure organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Analogously huge investments are going in towards servicing and developing this critical resource of human capital in organizations. In this context, the concepts of human resource development (HRD) and training assume greater significance. In fact, training has been considered as a potential tool for HRD since ages. However, as a distinct profession, and also as a critical management tool, training is still in its early years. At the same time, there have been significant changes in the way training is conceived, understood and practiced.

Trans-boundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are highly contagious diseases of livestock in the world and transmissible diseases which have the potential for very serious and rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, which has serious socio-economic or public health consequence and they are importance in the international trade of animals and animal products. With rapidly increasing globalization, an associated risk of movement of trans-boundary diseases is emerging. Trans-boundary animal diseases represent a serious threat. They reduce production and productivity, disrupt local and national economies and also threaten human health (zoonotic). Trans-boundary animal disease is a concern globally; cumulative effort is needed at international level to minimize the spread of infectious diseases across the borders.
Considering that livestock rearing constitutes a significant share in the national economy of a developing country, it is imperative to take up disease control initiatives. Measures are required to safeguard the livestock industry from epidemics of infectious diseases and to uphold safe international trade of  livestock and their products. In this regard, it is essential to develop scientific and risk-based standards that facilitate the international trade in animal commodities.
Introduction
Trans- boundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are highly contagious diseases of livestock in the world. Moreover, their economic importance is a major constraint in international trade. Their implication on human Health and National food security cannot be over emphasized. Zoonotic diseases among TAD’s include diseases like West Nile Virus (WNV), Rift Valley Fever (RVF), Mad Cow disease (BSE), Bovine Tuberculosis and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI). Other important TADs are Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Lumpy Skin Disease, African
Swine Fever (ASF) and Newcastle Disease (ND). They have the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders and these diseases can cause serious socio-economic and possibly public health consequences.

As the world grapples with the complex challenges of feeding a growing global population, it has become increasingly clear that the traditional approaches to agriculture and food production are no longer sufficient. The pressing issues of climate crisis, food security, water scarcity, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss have highlighted the need for a fundamental transformation of the way we produce, process, and distribute food. It is in this context that the concept of transcending technologies and food for all has emerged as a critical imperative for achieving sustainable food systems. The notion of transcending technologies refers to the development and deployment of innovative solutions that go beyond the limitations of current agricultural practices and technologies. This involves harnessing the potential of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, the Internet of Things (IoT), and biotechnology to create more efficient, sustainable, and resilient food systems. By leveraging these technologies, it is possible to optimize crop yields, reduce waste, improve resource allocation, and enhance the overall sustainability of agricultural practices. However, the concept of transcending technologies is not solely focused on the development of new technologies. Rather, it emphasizes the need for a holistic and integrated approach to food production, processing, and distribution. This involves recognizing the intricate relationships between food systems, ecosystems, and human societies, and working to create a more equitable, just, and sustainable food culture. The goal of achieving food for all is closely tied to the concept of transcending technologies. Despite the fact that the world produces enough food to feed every person, millions of people around the globe continue to suffer from hunger and malnutrition. This is a stark reminder that the challenge of feeding the world’s population is not simply a matter of producing more food, but also of ensuring that everyone has access to nutritious and sustainable food. In order to achieve this goal, it is essential to address the complex web of factors that contribute to food insecurity, including poverty, inequality, conflict, and environmental degradation. This requires a multifaceted approach that involves governments, international organizations, civil society, and the private sector working together to create a more just and equitable food system. In this chapter, we will explore the concept of transcending technologies and food for all in greater depth, examining the latest innovations and trends in

According to the central dogma of molecular biology, genetic information flows (i) from DNA to DNA during its transmission from generation to generation and (ii) from DNA to protein during its phenotypic expression in an organism (Fig. 41.1).

Introduction

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a major cause of health care-associated infections around the world, and resistance has also emerged in infections in the wider community. Infections caused by multi resistant organisms significantly increase morbidity, mortality, and health care costs. Molecular analyses have revealed that widespread multi resistance has commonly been achieved by the acquisition of preexisting determinants followed by amplification in response to selection. The capture, accumulation, and dissemination of resistance genes are largely due to the actions of mobile genetic elements (MGE), a term used to refer to elements that promote intracellular DNA mobility (e.g., from the chromosome to a plasmid or between plasmids) as well as those that enable intercellular DNA mobility.

Insertion sequences (IS) and transposons (Tn) are discrete DNA segments that areable to move themselves (and associated resistance genes) almost randomly to newlocations in the same or different DNA molecules within a single cell. Other elements, such as integrons (In), use site-specific recombination to move resistance genes between defined sites. As these types of MGE are often present in multiple copies indifferent locations in a genome, they can also facilitate homologous recombination(exchange of sequences between identical or related segments). Intercellular mechanisms of genetic exchange include conjugation/mobilization (mediated by plasmidsand integrative conjugative elements [ICE]), transduction (mediated by bacteriophages), and transformation (uptake of extracellular DNA). Interactions between thevarious types of MGE underpin the rapid evolution of diverse multi resistant pathogens in the face of antimicrobial chemotherapy. Primarily the most important and/ or topical elements in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial species of particular concern clinically, namely, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. (the so-called ESKAPE group) (Rice LB., 2008) as well as Escherichia coli (giving the ESKAPEE group) (Llaca-Díaz J.M. et al.,2012); nonetheless, many of the MGE types described are of course broadly relevant to many other bacterial taxa.

1.1 Agricultural technologies and knowledge

Agricultural technologies and knowledge have, until recently, largely been created and disseminated by public institutions. But over the past two decades, biotechnology for agricultural production has developed rapidly, and the world economy has become more globalised and liberalised

Introduction

PTD refers to the creative process of joint experimentation and research by farmers and development agents (such as extension workers) in discovering ways of improving farmers’ livelihoods. Experimentation and innovation are natural and necessary to farmers. Before formal research and extension services existed, farmers’ own experimentation allowed adaptation to new situations, to survive and to improve their livelihoods, where conditions were favorable.This is still the case today, even where farmers have access to external support. Many development projects and extension agencies are appreciating farmers’ informal experimentation as a springboard for developing locally appropriate technologies.

In most countries, extension systems have now been operating for some time and problems within them will often require a refinement of the existing system rather than design of a new system from scratch.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide extension managers with a simple approach in analysing common extension problems. In most cases, suggestions are given for possible actions to consider in investigating the causes of the problem further and ultimately in overcoming it. However the primary purpose of the chapter is not ‘to give solutions to all known problems’ but to assist the extension manager in analysing problems to find their root cause (or causes). The chapter is designed to be simple and easy to use, and thus cannot do justice to the complexity of all the problems and situations faced by extension personnel.

Many different approaches might be used to organise this process and information. The chapter has tried in all cases to begin with noticeable problems and by analysing these through an hierarchy or problem tree, help users to analyse and reach their own conclusions as to the best solution.

Introduction

India is the third largest producer of cotton in the World. The cotton farmers of India are facing many problems. The stories of Vidharba are crucial lessons for the technocrats and policy makers. Most of the cotton growing areas are dry tract hence grown as rain fed crop. An amount of Rs. 12 billion worth of pesticides are used to control the serious pest i-e boll worm. In order to make the farmers to live debt free life and ensure the maximum reach out efforts of extension, it, needs a strategic TOT efforts.

In this juncture introduction of Bt cotton is a phenomenal change in the cotton industry and needs a careful practices to increase the adoption since it has some complex issues like growing refugee crops. TOT of Bt cotton is unique because of its newness attracts positive and negative comments. A study to assess the acceptance, non adoption and constraints related to Bt cotton was carried out and the findings are given below.

The four main projects of the transfer of technology projects of the ICAR.

The projects are:

1. All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstrations
2. Operational Research Project
3. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Agricultural Science Centre)
4. Lab to Land Programme.

In India, Floriculture is one of the ancient farming activity having great potential for generating employment to the small and marginal farmers. In the Indian flower market the domestic demand is up-surging at a rate of over 25% and the global cut flower market is approximately to be valued at USD 36.4 billion in 2022 but the share of India in international market of flowers is very less. Floriculture industry in India is still in the infancy stage and facing many problems. These issues are discussed in detail as below.

Technological Issues

Lack of improved new variety or cultivars. There are very few commercially available varieties released and available in our country with export potential. The thrust in floricultural research till recently had been on crop improvement, which include standardization of agro-technology improved method of propagation, pest and diseases control and post harvest management. The major nurseries of our country still depend on developed countries like Europe for internationally acceptable variety of major flowers. To achieve sustainability, there is intense need of breeding research programme specifically on floriculture to release new varieties with export potential of major commercially important f lowers.

Introduction

The interest in technology transfer traces back to the colonial era, which began by disseminating knowledge about the core industries of mining, plantations, and agriculture, which was seven decades ago. Technology has had a significant impact on human development and life growth throughout history. People’s life are constantly changing due of technology, whether or not they are ready for it. There has been so much change brought about by technology, and it has occurred at such a rapid pace that many times people lose their capacity to handle it successfully and pleasantly. In this scenario, more ideas are being created in the smaller globe, and technology’s residence time is getting much shorter.

TRANSFER

A transfer is a change in job assignment. It may involve a promotion or demotion or no change at all in responsibility and status. It is a change in assignment in which the employee moves to another job at approximately the same level of responsibility, the same skill, the level of pay. Transfer is to be distinguished from promotion and demotion which imply an ascending or descending change respectively, in the hierarchy of positions. A transfer may be either temporary or permanent, depending upon the need, and may occur within a department, between departments and divisions, or between plants or officers within a company/organization.

After preparing the desired DNA molecule using E.coli, the plasmid can be transferred into Agrobacterium by this method. Efficiency is low (~10³ transformants per mg of DNA) but the method is reliable and very rapid. This method also eliminates much of the plasmid rearrangement that occurs during triparental mating.

Procedure

Grow an Agribacterium strain containing an appropriate helper Ti plasmid in 5 ml of LB medium 16 hours at 28ºC.

Add 2 ml of the culture to 50 ml LB medium in a 250 ml flask and shake (~250 RPM) at 28ºC until an OD₆₀₀ of 0.5 to 1.0 is obtained.

Chill the culture on ice. Centrifuge the cell suspension at 1000 g for 30 minutes at 4ºC.

Discard the supernatant. Resuspend the cells in 1 ml of 20 mM CaCl₂ (ice cold). Dispense 100 mL aliquots into pre-chilled 1.5 ml tubes.

Add about 1 µg of the desired plasmid DNA (pure or crude) to the cells in each tube.

This is a procedure for transforming bacterial cells with circular DNA plasmids containing an origin of autonomous DNA replication and a selective marker (antibiotic resistance). Logarithmically growing cells are made permeable to DNA by incubation in CaCl2 and the DNA is taken up from the surrounding buffer.

Transformation

The uptake of DNA by competent cells is called transformation. Transformation involves:

Mix a small volume of DNA (usually 1-3 µl) with 100 µl of competent cells.

The mixture is incubated on ice for 30 minutes to allow the cells to take up the DNA.

The cells are then heat-shocked at 37 to 42°C for 1 minute, and cold shocked on ice for 2 minutes.

The heat shock/cold shock reverses the effect of the competent cell process, by healing the damage inflicted by the competent cell solution.

Add 0.5 ml of LB culture mediumz

Incubate the cells for 10 - 30 minutes at 37°C to aid the healing process.

This cell/medium mixture is then spread onto bacterial culture plates containing agar, LB, and a selection mechanism.

Q.1 In addition to the assumption of ANOVA, the other point which is given due consideration by the statistician is “The stability of variance.”

Q.2 In any investigation, if it is possible to incorporate the “randomisation procedure” then it is customary to rely on “ Randomisation” to break up any “correlation among experimental errors”

Square-Root Transformation for Counts

stabilizes the variance more effectively.

Counts of rare events, such as number of defects or of accidents tend to be distributed approximately in poisson fashion.

Transformation of data is useful when the assumptions required for analysis of variance are not adequately satisfied. Forestry experiments may produce observations showing skewness, unequal variances, non-normality, or departures from additivity. This chapter explains the need for transforming observations to an appropriate scale before statistical analysis. It discusses the characteristics of an ideal transformation, including stabilisation of variance, improvement of normality, efficient estimation of means, and achievement of linear and additive effects. Various transformation techniques used in forestry experimental analysis are introduced with suitable examples. The chapter emphasizes that appropriate transformation can improve the validity, sensitivity, and interpretability of statistical tests.