eBook Chapters

Protected cultivation, encompassing systems like greenhouses, polyhouses, and shade nets, has revolutionized modern agriculture by creating controlled environments that shield crops from adverse climatic conditions. This method not only extends the growing period but also enhances the quantity and quality of yields.
A key element of success in protected cultivation is the efficient management of water and nutrients, made possible through advanced irrigation and fertigation techniques.
IRRIGATION IN PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Irrigation is essential for delivering adequate moisture to crops, which is crucial for their healthy development. In protected cultivation settings—where rainfall is either insufficient or unpredictable—reliable irrigation systems become even more important. Traditional methods like surface or furrow irrigation are less effective, often leading to water loss and irregular distribution. In contrast, modern systems such as drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation provide precise delivery of water directly to the plant’s root zone, significantly reducing evaporation and runoff. Among these, drip irrigation has become particularly popular due to its high efficiency. By applying water directly at the soil surface near the roots, it minimizes wastage and ensures consistent moisture levels. This technique not only saves water but also supports healthy root growth and reduces the incidence of soil-borne diseases. Research shows that drip irrigation can decrease water consumption by 30–70% while improving crop productivity by 20–90% compared to conventional irrigation methods.

Introduction

Numerous low-value fish are underutilized for several reasons, including appearance, colour, presence of intermuscular spines, odour, flavour, and taste, as well as size and texture. Creating value-added products from such fish, including surimi and other restructured products, will raise their market value and bring more significant profits. At the same time, the fishing pressure on the commercially important fishes can also be reduced and results in the complete utilization of fish landing. One of the most effective methods for utilizing f ish at a low cost is surimi technology.

ABSTRACT

Interaction of cationic dye acridine orange with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) isolated from Rhizobium strains specific (IC59) and non-specific (TAL1000) to chickpea (Cicer arietinum.L L.) has been investigated by spectrophotometric measurements. The strain specific (IC59) lipopolysaccharide induced decrease in absorbance of the α-band of acridine orange at 490 nm and finally upon further addition of LPS /Dye ratio in the range of 30~60 giving rise to α-polymeric metachromatic band at 660 nm. In contrast the LPS from non-specific strain (TAL1000) induces a decrease in absorbance at the α-band till LPS / Dye ratios are 0~50. This suggest that the anionic changes of strain specific LPS is different from non-specific strain enabling formation of large acridine orange aggregate on the surface of specific strain.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

The plant nutrient cycling depends on micro organisms that constitute major components of the biosphere. Although less than one per cent is cultured, a tremendous diversity exists in their populations. Transformation of nutrients from soil to plants is brought about by soil microorganisms. Latest molecular techniques enable scientists to understand and appreciate the diversity and help to utilize the beneficial effects of microbial diversity for increased productivity. Among soil organisms intense activity is found in and around rhizosphere of plants because of the presence of the secreted nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids and other cellular components present at the growing tip of roots. These root colonizing micro organism form symbiotic, associative, or parasitic relationship with the plants. These organisms have evolved mechanisms to occupy and reside in the specialized niche. These mechanisms are often utilized both for growth enhancement and disease suppression. The host also plays an important role in selecting its own microflora for the rhizosphere similar to the probiotic microflora of human gastrointestinal tract (Haas and Keel 2003).

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural systems and the environment in which it operates have become increasingly complex which encompass both agricultural production and marketing systems. Both of them are rich in complexity and diversity (Spedding, 1975) and to understand the complexity and structure of such systems and their functions require the use of mathematical modelling frameworks that represent their key features. Disciplines that are required to develop and solve such models include: biology, computer programming, statistics, mathematics, economics, and social science. Models are being developed to investigate specific issues such as weed infestation, soil health, nitrogen cycling, the effects of climate change, climate variability, and to assist developing countries to improve their production at their farm gate. During the first half of 20th Century, most agricultural products were produced by means of labour and the majority of the produce was used for own consumption. However, as time progressed labour was substituted for machines, production became more market-oriented and consequently the practice of farming also transformed from “a way of living” to business enterprises run on business principles.

Taxonomy, also known as systematics, is the study of classifying organisms into logically related groups. Historically, taxonomy was performed by examining physical characteristics of organisms and classifying species based on the most commonly held traits. Unfortunately, this method of classifying plants and animals assumes that because they share physical characteristics, they must have shared ancestors. Markers are used over the years for classification of plants. Markers are any trait(s) of an organism that can be identified with confidence and relative ease, and can be followed in a mapping population. They can be defined as heritable entities associated with the economically important trait under the control of polygenes. Molecular markers are any kind of molecule indicating existence of a chemical or a physical process. Molecular markers include biochemical constituents (e.g. secondary metabolites in plants) and macromolecules (e.g. proteins and deoxyribo-nucleic acid). These macromolecules show easily detectable differences among different strains of a species or among different species.
The prerequisite for the improvement of any plant species are germplasm collection and its characterization to find out the diversity among the accessions. Characterization can be done by several ways which include morphological, enzymatic and genetical methods. The best way to assess the diversity is based on DNA markers which allow differentiation among genotypes without any environmental influences. These markers have a great potential to identify genetic diversity within and among accessions which help in successful implementation of pre-breeding approaches. Molecular
markers are considered the best tools for determining genetic relationships diversity as they are unlimited in number, show high polymorphism, provides more reliable information, detect more variation than morphological and biochemical markers; and are stage independent, not affected by environment and simply inherited. Molecular markers are ‘tags’ that can be used to identify specific genes and locate them in relation to other genes. They help in ensuing a desired beneficial trait to be maintained or an undesirable trait to be eliminated.

Introduction
Water is an essential and irreplaceable environmental resource, fundamental to the survival of diverse living organisms on Earth. Covering approximately 70% of the planet’s surface, water is categorized into freshwater, marine and saline water. The freshwater system is further divided into lentic (e.g., lakes and ponds) and lotic (e.g., streams, rivers and springs), which serve as crucial sources for meeting daily human water needs (Mishra et al., 2015, 2016). Presently, water quality is influenced by both natural and human-induced factors, including climate conditions, irrigation practices, topography and geological features (Harman et al., 2012). Key physicochemical properties— such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, transparency, conductivity and water current—along with chemical parameters like nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals and organic matter, play a vital role in evaluating the effects ofpollution on water quality (Awasthi and Tiwari, 2004).
Upto pollution has become a major global challenge, driven by rapid industrialization, population growth and urban expansion (Bijekar et al.,2022). The release of untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater into natural water bodies raises serious environmental and public health concerns (Akpor and Muchie, 2011). Wastewater contains diverse pollutants, including heavy metals, organic compounds, pathogens, pharmaceuticals and microplastics, all of which pose significant threats to aquatic ecosystems and human well-being. Conventional treatment methods such as sedimentation, filtration and chemical treatments often fail to effectively remove emerging contaminants and achieve complete purification. Additionally, these traditional techniques can be costly, energy-intensive and may generate secondary pollutants requiring further treatment. In response, the demand for more efficient, sustainable and costeffective wastewater treatment solutions has fuelled research into advanced technologies like nanotechnology (Palit et al., 2023).

11.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the manipulation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules, or molecular clusters into structures to create materials and devices with new or vastly different properties. Nanotechnology can work from the top down (which means reducing the size of the smallest structures to the nanoscale e.g. photonics applications in nanoelectronics and nanoengineering) or the bottom up (which involves manipulating individual atoms and molecules into nanostructures and more closely resembles chemistry or biology). The definition of nanotechnology is based on the prefix “nano” which is from the Greek word meaning “dwarf”. In more technical terms, the word “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth of something. It is a very promising new branch of small-scale technology named for the unit of measure at which it operates: the nanometer. Nanotechnology enables us to create functional materials, devices, and systems by controlling matter at the atomic and molecular scales, and to exploit novel properties and phenomena. Consider that most chemical and biological sensors, as well as many physical sensors, depend on interactions occurring at these levels and you’ll get an idea of the effect nanotechnology will have on the sensor world.

ABSTRACT

Nanomaterials will potentially play an important role in water quality. Production and applications of nanomaterials in industry are increasing. Furthermore, there are a handsome number of marketed nanomaterial-based consumer products. Therefore, how nanomaterials diagnose and function and how they perturb normal biological systems all become a top concern. In recent years, researchers are actively engaged in such investigations and discussions. At the same time, technologies and methods are developed to make more targeting nanoparticles for use in water.

Key words: Nanomaterial, Applications,Water quality

INTRODUCTION

In arid and semi-arid regions of India, besides weather aberrations, diseases caused by certain soil-borne pathogens are responsible for low productivity of agricultural crops. In addition to losses caused in annual crops, occurrence of these diseases in forestry takes away a major share. Because of the requirement for free water, diseases of aerial plant parts are much less common than those involving roots when plants are grown in dry regions where humidities are low and rains are infrequent and/or of short durations. Under these conditions, pathogens like Macrophomina phaseolina, Ganoderma lucidum, Cylindrocarpon lichenicola, Neocosmospora vasinfectum, Sclrotium rolfii and species of Fusarium (F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. equiseti, etc.) cause root rots and wilts in many commercially valuable and perennial plants.
Certain agro-climatic factors are attributed for the development of few specific diseases caused by soil-borne plant pathogens. Low organic matter, small microbial population coupled with poor moisture retention capacity of soil favour survival and multiplication of soil-borne pathogens (Fig. 12.1).

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are free-living bacteria  having beneficial effect on plants by root colonization. They stimulate plant’s growth. Intensive research work is carried out on use of various PGPR as plant growth promoters on various crops. There are reports which show that PGPR promoted growth and reproductive parameters of cereals, pulses, ornamentals, vegetable crops, plantation crops and even  tree species. The important PGPR used in vegetable crops are Azospirillum, Azotobactor, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB) and Bacillus subtilis.

Plant growth regulators are organic compounds occurring naturally in plants as well as synthetic, other than nutrients, which in small amounts promote, inhibit or modify any physiological process in plants.

Basically, PGRs are of two types

Plastic has now become an integral part of horticultural production at various stages from nursery to marketing at consumers’ door during the last two decades. It is used at each and every stage of horticultural life cycle right from seeds packaging, nursery seedling raising, planting, propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting, fruit packing, preservation and marketing. The application of plastics in the agriculture sector is popularly known as Plasticulture.In 1948 Professor E.M. Emmert built the first plastic greenhouse, a wooden structure covered with cellulose acetate film. He later switched this to a more effective polyethylene film. After the introduction of plastic film to agriculture, it began being used at a larger scale around the world by the early 1950s to replace paper for mulching vegetables. By 1999 almost 30 million acres worldwide were covered in plastic mulch.

Phosphorus is one of the key nutrients required for higher and sustained productivity of potato and its influence on tuber yield is very well established. Phosphatic fertilizers are expensive and in developing countries like India, they are either imported or manufactured using imported raw material. Due to increase in cost in the recent past, there has been a decreasing trend in the amounts of P fertilizer applied in India (Sundara and Natarajan, 1997 and Sundara, 1988). At the same time, soils contain substantial reserves of total P, most of it remains relatively inert, and only less than 10% of soil P enters the plant–animal cycle (Kucey et al., 1989). Upon addition to the soils, soluble phosphates react with the constituents of the soil and form compounds that are less soluble. This conversion depends upon the soil type. In acid soils, the reaction products are aluminium and iron phosphates and in the predominantly calcareous soils, the reaction products are calcium phosphates. As a result most of the P applied (often as much as 90%) is rendered unavailable for crop uptake but is retained in insoluble form. This is the reason that the potato-based cropping systems in different potato growing pockets generally show positive P balance resulting into its build up (Singh et al., 1994). Thus, soils commonly have large reserves of ‘fixed’ P that could support long-term crop requirements if it could be mobilized through appropriate soil management including use of P-solubilizing microbes. The ability of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) to convert insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible form is an important trait in sustainable farming for increasing plant yields (Singh and Kapoor, 1994). The beneficial effects of PSB on crop productivity have been widely described. These soil phosphate solubilizing bacteria stay near the roots and make the phosphorus available to plants from soil.

In nature there are nearly 300 nuclei, consisting of different elements and their isotopes. Isotopes are nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. These techniques are now being used in almost all the areas of plant physiology, soil chemistry and plant biochemistry. In agriculture, radioisotopes are used in the nutritional studies of major and minor elements, plant metabolism, mechanism of photosynthesis studies, and uptake of nutrients and ions mobility in soil. In applying this technique, a minute quantity of radioisotope element is usually mixed with ordinary element of the same kind, the whole batch is termed “tagged” and their role in chemical reactions is traced. The radio labeled fertilizer has been used to study the uptake, retention and utilization of fertilizers.

Radioisotopes are used for determining the function of fertilizer in different plants. The tracer technique is used to study the rate and direction of movement of an element in a plant. For this a radioisotope of that element is injected in the ground near the plant. After a few days the plant is laid on a photographic paper to produce an autoradiograph. The dark areas in the radiograph show the positions reached by the element. This technique gives valuable information regarding the optimum season for fertilizing crops and for poisoning weeds. Use of N¹⁵ in organic fertilizer studies has significantly advanced the understanding of N release from organic materials. Crop residue or green manure studies are relatively simple. These techniques have been extremely useful in determining how residue quality parameters affect mineralization values. Because of the attention focused on nutrient cycling and management studies in recent years, a number of new P isotope techniques have been developed.

1. Neutron activation analysis

This technique is used in qualitative and quantitative analysis. If an element present in a sample is to be identified by neutron activation analysis, the sample will be bombarded with slow neutrons or other charged particles and converted into radioisotope. It is one of the most sensitive and specific methods available for the determination of trace quantities of a wide range of elements. From the half life measurement, it is possible to identify the element from which the radioisotope has resulted. Also the quantity of element present in a given sample can be calculated by this technique.

16.1 Introduction

The ancient Greek philosopher ‘Heraclitus’ said, that, “You can’t step into the same river twice”. By this, he meant that permanence is an illusion and changes are inevitable. One of such changes, which has created buzz all over world is climate change. To understand the science behind climate change, the first step would be to know about the periodic changes in earth’s climate. Scientists devised innovative techniques to recover evidence from the distant past, first from deposits left on land, then from sea floor sediments, and one of the finest techniques of drilling deep into ice. Evidences from past climates help us to understand the evolution of the earth’s atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and cryosphere. At the same time, paleo-climate studies help in quantification of properties of earth’s climate, including the forces that drive climate change and the sensitivity of the earth’s climate to those forces. When scientists investigate causes or complex processes in the present and future, they may find evidence in the past that helps them in mapping out the complexities (McMullen and Jabbour, 2009). The paleo-climatologists succeeded brilliantly and discovered strangely regular pattern of glacial cycles, which helps in prediction of future changes.

Introduction

Global population growth has led to an increase in demand for energy, food, and other essentials, resulting in an increase in agricultural land. Poor farming techniques, urbanization, and a lack of soil management measures have negative consequences for agricultural soils, such as reduced soil fertility, migration of soil organisms, and loss of soil microbiota and ultimately loss of soil health(Mehmood et al., 2020; Omotayo and Babalola, 2021; Syed et al., 2022). In addition, fertilizers used in agriculture have an impact on soil quality and health. Soil fertility is defined as the ability of a soil to meet the physico-chemical and biological requirements of a plant for growth, reproduction and quality, taking into account plant and soil type, land use and climatic conditions (Abbott and Murphy, 2007; Tyagi et al., 2019).

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is a technology driven industry which relies a lot on research to develop species diversification in culture system as well as in the appropriate technology for commercial production. The rapid development of aquaculture in the world depends largely on the availability of fish feed; which are traditionally based on fish meal as the main protein source (Hardy & Tacon, 2002; Krishnankutty, 2005; Yigit et al., 2006) but the major challenge is its availability, quality and cost (Ghazala et al., 2011; Tabinda and Butt, 2012). In the aqua feed formulation, protein is the main but expensive ingredient and its quality and quantity in fish feeds formulation plays a vital role in promoting fish growth (Pandian, 2001). Dietary protein provides essential and non essential amino acids to synthesize body protein and energy for maintenance. According to fish species, fish size, dietary protein sources and environmental conditions protein requirements ranges from 300 to 550 g /kg (NRC 1993).

In India there is a significant development in fresh water aquaculture in last few decades contributing greatly to overall fish production of the country. The fresh water aquaculture is crossing the traditional boundary of concentration on farming of major carp and entered the arena of diversification to the culture of other species like catfishes. So far in India majority of research works were concentrated on development of commercial fish feed mainly for carps and shrimps. To fulfill the objectives of large scale culture of cat fishes and development as an economic proposition, it is necessary to take up induced breeding and larval rearing of commercially important catfishes in controlled conditions and develop easily adoptable package of practices of the same to cater to the needs of interested fish entrepreneurs. Among the catfishes, Clarias magur, an air breathing species and popularly known as ‘magur’ or ‘walking catfish’ is a high valued fish in the Indian subcontinent and fetches higher price than many other fishes including major carps and it is highly revered for its nutritious flesh which is therapeutic in nature, hence, better prospects are there for developing its culture (Hussain et al., 2016). Vishwanath (2010) reported that this species is very much popular in Bangladesh due to use as important part of the diet for children and lactating mothers and also prescribed as diet for the convalescent of the patients. This fish is highly regarded for food due to its high protein (15.0%), low fat (1.0%) and high iron content (710mg/100g tissue). Paul et al. (2015) in their studies on Indian catfish namely magur (Clarias batrachus) and singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis) for proximate composition and mineral content concluded that both the fishes are rich in protein, fat and minerals content irrespective of their size and season.

Introduction

The country’s population is growing at fast pace putting pressure on agriculture sector to grow more with declining resources. Proper planning and management become ever more crucial to ensure the sustainability of food production with minimal environmental footprints. Space technologies have unique advantages of providing large area synoptic coverage, with repetitive, objective and scientific datasets essential for monitoring a hugely vast and heterogeneous country like India. Agriculture being very dynamic and highly dependent on different natural resources needs continuous monitoring. Therefore these technologies have immense potential for application in the agriculture sector of the country. Space based technologies provide information on crops and natural resources on a real-time basis, proving unmatched opportunity for planning including in-season manipulation of crop production and management practices improving the resilience of farming against weather aberrations. Advanced estimates of regional agricultural output are critical to anticipate and mitigate the course of food shortage from sudden crop failure.

Incidentally, the first practical application of remote sensing in India was in the field of agriculture, wherein early detection of coconut wilt disease in Kerala was possible using air borne infrared cameras (Dakshinamurty et al. 1971). To explore the potential of space technology through satellites Joint Experiment Programme (JEP) started for defining the appropriate configurations of sensors in Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites during the early 1980s. After exhaustive field experimentation, the potential of remote sensing (RS) technology to estimate crop yield and area to forecast its productivity at district and regional level due to the multispectral, large area and repetitive coverage was established. By that time this technology was being used operationally used by a few advance nations. With the launch of the first IRS satellite IRS-1A in 1988, in India

Ultrasonography in goat is becoming popular in the field of reproduction and replacing the other old-age techniques, viz. abdominal ballotment, recto- abdominal probes, X-rays and radioimmuno-assays. The reasons are numerous such as unsatisfactory results, hazardous effects to animal, operator or environment, high cost, long delay in diagnostic results and requirement of sophisticated labs. The ultrasound system has low operating cost and does not need special labs as it can be done at farm itself. Ultrasonography is considered safe to the animal and the operator and provides quick and reliable results. The popular opinion about ultrasonography is that it is noninvasive imaging system and is rapid, safe and practical means of diagnosis of pregnancy and reproductive disorders in sheep and goat. The B-mode real time ultrasonographic system particularly portable system is popular among researcher and practitioners. In goat, B-mode real time ultrasonography was used in 1971, using 5 MHz frequency transducer. A transducer of switchable frequency from 7.5 to 5.0 is more popular in small ruminant research and practice.

Real time ultrasonography provides means to directly image the reproductive tract. An extensive amount of information can be gained from even a single examination, including determination of ovarian (luteal or follicle detection) and uterine status, detection and monitoring of ovarian and uterine pathology, monitoring the post-partum mare, detection of twins, prediction of ovulation, fetal growth and development and determination of sex of fetus. When first introduced the use of ultrasonography was primarily limited to early pregnancy diagnosis only, with advancement of knowledge and interpretive skills, the diagnostic ultrasonography has a much more application in reproduction. Some of the applications are discussed in this lecture.

Procedure

The procedure and precautions for intrarectal ultrasonographic examination are similar to those for rectal palpation, and no additional restraint is required. The transducer should be protected by the examiner’s hand to prevent trauma to the rectal wall, and the transducer should be well-lubricated. Care should be taken to avoid fecal material attaching to the transducer. After evacuating fecal material from the rectum, the probe is introduced and moved across the reproductive tract in the following pattern: uterine body, right uterine horn, right ovary, right uterine horn, uterine body, left uterine horn, left ovary, left uterine horn, uterine body then cervix. Good contact must exist between the transducer and rectal wall. Air in the rectum or a gas or fluid-filled loop of bowel will result in a distorted image. To minimize scanning errors, principally those of omission, it is recommended to conduct the same scanning procedure during each examination.

ABSTRACT

Probably since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have recognized the value of rows of trees/ shrubs planted in the farm (called as Agroforestry) which offers environmental protection, crop and livestock production and reduce the soil health hazards. The role of agroforestry is immense in the undulating terrains like North East India, rain fed area like Central India or the problem soils in general. Even though research and extension work is on the way to increase the trees out side the forest, the information and knowledge on best tree + crop combination is either scarce or limited to regions in the form of research articles, books or  journals. The recent scope of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its applicability due to its easy, fast and any where accessibility have opened the window of opportunity towards the scientific agroforestry and farm forestry developments. One such means of ICT is through the availability of useful databases and websites on agroforestry.

14.1.2 How it Works
• Temperature Rise: When the temperature rises, the alcohol in the bulb expands, pushing the mercury up the arm on the maximum temperature side. The mercury pushes the index upwards, and this index stays at the highest point reached as the mercury falls back down with decreasing temperature.
• Temperature Fall: When the temperature falls, the alcohol in the bulb contracts, pulling the mercury down on the minimum temperature side (and thus up on the maximum side). The mercury on the minimum side pushes its index upwards. As the temperature rises again, the mercury retreats, leaving the minimum temperature index at the lowest point reached.
• Reading the Thermometer: To read the maximum temperature, you look at the lower end of the index on the maximum temperature scale. To read the minimum temperature, you look at the lower end of the index on the minimum temperature scale. The current temperature can be read from either side by noting the position of the top of the mercury column.
• Resetting the Thermometer: After taking the readings, the indices need to be reset. This is typically done using a small magnet to pull the steel indices back down to the current level of the mercury.

Introduction

While tracing the history of veterinary medicine, we come across the Chinese writings about the diseases of horses, oxen and buffalos in the past about 2500 B. C. Similarly we can find about 4000 years old.  Indian art showing the people caring the horses and elephants. Even we can find in the art about ancient Egypt how they cared for their cattle and dogs health. The Ancient Romans had a word for the people that are doctors for animals, which is, veterinarius. In about A.D. 500 a Roman wrote a book on what veterinarians do.  In 1598, Carlo Ruini, an Italian author wrote a book named as, “Anatomy of the Horse”.

All these methods of utilization and the conversion to useful energies depend on the climate, population density of the area and the basic infrastructure. It is important to work out the market for the products which are produced.
 
Bio-waste management: It needs to take from small actions to the ambitious ones. European Commission proposes to use wastes which could make up to 25% of total energy consumption by 2020. They propose to have directives for the promotion of renewable electricity (Directive 2001/77/EC) and biofuels (Directive 2003/30/EC). The waste production in Europe has gone upto 2 kg per capita per day. Recycling rates are also rising (European Commission, 2017). The Member states must develop a national action plan and outline the national policies to develop existing biomass resources and mobilise new biomass resources for different uses. A European project has studied the amount of renewable energy to be used in 2020. According to them it will be around 195 million tons of oil equivalents (Mton) of biomass which is biodegradable part of MSW. This will be 20% of renewable energy target. It has also been estimated that the amount of bio-energy from the MSW will be 20 Mton, which would account for around 7% of all renewable energy in 2020. This may be available after composting and anaerobic digestion (Atanasiu, 2010).

Abstract

Climate change is today’s major concern throughout the world. All sectors have been influenced with the impact of climate change. Similarly, agriculture sector has also been affected with the worse climatic changes. All components of agricultural production system like water, soil, vegetation, organism and microorganism etc. affected greatly due to climatic abruptions. And thus, the productivity is hampering day by day. Today, we requires to predict the trend of changes in climatic parameters like maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours etc, to project future change in these climatic parameters, to assess the effect of theses climatic parameters on agricultural components like water resources, soil, vegetation, organism and microorganism and, also to find the adaptation and mitigation strategies.  All these works have beenmainly done by manual methods earlier. Developed country like USA, Japan, UK etc adopted the computer modelling to climate change research. Computer modelling and software assistance have been adopted slowly in developed countries. Since, climatic changes requires processing of very large number of data, they needs computer and software assistance. Without computer assistance climate change research seems to be impossible.

Forage preservation as silage is a key component of high input (zero-grazing) systems (Mannetje, 1999). It has allowed producers to intensify the productivity of the land and the productivity of the livestock. Large quantities of forage can be conserved in a short time, forage conservation is less weather dependent and thirdly, silage is well suited to mechanization. However, a major disadvantage associated with silage making is that the feeding value of the resultant forage is reduced relative to that of the original crop. Ensiling offers many advantages over haymaking.

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has made the libraries more powerful in the collection development, processing and retrieval of information. The advent of internet has not only made it possible to connect the libraries over the world, but also to search a huge repository of databases. The technology has developed to online system to connect commercialize vendors as well as learned societies with the databases to seek and obtain the needed information. The use of computer and digital technologies in teaching and learning has been evolved not just through the increase of distance learning or virtual courses but through the use of cyber education as an adjunct to the traditional classroom. This increased the trend of access to technology in Library and Information Centers and has given the opportunity to use those resources and improve the skill. In order to acquaint themselves with the new technological environment, the users are required to be more conversant with those skills.

Libraries & Information Centers play an important role in supporting the teaching, learning, research and extension programme of universities. These are made possible by building and developing good collection of selected documents both in print as well as digital form and by supporting it with various services for their dissemination. There is such an exponential growth of information in today’s era that students, faculties, research scholars often lack the scope of getting proper education or instruction to use those resources to the optimum possible limit. To overcome this difficulty and to maximize the use of such resources proper library instruction must be imparted to the user community which is otherwise known as Library User Education.

USER EDUCATION

User Education can be defined as a program to guide and to instruct the potential users either individually or collectively. User education is an action taken by the Library staff to train / educate their users so as to make full use of the existing knowledge to develop their community.

ALA Glossary defines user education as it encompasses all types of activities designed to teach users about library services, facilities and organizations library resources and search strategy.

User education can be defined in the context of electronic sources of Information as educating the users how to operate computer and searching Information on Net using various search strategies and to educate them how to use electronic sources of information and various databases.

Users of the library must be convinced that continuing learning is worthwhile and that the process of education does not end with examination. They must have confidence to be learners and to stand of their own, to possess autonomy to select and to direct their own future study experience. User education has been defined by Mews as “instruction given to readers to help them to make best use of library”. User education was not solely to stimulate library use as this but one of the sources of Information. According to Nancy, Fjalbarnt and Lan Malley “ User Education is concerned with the whole Information and communication process and one part if this involves the total interaction of the users the library. This should be a continuous process starting with schools and public libraries and with possibility of extension to academic and specialized libraries. According to Jacques Tacathan, Director of UNESCO general Information Program “User Education is to include any effort or program which will guide and instruct existing and potential user in the recognition and information service and their assessment.

Information Technology can play an important role in disseminating agricultural information to the farmers by using various multimedia sources. Farmers are more desirous and anxious to get quick, accurate and authentic information in the changing scenario of agriculture at local and at global levels. Dissemination of the required and recent agricultural information to the farmers in scattered villages at the variegated geographical situation in India is very difficult task. Transfer of technology to farmers is not a one time exercise because new farm technology is being constantly evolved. A continuous flow of technologies in an appropriate manner is vital to provide quick benefit for the development of the farmers. There has been a technological explosion in the field of agriculture. This demands that the farmer has to know all aspects of technology prior to its adoption. Hence Interactive Multimedia Module (IMMM) has potential to reach the unreached.

In fact, as the concept of synthetic seed involves the use of small propagules and enables the direct sowing of this material in vitro or in vivo, the technology could provide great flexibility to the breeders by not only reducing the costs when large quantities of propagules are required for handling, shipping and planting, but also eliminating the acclimation step when direct sowing in vivo is applied (Onishi et al. 1994).

The artificial seed technology has been applied to a number of plant species belonging to angiosperms. The exact application of artificial seeds will vary from species to species. In self-pollinated crops that currently have good seed production systems, synthetic seeds will not have any practical applications, but in cross pollinating species, especially those where seed production is difficult and expensive, synthetic seeds offer many advantages and opportunities. The importance of encapsulation technique as an aid to propagation in various crop plants has been discussed by many workers. By combining the benefits of vegetative propagation system with the capability of long-term storage and with clonal multiplication, synthetic seeds have many diverse applications in agriculture (Gray and Purohit, 1991; Redenbaugh et al., 1991; Redenbaugh, 1993). In some species seed propagation is not successful. The reason behind this may be due to heterozygosity of seed, small sized seed, presence of reduced or insufficient endosperm, and seedless varieties of crop species like grapes, watermelon, mango, guava etc. Sometimes association of mycorrhizal fungi is essential for seed germination, for example orchids. The germination of these seeds under natural conditions or under control environment is not possible. Propagating of these species through synthetic seed is the added advantage. The possible implications of synthetic seed technology have been detailed hereunder.

The history of plant growth regulation was knownfor many years before the time of Christ, when it was common practice in the Middle East to place a drop of olive oil on figs to promote development. The use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to modify growth and flowering of pineapple began in 1930s. In eighteenth century when a carpenter was working in a greenhouse in the Azores Islandaccidently set fire to a pile of shavings. To the surprise of the grower who had thought his plants were ruined, they burst into flower instead of being damaged (Collins, 1960). In Hawaii, Rodriguez (1932) noticed in the pineapple fields that smoke from brush fires adjacent to the field caused premature flowering. The ingredients of smoke were subsequently found to be ethylene and acetylene, the unsaturated hydrocarbons. During the 1940’s, auxins were also shown to produce this effect,α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), β-Naphthalene acetic acid (BNA), Fruitone and naphthaleneacetamide were the next forcing agent to become commercially used in pineapple. Since that time many works have been carried out with improving results like natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Today, specific PGRs are used to modify crop growth rate and growth pattern during the various stages of development from germination through harvest and post-harvest preservation. The use of regulating chemicals has become an important component of agro-technical procedures for most of the cultivated plants and especially for fruit plants.

Introduction

An ionophore is a lipid-soluble molecule usually synthesized by microorganisms, which transport ions across cell membranes of susceptible bacteria, dissipating ion gradients and uncoupling energy expenditures from growth to kill these bacteria. The term ionophore was first used in 1967 for their ability of organic molecules to bind metal cations and form lipid soluble complexes that facilitate their transport across cell membrane. The ionophore antibiotics show wide varieties of biological activity ranging from antibacterial, antifungal, antimycoplasma, antiparasitic, antimalarial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and tumourcell cytotoxic activity (Augustine, et al., 1987; Gumila et al., 1996). Presently seven polyether antibiotics include monensin, lasalocid, salinomycin, narasin, maduramycin, laidomycin and senduramycin are used around the world in various segments of cattle and poultry industries. These ionophores are mainly used as anticoccidial drugs in poultry and growth promoters in the ruminants. Polyether antibiotics are not used in human but recently, it has been shown that some of these compounds are able to selectively kill human cancer stem cells and multidrug resistant cancer cells. Hence, they are recognized as new potential anticancer drugs.

Introduction

It became clear from the discussions of previous chapters that probiotics perform metabolic functions such as fermenting indigestible dietary residues and endogenous mucus, production of vitamins, and absorption of minerals. They also play key role in intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation, and the homeostasis of the immune system. Further, probiotics are also known to involve in modifying gut pH, antagonizing pathogens through the production of antimicrobial compounds, competing with pathogens for recept or sites as well as for available nutrients and growth factors, stimulating immunomodulatory cells of the host, and produce a wide range of enzymes such as lactase, amylase, lipase, protease, phytase and so on. The molecular mechanisms of probiotics are largely unknown and opens avenue for research in probiotics. Moreover, current research in probiotics and health consciousness in the public lead to an increased interest towards probiotics from the public, researchers, governmental organizations (such as the WHO/FAO) and medicine and food companies. In this chapter, application of probiotics in treating various diseases and disorders are discussed.

ABSTRACT

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are being used more extensively than ever before for geosciences Applications in the moist tropics. With SAR's side viewing geometry, longer wavelengths, and almost all-weather sensing capability, SAR imagery has been extensively useful mapping tool for coastal geomorphology in the moist tropics. The purpose of this study to assess the use of Multitemporal C-band ENVISAT- ASAR data for identification of different coastal geomorphology in part of Tamilnadu coast. The orbital ASAR data was digitally geometric corrected (ortho-rectified) and filtered for speckle noise, and linearly stretched in order to enhance contrast between the coastal environment features. By using the methods of crisp enhancement, linear stretching and PCA, to show the various Coastal geomorphological units. The information extraction is based on recognition of the mechanism interactions occurring between radar signal and the target on the ground, represented by shallow water morphology in the intertidal conditions, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes and highland. In an application perspective, Orbital ASAR data proved to be a fundamental source of information for both geomorphological mapping and land use pattern in moist tropical environments.

Key Words : ASAR, Geomorphology, Mangroves, Land Cover, Coastal mapping.

INTRODUCTION TO DRONES USED FOR EARLY PEST AND DISEASE DETECTION
The utilization of drones for the early detection of pests and diseases in agriculture represents a novel and effective strategy that enables farmers to proactively oversee crop health. Drones outfitted with sophisticated sensors can consistently surveil fields, delivering real-time data and facilitating the prompt detection of possible dangers.
Agricultural drones are employed to identify pests and illnesses at an early stage by capturing aerial imagery of crops. This enables farmers to respond swiftly to safeguard their crops, perhaps resulting in increased yields and reduced environmental impact.
The utilization of drones in agricultural pest management presents numerous benefits compared to conventional techniques. Drones outfitted with infrared cameras can furnish farmers with real-time information on crop health, facilitating the early identification of possible problems such as pests, illnesses, or nutritional deficits.
Pathology can adversely affect plant vitality prior to the manifestation of any obvious indicators such as foliar discoloration. Although these pressures are imperceptible to the unaided eye, cameras equipped with specialized filters may identify these nuanced variations.
Researchers at the Department of Life Sciences and Computing are collaborating with the agricultural services firm Agrii to develop cameras placed on drones. These cameras can autonomously identify early signs of disease and notify farmers when to apply treatments, prior to crop harm.
Applying fungicides promptly in the appropriate locations would enable farmers to utilize them effectively and optimize their application. They are

In today’s fast-paced visual media landscape, the integration of graphics and animation has become a crucial element in storytelling, branding, and information delivery. Whether used for subtle enhancements or to drive the visual narrative, these tools help to elevate a video from simple footage to a compelling visual experience. This chapter explores the role of graphics and animation in video production, offering a guide to their use, techniques, and best practices in creating effective and engaging content.
1. The Role of Graphics and Animation in Video Production
Graphics and animation serve multiple functions in modern video production, adding both style and substance to the final product. They can be utilized to clarify complex information, deliver branding messages, provide visual transitions, or create entirely immersive experiences.
1.1 Informational Graphics and Data Visualization
One of the most prevalent uses of graphics is in the representation of data. Infographics and data visualizations transform raw statistics into engaging visuals that are easier to digest and more appealing to viewers.
• Purpose: To present complex data and concepts in a simple, visually engaging way. Think of corporate videos, educational videos, or documentaries where a viewer may need to understand statistics, trends, or comparisons.
• Tools Used: Programs like Adobe After Effects, Apple Motion, and Veed.io offer tools to create interactive graphics, charts, and animated diagrams. The use of motion in these graphics (e.g., bar graphs animating in can enhance viewer engagement and retention.

Introduction

Successful marketing is important to every business. Marketing is a critical tool for establishing awareness, attracting new customers and building lasting relationships. It is the process of planning and executing conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of your ideas, goods or services to satisfy the needs of individual consumers or organisations. It is as important to put adequate efforts on marketing your product or service, no matter whatever time you have dedicated to development of part of it.

We live in an electronic era, where the globe has shriveled into our fingertips. Customers are having lot of options to choose from. Information of what you need is reaching you within a click, that your decisions are often being guided by such information. Marketing uses communication and advertising tactics to persuade customers that your brand, including your products and services are exactly what they need. Marketing is thus crucial to your business which can have a bearing on the success rate and requires research, planning and appropriate budget allocations.

One of the important concepts in marketing is that of marketing mix. The elements of this mix are: product, pricing, physical distribution and promotion. Marketing management is that which optimizes the elements in the marketing mix, so that organisation is able to achieve its objectives while gaining customer utility. This chapter throws light on various aspects of marketing mix that an entrepreneur needs to focus upon to ensure success.

Uterine prolapse also called casting of the “Calf Bed” in cow is a condition in which there is eversion of whole or part of uterus outside the vulva after its movement through dilated cervix and vagina. It occurs in cow after the birth of calf and mostly in dairy cows having given birth many times to a calf. It occurs due to hypocalcaemia, defective involution, inadequate exercise, excessive force applied during removal of calf etc.

Uterine torsion in cow is actually the rotation of the pregnant uterus on its longitudinal axis and usually occurs before onset or during late first stage of parturition but rarely encountered during early second stage of parturition. In cattle, uterine torsion involves both gravid and non gravid horns because of strong intercornual ligament and distension of uterine horn and body with placenta and fluid. The remarkable feature of uterine torsion is its association with advanced pregnancy and process of parturition in cow.

8.1 Introduction

The concept of social justice led to a raise the standard of living of the masses. This is only possible by meeting the energy needs of industry, agriculture, transport and domestic use. The energy of demand has been increasing tremendously all over the world science mid – nineteenth century due to rise in industrial and agricultural activities and was being met to a great extent by fossil fuels.

Three factors led the mankind to look for alternative renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, hydro etc. (1) there is a danger that the rate at which the non renewable sources of energies are being consumed presently may lead to a global shortage in the near future. This has already happen in case of oil. (2) Use of fossil fuel involves emission of toxic gases polluting the environment causing health hazards of living being. and (3) the demand and supply gas of energy is continuously widening, thus necessitating to exploit renewable sources of energy.

Out of various renewable energy sources, solar energy has been a promising one and lot of development has been taken in its technology for various uses. The numbers of technology engaged in developing solar energy for meaningful use are aiming to achieve the following objectives-

Definition of Utility
Utility is the ability of a good or service to satisfy human wants and needs in economics. It is an important concept as it represents the satisfaction experienced by a consumer from consuming a good or service
Utility characteristics
1. Measuring satisfaction, benefit, or happiness from a good or service is difficult.
2. Economists have devised ways to represent and measure utility in terms of economic choices that can be quantified.
3. Total Utility (TU): The aggregate sum of satisfaction or benefit gained from consuming a given amount of goods or services (e.g., drinking three glasses of water provides more satisfaction than just one).
4. Marginal Utility (MU): The additional satisfaction gained from each extra unit of consumption (e.g., the first glass of water gives maximum satisfaction compared to each additional glass).
5. Total utility usually increases as more goods are consumed.
6. Marginal utility typically decreases with each additional unit consumed, demonstrating the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility.

ABSTRACT

Of late, the importance of integrated study of multi-theme data is being realised in geological mapping and mineral exploration programmes. The usefulness of such a study lies in the fact that data integration and interpretation in a conjunctive mode enables to infer more information than the sets can separately provide. The present paper presents several case studies, illustrating the usefulness of multi-theme data integration in geological mapping and mineral exploration.

1. INTRODUCTION

Integrated study of multi-theme data is being practiced in the recent times in the geological mapping and mineral exploration campaigns. Such a study, in a synergetic fashion, helps to extract more meaningful information than from the study of individual datasets. It not only helps in deciphering regional geological picture, but also in the precise location of drilling targets, thereby yielding rich dividends for the expenditure incurred in the mapping and mineral investigations. Besides, the success ratio of the mineral investigations has also shown a significant increase, resulting in the discovery of more mineral

deposits. Hence the integration of multi-theme data is of paramount importance for the success of geological mapping and mineral investigations.

Introduction

Although the concept of IPM, with emphasis on minimum use of pesticides; is well established and widely practiced in India pest population still continue to be unabated, often reaching to alarming levels. Out breaks of Spodoptera litura and hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei have been recorded in soybean and kharif crops recently during 2002 & 2004 in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, respectively. Outbreaks of Helicoverpa armigera populations are well known, appearing more frequently since past few years (1987-88, 1995-96, 1997-98 & 2001) doing extensive damage in cotton and pulses. in many parts of the country. Failures in controlling these populations, even by most potent insecticides, have raised a serious doubt on the success of present day pest management practices aimed to kill the pest in immature larval / egg stage, when infestation spreads out in large areas. Insecticidal treatments require wide coverage of crop area to control them effectively. Insecticide resistance in pest species and destruction of natural enemies are obvious problems, since chemicals are applied indiscriminately to entire crop ecosystem including the non-target beneficial bicontrol species. How to minimize use of insecticide in pest control is often a question of major concern to the entomologists.

ABSTRACT

Spectral signatures are the specific combination of reflected and absorbed electromagnetic radiation at varying wavelengths which can uniquely identify an object. The “Spectral signature” of an object is a function of 1) incidental EM wavelength and material interaction with that section of the electromagnetic spectrum. The measurements can be made with various instruments, including a task specific spectrometer, although the most common method is separation of the Red, Green, Blue and Near Infrared portion of the EM spectrum as acquired by digital cameras. The spectral signatures serve as diagnostic tools in understanding the composition and structure of the materials. The present paper highlights the usefulness of the spectral signatures in rock and mineral discrimination and mineral exploration and stresses the need for creation of a spectral data base in India for various applications.

1. INTRODUCTION

Objects at the Earth's surface emit and reflect many wavelengths of radiation. In principle, each object has a unique spectral signature, which could be used for identification much like a finger print. Remotely sensed spectral signatures could be utilized for recognizing and mapping for all kinds of features. This can be done to a limited extent with conventional multispectral scanners that operate in a few broad bands of visible and infrared energy. However, broad spectral bands often do not distinguish between similar features. To overcome this limitation, a more sophisticated approach toward spectral signatures has arisen during the past few years. This approach is called image spectroscopy or hyperspectral analysis, which is based on scanning hundreds of closely spaced and very narrow spectral bands. With this technique, it is possible to create continuous spectral response curves, which may be used to identify many objects positively.

6.1. Concept of Utility
In the ordinary language, ‘utility’ means ‘usefulness’. In Economics, utility is defined as the power of a commodity or a service to satisfy a human want. Utility is a subjective or psychological concept. The same commodity or service gives different utilities to different people. For a vegetarian, mutton has no utility. Warm clothes have little utility for the people in hot countries. So utility is determined by the consumer and his need for the commodity.
Total Utility
Total Utility is denoted by the sum of utilities of all units of a commodity consumed. For example, if a consumer consumes ten biscuits, then the total utility is the sum of satisfaction of consuming all the ten biscuits.
Marginal Utility
Marginal Utility is the addition made to the total utility by consuming one more unit of a commodity. For example, if a consumer consumes 10 biscuits, the marginal utility of 10th unit is nothing but the total utility of 10 biscuits minus the total utility of 9 biscuits.
6.2. Law Of Diminishing Marginal Utility
The law of diminishing marginal utility explains an ordinary experience of a consumer. If a consumer takes more units of a commodity, the additional utility he derives from an extra unit of the commodity goes on falling. Thus, according to this law, the marginal utility decreases with the increase in the consumption of a commodity. When marginal utility decreases, the total utility increases at a diminishing rate.

In the realm of meat processing, waste is defined as the materials produced during the processing of meat and its byproducts that currently lack economic value and often lead to disposal expenses. This definition may vary depending on market dynamics. The waste generated in meat processing primarily consists of both solid and liquid elements. The solid waste includes manure and residual animal tissues such as meat and fat, while the liquid waste encompasses blood and other bodily fluids. Generally, small remnants of tissue and manure are combined with water and directed to sewage systems. In larger processing facilities, blood is collected and dehydrated for use as animal feed.
It is essential to effectively utilize animal farm residues, which include dung, droppings, and urine. Likewise, innovative approaches should be employed to make use of slaughterhouse waste, which consists of ruminal contents, blood, urine, and trimmings of meat and fat, in order to enhance their value. It is vital to discover comprehensive and inventive methods for utilizing all inedible animal parts. The proper management of slaughterhouse waste not only mitigates pollution but can also generate fuel for lighting and heating within the abattoir itself.
In rural and suburban areas of India, buffalo and cow dung are frequently dried into cakes and utilized as cooking fuel. Furthermore, dung compost contributes to the enhancement of soil humus and fertility, with approximately two-thirds of dung being used as fuel and one-third as fertilizer. Cow dung, which is abundant in organic matter and nitrogen, is also traditionally employed as a floor plaster. In certain regions, sheep owners receive compensation for allowing their flocks to graze on fields post-harvest, thereby improving soil fertility through their manure. Consequently, the organic waste produced by animal industries can be effectively harnessed in numerous ways.

Animal bristles are natural fibers derived from the hair or fur of various animals, mainly pigs and horses. Celebrated for their distinctive characteristics, these bristles have been employed for centuries across a range of uses. Bristles consist of stiff, wiry hairs from pigs, hogs, or boars, and are typically utilized in the manufacture of different types of brushes. They are predominantly harvested from the back, neck, and tail, as the hairs located on the flank and belly are too short for effective use. Pig bristles are characterized by their coarse, stiff texture and tapered shape, often featuring split or flagged tips. These flagged tips improve their efficiency in paint and varnish applications due to their capacity to retain paint effectively.
Shaving brushes crafted from soft bristles surpass synthetic options owing to their enhanced water absorption and retention abilities. In our nation, bristles are primarily obtained from local and crossbreed pigs. Indian bristles are noted  for their coarseness and durability, although their longer flagged tips (whichcan constitute up to 30% of their total length) necessitate trimming prior to use, potentially diminishing their overall value.
Bristles are harvested from live pigs or boars once or twice annually, as well as from slaughtered or deceased animals. In certain bacon processing facilities, bristles are also collected by shaving the skins of slaughtered animals postscalding. Those obtained from live pigs generally exhibit superior lustre and resilience compared to those from deceased animals.