eChapters

Q    :    Ubiquinone (coq).

Q    :    Every.

Q fever      :    An acute zoonotic disease caused by the rickettsia Coxiella burnetii.

In may cases, it becomes necessary to send the cells from one laboratory to another laboratory within or outside the country. The ideal method is to fill the flask containing cells at log/exponential phase with growth medium, tightly close the cap, seal it with parafilm and tape and pack it properly with polythene containing tissue paper and cotton. The tissue paper and cotton is used to soak the medium in case of accidental breakage. The polythene containing tissue culture flask having the adherent cell sheet should again be packed with thick paper. Finally, it is to be kept in a wooden/metal box or container.

Within a few weeks after November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen made the discovery of X-rays, they were being used in medicine and many sophisticated medical applications. This single discovery of X-rays revolutionized the entire medical field and developed into a separate discipline in the diagnostic and therapeutic applications in human beings and animals. On 10 December, 1901, Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize for Physics in recognition for discovery of X-rays. Radiography in veterinary practice may not always be used to arrive at a final diagnosis of the disorders. In the last few years, various types of X-ray scanners have been developed that allow highly detailed views of a particular section of the body. One type, known as a computerized tomography (CT) scanner, sends narrow beams of X- rays at various angles through a patient’s body. The information obtained from the X-rays is processed by a computer to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. The image shows much more detail than an ordinary X-ray picture. A section of the body can be studied in three dimensions by producing a series of adjacent cross-sectional images. Nevertheless, radiography remains a valuable modality in diagnostic purposes and has significantly extended the usefulness in medicine and research.

Handling

X-ray film is delicate and should not be handled carelessly or roughly. Avoid touching its surfaces, holding it as near the edges as possible with clean, dry hands. It is sensitive to maltreatment of any kind; heat and light adversely affect the emulsion. It can be handled safely and rapidly for all radiographic purposes as long as the X-ray specialist uses precaution to avoid the production of foreign marks (artifacts) on the film. 

Radiology has been an important diagnostic modality in exotic animals and birds (includes rodents, reptiles and fish). The radiographic equipment needed for radiography of exotic animals and birds is basically the same to that used for domestic animals. A high-milliamperage (mA) X-ray machine, having 200- or 300 mA unit is recommended to allow the use of a short exposure time (1/40 seconds) or less are preferred. Maximum kilovoltage (kVp, 40-75) is less important for avian and exotic radiography than for domestic animal radiography. As with other species, at least two radiographic views at 900 angles to each other are recommended. However, restraining and knowledge of radiographic anatomy of different species of exotic animals and birds are the prerequisite for the modality. Restrain and immobilization:

January Thaw : A period of mild weather, usually following a cold spell, which often occurs in late January in the eastern regions of North America, particularly around the Great Lakes region, New England and the Canadian Maritime Provinces. The thaw is associated with a strong flow of warm air northward from the Gulf of Mexico on southerly winds on the back of a high pressure system.

Jet Stream : A relatively narrow band of high-speed winds, generally greater than 50 knots (57 mph or 93 kmph), found in the upper troposphere above regions of strong horizontal temperature contrasts such as fronts. The major jet streams are the subtropical jet and the polar jet stream.

Joule : The unit of work or energy. In mechanical systems, this is the work done when a force of one Newton displaces the point of application by a distance of one metre in the direction of force. In electrical systems, a joule is the equivalent of moving one coulomb through a potential difference of one volt. One joule is equal to one watt per second

Katabatic Wind : Downslope gravitational flow of the colder, denser air beneath the warmer, lighter air results and comprises the katabatic wind. It is also known as the drainage wind or mountain wind.

Kelvin Temperature Scale : An absolute temperature scale in which the zero point is absolute zero. The scale is based upon the triple point of pure water and the size of the degree is same as on the celsius scale. So the 273.16 K = 0°C. That means the freezing point of water is 273.16 K and boiling point of water is 373.16 K, etc. This is more commonly called as the absolute.

Q₁₀ : The number of times the rate of a process (physical, chemical or physiological) increases with a 10^ºC increase in temperature. If the rate of the process is doubled Q₁₀ is 2. Q₁₀ for respiration is 2 to 3.

Quantum : Unit of energy emitted by a photon.

Quantum Flux Density : The number of quanta from a source, incident on a unit area of a small surface situated in a perpendicular direction.

Quantum Irradiance : The number of quanta from a source incident on a unit area of a surface. This differs from the ‘quantum flux density’ as far as direction is concerned.

Xlokk : The name of a hot, dry wind that blows regularly in Malta.
X-rays : The electromagnetic radiation in the wave length region below 100 angstroms.

Year : The time taken by the earth to revolve once in its orbit round the sun.

Yellow Snow : Snow which has a yellow or golden colour due to the presence of pine or cypress pollen in it.

Zenith : The point directly overhead on the celestial sphere.
 
Zenith Angle : The angle formed by the local line perpendicular to the surface on which the radiation falls, and the position of the Sun in the sky from which the incident ray falls. 

1.    Milking tube : It is used for milking the animal after udder or teat surgery. It can also be used for infusing intramammary medication through teat canal.
 
 2.    Teat plug : It is used to plug the teat in cases of leaky teats or trodden teats or following operation at teat sphincter. It can also be used for retaining medication in the teat canal.
 
 3.    Udder infusion tube : It is used for infusion of medication in the udder/teat.

 4.    Teat slitter with concealed blade : For cutting any growth inside the teat canal without injury to the teat.
 
 5.    Teat tumor extractor : It is used for removal of teat tumour or polyps from the teat canal. 

These instruments are used for surgery and need special care and attention for sterilization and storage.
 
    1.    Strabismus scissors : It is used for treating strabismus i.e. sectioning of affected muscle.
 
    2.    Me Guire corneal scissors : It is used for incising cornea
 
    3.    Graefe’s eye speculum : It is used for retraction of eyelids for examination of eye or for ophthalmic surgery.
 
    4.    Ziegler knife needle : It is used for separation of ocular tissues during ophthalmic surgery.
 
    5.    Iris hook : It is used for handling of Iris drug ophthalmic surgery.
 
    6.    Tenotomy scissors : It is used either for cutting the ocular ligament of eye or for removal of ocular sutures.
 
    7.    Dressing forceps : It is used for manipulation of eyelids, 3rd eye lid and other tissues of the eye.

    1.    Molar tooth cutter :  It is used to cut the extra sharp molar tooth in large animals (Fig. 7.1).

Catheters are hollow tubes made up of rubber, gum elastic, polyethylene or teflon or metal and are indicated.
 
    1.    To evacuate fluid from the body cavity.
 
    2.    To collect fluid sample from the hollow organ.
 
    3.    To administer medication inside a hollow organ.

General Description of An Animal
    1.    Age      
    2.    Sex                          
    3.    Body weight

The mode of action is the overall manner in which a herbicide affects a plant at the tissue or cellular level. The mode of action is the way in which the herbicide controls susceptible plants. It usually describes the biological process or enzyme in the plant that the herbicide interrupts, affecting normal plant growth and development. Herbicide may act on the life process of plant and dislodge the normal functioning of plants resulting in the death of plants. Herbicides  do damage of plants by inhibiting the biological process of plant as follows:

Abstract

Nutrition is basic to sustainable development being concerned with ensuring food at all times in terms of quality and quantity. As a bridge between food and health it interlinks several variables such as environment and protection from illness and disease, which helps to lead to an optimal quality life. Despite the substantial progress made in India’s food production, serious nutritional challenges continue to threaten her development in human resource development more so rural women are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition. Poor nutritional status of women during adolescence and their resultant vulnerability to anaemia during pregnancy contributes to a higher level of low birth weight children and if it happens to be girl child then the vicious cycle continues. Although food is available through markets at the district and village level, food security at the house hold level becomes a challenge because of lack of purchasing power. Women contribute significantly to agriculture production; on an average their contribution will be around 55-65 per cent. Hence, conscious effort is needed to develop an intervention strategy. One such strategy would be empowerment of women through transfer of technology, which will help in income generation especially during lean agriculture seasons. Priority areas in the field of nutrition for technology transfer would be processing, preservation and value addition of agro based crops. However, training is required for skill upgrading and capacity building of women.

Abstract

Although women were not recognized as essential components of Agriculture for a long time, of late due recognition has been given to the role of women in agricultural production and steps have been taken to bring more and more women farmers into main stream, through Shree Shakthi Sanghas and Self Help Groups for women. Special projects aided by outside agencies and voluntary organizations such as WYTEP, IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA etc. provide training to farm women.These operations include selection and treatment of seed, protection of the seed or plant material, land preparation, application of manures and fertilizers, sowing or planting, nursery raising, irrigation, weeding, earthing up, pinching or thinning, training and pruning top dressing, plant protection, harvesting, transport and post-harvest operations such as threshing, winnowing, sieving, cleaning, drying, grading, packing and storage, joining hands with men etc. They also do marketing and disposal of the produce. For household use they take care in hulling, flowering, pounding etc.

Abstract

Women become major players in creating sustainable livelihood in rural areas. Though they are the major work force compared to men in agriculture and allied areas, they are considered as invisible entity. Their contribution in total labour force itself is about 55 to 60 per cent. They play multiple roles both in and outside the home by ensuring food security and substantiating nutritional security to the family as a whole. Empowering these women with knowledge and skill to take up vocational income generating activities is prime need of the hour. Further, building their capacities on managerial skills, decision making, and technical competency is also equally important area of concern.

Abstract

Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities and play a major role in agrarian scenario. Majority of the rural farm women are actively involved in various operations related to mixed farming system existing in India. Women and men participate in agricultural and animal husbandry practices as a family unit on the farms. Men perform major share of work quantitatively on agriculture side, where as on the animal husbandry side most of the management operations are being carried out by women in addition to their household activities. Dairy production is less influenced by rain failure compared to crops and is invaluable in sustaining family income during drought. Dairy development is now considered as an important tool for rural development or poverty alleviation. In fact, dairy farming occupies a special place in rural society with its linkage with religion and culture apart from providing sustained income. Most of the cattle and buffaloes are commonly kept in every farm household primarily for socio-economic reasons and more importantly for gaining drought power and as a secondary source of nutrition subsistence in the form milk and milk products for the whole family. In this context, a study was conducted in Karkala taluk of Udupi district with the major objective of studying the form and extent of participation of farm women in various operations of animal husbandry. The attempt made in this regard has revealed that rural women are fully involved in majority of the operations either as manual workers or as supervisors. Hence, it is suggested that for massive empowerment of rural women, animal husbandry programmes need to be launched as they are inherently profitable.

Abstract

Entrepreneurial training was offered to village women in the field of agriculture especially for women members of Self Help Groups. These women were trained in the production, utilization and marketing of Bio dung compost and vermicompost from agricultural wastes. They were also trained in the production, utilization and marketing of vermiwash (a liquid foliar spray), Panchagavya, biopesticides and herbal pest repellents using locally available plant materials. An attempt was also made to educate the people on the importance of food and nutrition through diet counselling and the importance of nutrient (kitchen) gardens. They were trained about Circular (Ring) Gardens and Double Digging gardens. The women were given these trainings as part of converting them from dependence on chemicals in agriculture to organic farming. There was overwhelming response, and the women now use these agricultural products in their own fields.

Abstract

Formulation  of  any  action  plan for women needs understanding of their  access  to  and  control over the resources. To have deep  insight into  this  aspect, a study  was  undertaken with 240  small  and  marginal  farm  women  randomly  selected  from  eight  villages  of  four districts  in  Andhra Pradesh  in  consultation  with  officials of agriculture department. Using an interview schedule, impediments  for development  of  farm  women  (social, economic, psychological, extension and technical)  were  collected  and  prioritized  through  matrix ranking.
To  overcome  social  and  economic  constraints, gender  mainstreaming  and  budgeting  are  now recognized as the most important strategies  for  women’s empowerment at all stages of any developmental  programmes. Such an approach necessarily aims at achievement  of  gender equality. Organizing capacity building programmes in managerial, entrepreneurial, negotiating and leadership skills improves risk taking  ability (psychological) and enhances active participation of farm women in developmental activities.

Abstract

Major occupation of women in Bijapur area is agriculture with an average land holding of 1-2 ha. Most of them are unaware of advantages of vermicompost. In recent times, dependence on agriculture is becoming very difficult for them. Majority of the women population in these areas are below poverty line (BPL), because of increased cost of production, and fluctuations in market prices of major crops grown by them. Erratic and ill distributed rain fall pattern makes life hard for them. The ill effects of chemical fertilizers have lead to interest in organic farming through vermiculturing using farm and urban wastes in order to produce risk free crop at reduced cost of cultivation.

Abstract

Empowerment strategy is today emerging as a unique Indian response to the challenge of equality and development. As per the population census, women constitute more than 50 percent of total population, but rural farm women are the most deprived in today’s world.  Farm women are poorest among poor. Even though they work the longest hours on farm and have achieved more with lesser resources, they are not recognized and appreciated for their contribution. In India 78 percent of all economically active women are engaged in agriculture. Almost 50 percent of rural female workers are agricultural labourers and 37 percent are cultivators. The rural poor also demand development through creating income generating activities for women in rural areas. Women empowerment gained momentum after independence through different governmental programmes such as education, creating income, self help groups, subsidy programs to women etc. Women can derive income from subsidiary enterprises such as dairy, duckry, poultry, etc., and preparation of vermi-compost, vegetable cultivation, preparation of jam, jellies, papads, pickles, embroidery, tailoring, honey bee keeping, kitchen garden, value addition and food processing etc.

Abstract

Women emancipation, women liberation, women awareness, women upliftment, women empowerment, gender equity etc. are the buzz words our media cashes on. But the question remains: What has made us all to talk about her in 21st century? Unfortunate, but true that women, constituting one half of the total world population, have been treated as second class citizens and denied even the basic rights. Men have dominated her by neglecting her talent, capabilities and potential. Many measures were undertaken by the Government for the betterment of the women such as the creation of National Commission for Women, Parliamentary Committee on Empowerment of Women, Gender Budgeting besides creating many disciplines in various institutions/Universities for women studies and passing several   pro women laws to protect her rights. But this is not enough. What is needed is the freedom from disability of any kind lying in the minds of various sections of the society. A woman need not be pitied but given the due she deserves.

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

Abstract

The green revolution concentrated only on a single enterprise, the crop.  Later on, developments in other enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, etc took place, however in an isolated manner.  Now it is essential to diversify the economic activities in an interdependent and integrated manner at micro level within the available resources. The system thus developed will be termed as integrated farming system approach.  This helps in generating sustained, stable farm income and higher employment. To achieve these objectives, several extension programmers were designed and conducted in integrated farming system demonstration undertaken by the Extension Education Unit of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in close association with other subject matter specialists. The programmes were implemented in selected taluks of Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka. One such case study is presented here.

Abstract

Women play a pivotal role in agriculture, in addition to the traditional role of nourishing progeny as mother and attending to the day to day needs of the home as housewife. Women also add to the family income as wage earners. While comprising half of humanity, contributing to two thirds of the world’s work hours, a woman earns only one third of the total income and owns less than one tenth of the world’s resources.  In a country like India which is the home  for over 400 million women, the economic status of women is in pathetic condition and they have always been discriminated against men in human resource development with  utter disregard to their actual and potential contribution to the national progress in general and agricultural progress in particular. The largest sector of India’s economy, agriculture, contributes to 37 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) and accounts for 60 percent of the employment.

Abstract

Self Help Group (SHG) has emerged as a new paradigm for combating poverty and self help promotion has become one of the major developmental strategy in the country today. The self help groups are motivated to take up suitable micro entrepreneurship for income generation either individually or in groups, which is dependent on the resource availability and their skills. The empowered SHG women have started different small enterprises such as papad making, malt preparation, different value added products, and other agro based industries which has increased their income. In recent years agro processing and value addition to the farm produce have attained great socio economic significance. A massive thrust to food processing and other agro based industries will add value to the product there by increasing the income of farmers, create employment opportunities, diversify rural economy and foster rural industrialization.

Abstract

The total Indian population is 1027.01 millions of which women account for 495.73 millions (2001 census). Women constitute about 48.27 percent of the population. The labour force participation of the women is 51.6 percent. In rural India, agricultural and allied activities employ as much as 89.5 percent of the female labour. Women have an active role and extensive involvement in livestock production, forest resource use and fishery processing. They contribute considerably to household income through farm and non-farm activities as well as through landless agricultural labours. They are deprived of exposure to knowledge and hardly participate in the process of decision-making. Female agricultural labourers are the poorest section of Indian society. Despite the women’s role in agriculture there has been a lack of adequate attention towards gender issue in the area of agriculture research.

Abstract

Role of women in agriculture is a well-known fact and is unquestionable. The changing trend in agriculture technology, use of modern tools, and wider participation of community is crucial in making farming activity as an attractive field of employment. While most of the young and male population is shifting to urban areas for wage based non-agriculture activity, women have to bear the burden of agriculture in villages. The drudgery faced by women in farm activiies need to be reduced and value addition to the farm products is required at home  scale/community scale in the villages. Newer and economically viable systems need to be introduced at village level with ample scope for women to participate in these activities. Women should not only be partners in agriculture but they also should take lead in entrepreneurship and in value addition. Further marketing systems for the products need to be established. 

A case study was made in Geemarahalli village, Nanjangud taluk of Mysore district during 2009-10 to know the performance of women SHG involved in cultivation of tuberose.  JSS Krishi Vigyan Kendra which was started during 1994 analyzed the problems of farmwomen that they were unorganized in doing the field operations and were almost isolated in nature.  KVK initiated in formation of women SHGs in many villages and one of such village is Geemarahalli.  Ms. Rajamma was selected as group leader of the group and her contact with KVK was started since 1996 and still continued.  She is an innovative woman despite being illiterate.  Earlier she was doing tailoring and wire bag making. Later, she developed an interest to take up farming. She formed a Self Help Group called Triveni in her village which consists of 15 farmwomen.  In the beginning, they were involved in farm operations as contract workers.  During 2007-08, this group had come in contact with KVK and were imparted the training programmes on vermicompost production, horticulture nursery management, production of biological agents etc.  Later, the group came forward to learn the cultivation aspects of tuberose which has got good market at Mysore city.  To start this venture, the possession of land was the constraint for them and they overcome it by taking a 10 gunta land on lease basis. They were imparted series of trainings on tuberose cultivation at KVK. 

The objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the antibacterial properties of cyanobacterial species viz., Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, Nostoc punctiforme, Nostoc linckia, Nostoc commune, Spirulina platensis., Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. against some pathogenic species including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Salmonella typhi. The following are the major findings of the study.

    •    Extracts prepared in methanol were found more active as compared to ethyl acetate, hexane and dichloromethane.
 
    •    Antibacterial activity of extracts varied with the test organisms. Maximum antibacterial activity was shown against Staphylococcus aureus followed by Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi. Klebsiella pneumoniae was found to be least susceptible against all tested cyanobacterial extracts.

    •    Antibacterial activity was observed against both Gram-positive and a spectrum of Gram-negative bacteria by almost all the cyanobacterial species examined in the present study except Westiellopsis prolifica where activity was observed only against S. aureus, a Gram-positive bacterium.

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Disease    Prescribed test    Alternative test

India is fortunate in terms of natural wealth, which is manifested in its great plants diversity. Since time immemorial medicinal plants nature hidden and to a large extent unexplored treasure has been used virtual in all human cultures around the country. The wide spread use of herbal remedies and health care preparation from commonly used traditional herb and medicinal plants as those described in ancient texts such as Vedas, the Quran and the Bible have been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. Ancient people used plants as purgatives, sedatives, antitussives, and to alleviate a wide range of ailments such as fever and insanity. According to WHO, 3.5 billion people in developing countries use plant based medicines for their primary health care. WHO also indicates that over 30% of the world’s plants species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purpose.
 
The people of India have been using thousands of medicinal plants for curing various diseases suggesting that Ayurveda has been widely use to maintain human health. Ancient Indian medicinal heritage is based on 7000 plant species and about 8000 herbal remedies have been codified in the Ayurveda. Plants in Ayurveda have Sanskrit names the synonyms; each plant may have synonyms ranging from five to hundred.

Genus : Asimina 
Species : triloba (L.) Dunal
Family : Annonaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

Uses

The delicious pawpaw fruits are used as dessert. The red or brown streak wood is light in weight hence not used for furniture or allied work. On account of its handsome foliage, large leaves and attractive form, it provides additional attraction when planted in gardens.

Principle
If a sample of feed is heated and dried in a hot air oven at the temperature of boiling water (100°C ± 2°C), the water present in feed sample escapes as vapour. The loss in weight is considered as moisture and the residue is termed as dry matter (DM).

Requirement
    1.    Aluminium/steel moisture cup or Iron trey
    2.     Analytical balance
    3.     Dessicator
    4.     Hot air oven
    5.     Metal tongs
    6.     Spatula

Principle
Total ash is the inorganic residue which remains after a feed stuff is ignited to carbon free at 550-600oC in a muffle furnace. In other words, ash is that part of the material which does not disappear at 550-600ºC, while all the organic matter (OM) gets burnet.

Requirement
    1.    Analytical balance
    2.     Asbestos sheet
    3.     Dessicator
    4.     Heater /gas flame burner
    5.     Metal tongs
    6.     Muffle furnace
    7.     Silica basin/crucibles

Principle

The portion of the total ash which is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid is called acid insoluble ash (AlA) and it is the part of ash which is having unavailable mineral matter like silica and sand. Silica is the part of mature plant materials which are highly lignified or woody like straw, husk, stems and stalks, while sand inters in feeds by faulty handling in the fields or as an adulterant.

Equipment/glass wares
    1.    Asbestos sheet
    2.     Filter paper (Whatman No.1)
    3.    Funnel stand
    4.    Glass funnel
    5.     Glass rod
    6.     Hot plate/heater/Bunsen flame
    7.     Metal tongs
    8.     Silica basin (crucible)
    9.     Volumetric flask
    10.     Wash bottle with distilled water

Principle

Carbohydrates are divided into two groups i.e., crude fibre (CF) and nitrogen free extractives (NFE). The NFE comprises the sugars, starch and a large part of the material classed as hemicellulose.

The NFE is not determined by analytical procedures. This is calculated as the figure obtained when the sum of water, ash, protein, fat and crude fibre of a feed is subtracted from 100. Since the figure is determined by difference, it includes the cumulative errors of the other determinations and thus it is not an exact value.

Requirement

Following analysed volumes of a feedstuff are very much essential to derive the nitrogen free extractives of the same feedstuff.

Calculation
The nitrogen free extractives can be derived from the following formula:

Digestion trial requires feaces collection only but when we have to go for balance studies we have to collect urine also (in addition to the nutrient losses take place through milk in lactating animals) to find out the nutrient losses takes place through urine. As we have discussed in digestion trial also, male animals are usually preferred to perform these types of studies to obtain contamination free urine and feaces to find out clear picture.

Balance studies are usually performed to find out the balance of nitrogen (Nitrogen retention, NR) and minerals (Ca, P etc.) as urine is rich in these nutrients and hence for their balance we have to find out the losses takes place through urine.

It is very essential to know the nutritive value of common feedstuffs used in the diet of ruminants. On the basis of these values the nutrient requirements of ruminants may be fulfilled for different body functions like maintenance, growth, lactation, wool production or others. The nutritive value of various common feedstuffs used in the diet of ruminants is being presented in the table below:

Poor quality roughages includes the wheat straw, commonly fed to ruminants but unable to provide any DCP. Urea ammoniation method, not only improves the nutritive value of straw in terms of DCP and TDN, but it also improves the dry matter intake of animal by improving its palatability. In this method of urea ammoniation, one quintal of wheat straw is treated with 4 kg fertilizer grade urea (4%) by dissolving in 40 litre of water (moisture 40%). The dissolved urea is sprayed over several layers of wheat straw and mixed properly and then kept under airtight condition by covering it with polythene sheet for a period of 4 weeks. With the presence of enzyme urease the urea get broken down in to ammonia and carbon di oxide. This ammonia on one hand improves the nitrogen content of the straw and on another hand alkalinity (by ammonia and by ammonium hydroxide) reacts on the lingo-cellulosic bonds to loosen their strength. So by increasing the nitrogen content of the straw it increase the nutritive value of the straw in terms of increasing the DCP value of the straw and on another hand by reducing the bonds of lingo-cellulose it increase the digestibility of crude fiber and hence it also increase the energy (TDN) content of the straw.

A biological sample received in the laboratory should be processed as below:

Fresh Green Sample: During metabolism trial period it is always advisable to take a sample of fresh green fodder daily so as to  avoid chemical composition variation from place-to-place in a field. Take about two and half kilo sample from the bulk, cut the whole plant including the stem and stalks with a pair of scissors into small pieces and mix thoroughly. Weigh about 100g accurately in the aluminium tray 23156cm approximately for estimation of moisture. It is always recommended to weigh the sample immediately in the laboratory so as to avoid the losses of moisture.

The dry matter content of feed samples and other materials is expressed on three aspects as fed, partially dry, and dry.

As fed refers to the feed as it is consumed by the animal, the term as collected is used for materials which are not usually fed to the animal, that is, urine, faeces, etc. If the analysis on a sample is affected by partial drying the analyses are made on the as fed or as collected sample. Similar terms: Air dry, that is hay: as received: fresh; green and wet.

Partially dry, reports to a sample of “as fed” or “as collected” material that has been dried in an oven (usually with forced air) at a temperature usually about 60ºC of freeze-dried and has been equilibrated with the air; the sample after these processes would usually contain more than 88 percent dry matter (12 percent moisture); some materials are prepared in the way so that they may be sampled, chemically analysed and stored. This analysis is referred to as “partial dry matter” percent of “as fed” or “as collected” sample. The partially dry sample must be analysed for dry matter (determined in an oven at 105ºC) to correct subsequent chemical analyses of the samples to a “dry” basis. This analysis is referred to as “dry , percent of partial dry sample similar term - “Air dry” is also used.

True protein nitrogen is also termed a Albuminoid nitrogen in animal feeds and fodders and human foods. If material (Such as seeds, seed residue or oil cake) is rich in alkaline phosphates, 1-2 ml of 10 percent solution of potash alum is added to decompose them. If this is not done Cu3 (PO4) and free alkali may be formed and the protein-copper precipitate may partially dissolve in the alkaline liquid.

Introduction

As per statement of Dr. Henneberg of Weende Experiment Station (Göttingen, Germany) the carbohydrates are divided into two groups; crude fiber and nitrogen free extract. The nitrogen free extract, which  comprises the sugars, starch and a large part of the material classed as hemicellulose, is determined by difference. It is represented by the figure obtained when the sum of the water, ash, protein, fat and crude fiber of a feed is subtracted from 100. Since the figure is determined by difference instead of directly, it includes the cumulative errors of the other determinations and thus is not an exact value.

Principle

The residue remaining from the hemicellulose determination is digested with 72 percent sulphuric acid at room temperature. The lignin and acid insoluble  ash are retained in the filter crucible while the digested carbohydrate passes through. The lignin is separated from acid insoluble ash by ashing the residue.

Equipment

    1.    Acid digestion apparatus. A glass tray about 18 cm x 30 cm, 4 cm deep will hold twelve, 100 ml Griffen beakers. Another tray of the same size can be inverted over the beaker.
    2.    Filter crucibles. Same as described for cell wall determination.
    3.    Filtering apparatus. Same as described for cell wall determination.