eChapters

Improved Varieties of Tuber Vegetables

A. POTATO

Synonyms: Pearl's disease, scrofula

It is a chronic insidious contagious disease of man and animals caused by tubercle bacilli characterized by development of tubercles in lung tissue, lymph nodes or other organs resulting in caseation and calcification. The tubercles are frequently located in lungs and lymph nodes. But they may be formed in the liver, spleen, intestine, peritoneum, meninges and long bones. It is a zoonotic disease. Bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is considered as the serious epizootics of animals and humans. Bovine species are natural hosts to the disease, but a wide spectrum of domestic and wild animals, as well as man, can be infected. Animals reported as having been infected with M. bovis include North American bison (Bison bison), buffaloes (Syncerus caffer), elk (Cervus elaphus), domestic and wild pigs domestic (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), camels (Camelus bactrianus), dogs (Canis familiaris), cats (Fells catus), sheep (Ovis aries), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), badgers (Meles meles), mink (Lutreola vison), ferrets (Putorius furo) and non-human primates. All species are not equally susceptible, and are often grouped into spill-over (end) hosts and maintenance hosts. Cattle and other bovine species are considered the primary and most well-known reservoirs or maintenance hosts. In countries where maintenance hosts are present endemically in the wild, infection from these populations to domestic cattle or other farm animals is difficult to avoid. In Africa, bovine TB primarily affects cattle; however, infection in other farm and domestic animals, such as sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and cats, is not uncommon. Wild ruminants and carnivores are also affected and are the natural reservoirs of the infectious agent in the wild. Man is also susceptible to the disease, the highest risk groups being individuals with concomitant HIV/AIDS infection. In Africa, human TB is widely known to be caused by M. tuberculosis; however, an unknown proportion of cases are due to M. bovis. This infection in humans is underreported as a result of the diagnostic limitations of many laboratories in distinguishing M. bovis from M. tuberculosis. TB is a neglected public health problem and accounts for about 25% of all avoidable adult deaths in developing countries. It is of socio-economic significance, as it can affect international trade in animals and animal products. Many factors account for the failure of developing countries to control and eradicate bovine TB, many of them politico-economic. Added to the high costs of a sustainable testing programme are problems of social unrest due to political instability and ethnic wars, resulting in the displacement of large numbers of human and animal populations; lack of veterinary expertise and communication networks; insufficient collaboration with bordering countries and hence a lack of quarantine; and smuggling of live animals across state boundaries. Scarce human and financial resources are often absorbed by action against the high incidence of other acute and fatal diseases, such as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, foot and mouth disease, African and classical swine fever and parasitic diseases. The primary sources of infection for humans are consumption of unpasteurised milk and close association between humans and animals. Rural inhabitants and some urban dwellers in Africa still consume unpasteurised and soured milk potentially infected with M. bovis. Milk borne infection is the main cause of non-pulmonary TB in areas where bovine TB is common and uncontrolled.

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) commonly called as Rajanigandha produces waxy, white and fragrant flowers on long spikes which are mostly used as cut flowers for making garlands and extracting essential oil. Among the ornamental bulbous plants, it has great economic potential for cut flower trade and essential oil industry. The predominant characteristics of this crop are its lingering, delightful fragrance and excellent keeping quality.

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) belonging to family Amaryllidaceae is half hardy, perennial, bulbous plant. Bulbs are made of scales and leaf bases and stem remains concealed within scales. The generic name Polianthes is derived from Greek word “polios” meaning shining or white and “anthos” meaning flower, in allusion to the blooms of the common tuberose and species tuberosa, the plant being tuberous in nature. Tuberose is commercially cultivated in tropical and sub tropical areas for cut and loose flower trade and also for the extraction of it’s highly valued natural flower oil.

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) belonging to family Amaryllidaceae is half hardy, perennial, bulbous plant. Bulbs are made of scales and leaf bases and stem remains concealed within scales. The generic name Polianthes is derived from Greek word “polios” meaning shining or white and “anthos” meaning flower, in allusion to the blooms of the common tuberose and species tuberosa, the plant being tuberous in nature. Tuberose is commercially cultivated in tropical and sub tropical areas for cut and loose flower trade and also for the extraction of it’s highly valued natural flower oil.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Tuberose is a native of Mexico (Bailey, 1976) from where it spread to different parts of world during 16^th century. The name tuberose is derived from tuberosa, this plant being the tuberous hyacinth as distinguished from the bulbous hyacinth. The name therefore, is tuber-ose, not tuberose. By the middle of the 18^th century the tuberose was still referred for as Hyacinthus indicus tuberosus. Originally Linnaeus had used the name Polianthes floribus alternis in his Hortus Cliffortianus. Later it was grouped under the genus Polianthes and the species tuberosa.

Tuberose is cultivated on large scale in China, Egypt, France, Italy, Israel, South Africa, New Zealand, Spain, Sri Lanka, North Carolina, USA and in many tropical and subtropical countries.

In India tuberose is commonly known as Gulchari and Gulshabbo in Hindi, Rajanigandha in Bengali, Sukandaraji and Nelasampengi in Telegu, Nilasampangi in Tamil and as Sugandharaja in Kannada.

In India its commercial cultivations is confined to Bagnen, Midnapur, Krishnanagar, Ranaghat, Kolaghat and Pariskura in West Bengal, Guwahati and Jorhat in Assam, Pune, Thane, Sangli, Nasik and Ahmednagar in Maharastra, Udaipur, Ajmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan, Navsari and Valsad in Gujrat, Ambala, Gurgaon and Faridabad in Haryana, Ludhiana and Patiala in Punjab, Devanahalli, Tumkur, Kolar, Belgaum and Mysore in Karnataka, East Godavari, Guntur, Chitoor and Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Growers of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Orissa are also concentrating in tuberose cultivation after evolvement of improved varieties namely Shringar, Suvasini, Prajwal and Vaibhav by Indian breeders (Singh, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

Among the important ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. In the orient, where ‘white’ goes for virtue and purity, tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in bowls and vases. They remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation and fill a useful place in the flower market.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes; in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

Abstract: Tuberose, native of Mexico, occupies prominent position due to long spikes of fragrant flowers, potential in perfume industry and nearly year round growth in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Flowers are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and cut flowers for table decoration. Flowers remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation. Lack of genetic diversity in flower type, size, colour, self incompatibility, sterility, low seed set and limited information on genetics of characters pose significant challenges to breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf plant type, novel colours, attractive forms for pot culture/ bedding purpose intense fragrance and high essential oil content. Only two white flowered cvs. Single and Double types are cultivated for commercial production. Salient breeding achievements through planned hybridization and mutation breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Polianthes, cultivars, interspecific/ intervarietal hybridization, transgressive segregants, gamma rays.

Introduction

Among ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. Tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in vases.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes, in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

Tuberose is an important half-hardy, perennial bulbous flowering plant. It belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family and having basic chromosome number (n=30). It is one of the important cut flower among the top ten cut flowers due to its beauty, elegance and sweet pleasant fragrance (Sadhu and Bose, 1973). It is cultivated for its long lasting spike as cut flower as well as loose flower purpose. Tuberose also known as Rajanigandha in Bengali, Gulchari and Galshabbo in Hindi, Sukandaraji and Nelasanpengi in Telegu, Nilasompangi in Tamil and Sugandharaja in Kannada. It is suitable under protected cultivation as well as open field condition (Brundell and Steenstra 1985). It has a huge economic potential and more demand for cut-flower purpose (Usman, 2013) and essential oil industry (Singh, 1995). Due to its immense export potential, cultivation of tuberose is gaining momentum day by day in our country.

Origin and distribution

Tuberose is cultivated all over the world and it is originated from Mexico. Tuberose is commercially producing in various countries such as India, China, Bangladesh, Mexico, Kenya, Italy, France, Morocco, USA, Hawaii and South Africa. In India, it is commercial growing in West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and North Eastern part of India. At present scenery tuberose is cultivation in India 7. 95 lakh hectare and cut flowers is estimated to be 27.71 ‘000 MT and loose flowers1560.70 lakh (Anonymous, 2013).

Tuberose is an important bulbous flower crop valued for its fragrant flowers and use as both cut and loose flowers. This chapter presents its origin, taxonomy, botanical characteristics, varieties and commercial significance. It explains bulb selection and storage, climate, soil, planting time, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and crop operations. Major pests and diseases, harvesting stages, grading, postharvest treatment, storage and yield are described in detail. Commercial planting recommendations and quality standards are included to assist growers in achieving high spike production. The chapter provides an integrated approach to profitable tuberose production under different agro-climatic conditions in India.

Tuberose is a highly fragrant perennial bulbous flower crop with major importance in Indian loose flower production, perfumery and floral decoration. Single-flowered types are particularly important for loose flower production, while other forms are used for ornamental and cut flower purposes. The chapter discusses its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially important varieties. It explains climate and soil requirements, bulb and bulblet propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Important pests and diseases and their management are presented systematically. The chapter also covers flowering, harvesting, postharvest handling, storage and yield, providing a complete production package for commercial tuberose cultivation and value-added fragrance industries.

How many of us really know the value of Tulasi? All that we think is that it is a sacred plant and used only for worship in the Hindu temples and at home. Almost all devout Indians cannot think beyond this. But, Tulasi is an exceptionally valuable plant inasmuch as human nutrition is concerned, when it comes to its seeds. Let us examine the details below. It is a cost-effective substitute for eggs in cake baking, breads and biscuits, just a spoonful of Tulasi seeds is enough for a fluffy cake batter. Tulasi seeds are called Sabja in northern India and are used in , put in tea, to treat sore throat and running nose. Tulasi herb comes under the genus Ocimum. Its botanical name is Ocimum sanctum belongs to the family Labiatae. The word “sanctum” means sacred. The genus Ocimum has over 150 species spread across the world. In Tulasi we have both Rama Tulasi and Krishna Tulasi, which are sacred for use in temples and homes. Ocimum basilicum (also from the genus Ocimum like Tulasi) as it isa prolific seed producer. the seeds have become very popular among health conscious people. The small black seeds (see picture enclosed) become mucilaginous (gain a gelatinous consistency) when soaked in water and consumed, are said to help reduce body weight, help patients suffering from constipation and acidity, and also manage diabetes. Rich in in dietary fiber such as the polysaccharides glucomannan and xylan which make one feel satiated after a long time. An investigation published in the science journal Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre of May 2021 issue establishes that the fiber accounts for 98.50% of this mucilage. The hydrated seeds do not have a strong flavor or taste, they can be easily added to smoothies (sweet milk/fruit based drinks), fruit juices and milkshakes. They have been used as a replacement for fats in sponge cakes by researchers of the department of Food and Nutrition, Korea University in Seol. In a 2017 investigation reported in the Italian Journal of Food Science, the researchers report that 1 gram of seeds can replace 15 grams of butter.

Tulip cut flower is first among the bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is a member of Liliaceae family, commonly grown from bulbs. The name tulip is derived from the Persian word “toliban” meaning “turban”, which is an appropriate term to describe the flower shape of certain tulips. The mother bulb dies and is replaced by several daughter bulbs, each of which is an annual unit of growth borne in the axils of the mother bulb scale. Tulips are basically grown for three purposes i.e. bulb production, forcing as cut flower and potted plant and for landscaping (Singh, 2006). The world tulip flower industry is dominated by the Netherlands. Another important tulip producing country is France.

Tulip cut flower is first among the bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is a member of Liliaceae family, commonly grown from bulbs. The name tulip is derived from the Persian word “toliban” meaning “turban”, which is an appropriate term to describe the flower shape of certain tulips. The mother bulb dies and is replaced by several daughter bulbs, each of which is an annual unit of growth borne in the axils of the mother bulb scale. Tulips are basically grown for three purposes i.e. bulb production, forcing as cut flower and potted plant and for landscaping (Singh, 2006). The world tulip flower industry is dominated by the Netherlands. Another important tulip producing country is France.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The primary gene centre of the genus Tulipa is located in the Pamir Alai and Tien Shan mountain ranges of central Asia. Diversification in this region, resulting in a distribution from Morocco to Western Europe and eastward to Western China. A second gene centre has been found in the Caucasus (Hoog, 1973). However, Bailey (1963) reported that the tulip is native of Siberia, Turkey, Asia Minor, China, Japan and Mediterranean countries of Europe, the species are particularly abundant in central Asia, in the Bokhara region.

Tulips were first seen in Turkey. The vast majority of species occurs in central and western Asia in the countries such as Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, Kazakhistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Georgia. East of this center of distribution, the range of a couple species extends into northern India and far western China but on limited basis. One species of tulip i.e. Tulipa stellata is found wild in the mid and high hills of Himachal Pradesh and T. aitchisonii is native of Himalaya. There are around a hundred species of Tulipa originated from Turkey to the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains in Asia, which have been used for breeding purposes. In fact, a small number of species can be found in the wild in Europe and those are all restricted to southern parts, primarily in the Mediterranean region as far west as Portugal. There is not a single species of tulip native to Holland, the country frequently associated with these colourful and well known flowers.

Records show that tulips were in cultivation in Turkey as early as 1000 A.D. In 1578, first tulip appeared in England. Carolus Clusius planted the first tulip in 1593 in the botanical garden in Leiden (The Netherlands). The tulips appear in France in 1598. During 1600-1650 tulip become an exclusive garden plant and it was planted in strategic places in various gardens. Commercial cultivation of tulip started during 1600 in South Haarlem. The famous first parrot tulip was described in 1630. The famous tulip firm namely Voorhelm was established in 1650 in the Haarlem. An inventory of 126 different tulips was released in 1661. The bulbs of tulip had been sold to the U.S. from Holland as early as the eighteenth century. During nineteenth century, several hybrids were developed and cultivable area expanded largely. A fragrant variety Prins van Ooslenrijk and a double early tulip Murillo were developed in 1860. The worldwide popular Darwin tulip group was introduced in 1889. The first classified list of the tulip name including cultivation practices and flower management was released during 1914-1915. The most of the modern tulip complex is based on T. gesneriana with some important hybrids with species tulip. There are approximately 100 of these wild or species of tulips that occur naturally in the world and several thousands of distinctly different hybrids, selection and mutants that are gracing gardens and becoming remunerative to the growers around the world. In India its cultivation is limited to amateur gardeners of hilly areas in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Srinagar, Kangra, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, Shimla, etc. are most suitable areas. Tulip cultivation can be extended in new areas like hills of Uttarakhand in India.

INTRODUCTION

Tulips are one of the most popular and widely grown flowering plant. Tulip is a main stay of spring gardens providing abundant flowers in vivid and vibrant spectrum and colours. It is first among bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is the national flower of Turkey and tulip motifs feature prominently in Turkish folk arts. The first European cultivation of the tulips as a garden flower occurred in the Netherlands in sixteenth century. In the following century, the early enthusiasm for the new flowers triggered a speculative frenzy now known as tulipomania. The Netherlands and tulips are still associated with one other. Tulip festivals are held in the Netherlands and in North America every May. A number of bewitching cultivars grown to perfection in a large variety of delicate and brilliant shades have developed tulip cultivation into a great bulb growing industry. Tulips are not only widely cultivated for cut flower production world wide but also grown for pot culture, in beds, borders, formal and informal location. They are also suitable for growing in orchards, lawns, rockeries and wild gardens.

The word tulip industry is dominated by the Dutch tulip growers. There is 10,000 hectare of tulip bulbs grown in the Netherlands. About 70 per cent of tulip bulbs cultivated are for forcing for flowers with 30 per cent for pre packs for gardens. The world market for bulbs has been buoyant for the past ten years. Production has been increasing at the rate of 6-8 per cent per annum and the market has expanded in line with this growth. In the Netherlands, three quarters of the total bulbs produced are exported, with the highest percentage going to the United State followed by Germany. In India, tulips are gaining popularity among the flower growers owing to congenial climate in hilly areas. Particularly in Kashmir valley, production of cut flower is increasing. Some area has been increased in Himachal Pradesh. It can also be grown successfully in other hilly parts of the country like Uttaranchal between 1300 to 3000 metre above mean sea level.

Abstract: Tulip (Tulipa) is ornamental bulbous plant cultivated for cut flower, potted plant, garden plant and for landscaping. Species from different sections display complementary agronomic characteristics. The main goals of breeding are introgression of resistance against diseases, short forcing period, flower longevity, new flower colours and flower shapes. Long juvenile phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding cycle, knowledge of mode of inheritance, reproductive and germination barriers pose significant challenges to breeders. The use of molecular cytogenetic tools, methods to overcome crossing barriers, polyploidization, biotechnological tools and marker assisted breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Geophyte, monocot, genomic analysis, interspecific hybridization, intergenomic recombination, gene transfer, forcing, tulipa.

Introduction
Basil/Tulsi is a popular name given to any aromatic herb that belongs to genus Ocimum and family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). The word ‘basil’ was derived from Greek word ‘Basilica’ which means the royal plant. It comprises over 160 species spread over the tropical, sub-tropical, and warmer part of temperate regions of both the hemisphere ranging from sea level to 2000 m height with their diversity met in West Africa. Tropical Africa has maximum diversity with 59 species, followed by sub-tropical region of South Africa with 19 species and India with 9 species only.
 

22.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of herbs

• Native to India

• Wide distribution covering entire Indian sub-continent up to 1800m in Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Ocimum tenuiflorum (Ocimum sanctum) - Holy basil

• Ocimum basilicum (2n=48) - Culinary or ornamental basil

22.2. Economic importance

• Have a religious attachment and grown in shrines and homes as an aromatic perennial shrub.

• Part of routine worship and scientific background as antimicrobial and antiviral properties and purifies the air.

A tumor is said to be an abnormal growth of cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. A cell has a particular life span;when it dies a new cell is generated. In normal condition, this system is regulated through cell cycle and cell division but at the time of any abnormality this growth mechanism is totally disturbed and failed. These cells give rise to clone of the cells and eventually produce tumor.

A tumor or neoplasm is an abnormal growth of the cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. 

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs) ?
Ans.     Some antigens present on the surface of malignant cells are unique to the cancerous cells and are not present on their normal counterparts. They are called tumour specific transplantation antigens (TSTAs) or tumour specific antigens (TSAs).

Q.2.     What are tumour associated antigens (TAAs) ?
Ans.    Some antigens present on the tumour cells that are not different qualitatively from those found on normal cells but are overexpressed and present in increased number on the cancer cells as products of cellular oncogenes. They are called tumour associated antigens (TAAs). Ex the high level of a growth factor receptor due

Introduction

The hot arid region of the country is spread over nearly 31.7 million hectare land area in different states. The major part of hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62mha) followed by North-western Gujarat (2.16mha). The major natural constraints in arid vegetable production comprise of very low and variable rainfall (100-450mm), very high potential evapo-transpiration rate, intense solar radiation (320-619/cm²/day), high wind velocity (20km/hr), high infiltration (9cm/hr), extremes of temperature (0 to 48^ºC), low relative humidity, high soil salinity, very deep ground water, etc. These bio-physical constraints reduce the productivity of cucurbits many fold. Despite  several constraints, the hot arid areas of western Rajasthan offers very good opportunity for cultivation of cucurbits like, watermelon, muskmelon, longmelon, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, tinda, summer squash, cucumber, etc.

Introduction

Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts of the world of which 20% is arid and rest is semi-arid. Hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha area and mainly confined in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. The major part of hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 mha) followed by North-western Gujarat (2.16 mha). It is characterized by high aridity index, extremes of temperature low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storm, high soil pH, high infiltration rate, very limited availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water (More, 2010). Under such harsh climatic conditions cultivation of vegetable crops in open condition results in very low and poor-quality yield which fetches less return per unit area. By creating the suitable micro-climate for plant growth round the year cultivation of vegetables can be done under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country (Singh and Sirohi, 2004). It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world next only to China. Presently India has 178.17 million tonnes of total vegetable production, but the productivity and quality of most of the vegetable crops is very poor (17.40 t/ ha) due to several biotic and abiotic stresses due to open field cultivation. In Rajasthan, the total production of vegetables is very less i.e. only 1.81 million tonnes from an area of 0.17 m ha with a productivity of 10.66 t/ ha.

The Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world, of which 20% is arid and the rest is semi-arid. A hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha and confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana. The major part of the hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 million ha), followed by north-western Gujarat (2.16 million ha). It is characterized by a high aridity index, extremes of temperature, low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storms, high soil pH, a high infiltration rate, and minimal availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water. Under such harsh climatic conditions, cultivating vegetable crops in open conditions results in meager and poor-quality yield, which fetches less return per unit area. By creating a suitable microclimate for plant growth throughout the year, vegetables can be cultivated under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation, which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country. It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the world’s second-largest producer of vegetables, next only to China.

7.1 Tuple Introduction

A tuple is a collection which is order and unchangeable. In python tuples are written with round brackets. Tuples in python are very similar to list which contains different types of elements with the following major differences.

It is declared as

tuple1=(1,2,3,“ram”,“shyam”)

Program implementation import timeit

listtime=timeit.timeit(stmt=“[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]”,number=1000000)

tupletime=timeit.timeit(stmt=“(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)”,number=1000000)

print(?List takes time:”, listtime)

print(?Tuple takes time:”, tupletime)

The decreased ability of water to transmit light which is caused by suspended particulate matter ranging in size from colloidal to coarse dispersions is refers as turbidity.
Principle
Turbidity is measured by its effect on the transmission of light, which is termed as Turbidimetry or by its effect on the scattering of light, which is termed as Nephelometry. Turbidimeter can be used for sample with moderate turbidity and Nephelometer for samples with low Turbidity. Higher the intensity of scattered light higher the turbidity.
1 mg SiO2/L = 1 unit of turbidity

I. General information

1. Cool season turf grasses are Perennial rye grass, Creeping bent grass, Colonial bent grass, Kentucky blue grass, Canada blue grass, Poa spp, Festuca spp, Agrostis spp, Lolium spp
2. Warm season turf grasses (25-35^oC) are Cynodon sp, Zoysia sp, Stenotaphrum secundatum, Paspalum notatum, Eremochloa ophiuroides, Axonopus sp, Pennisetum clandestinum, Buchloe dactyloides
3. Broad leafed turf grasses are Arachis pintoi, Dichondra repens
4. Based on mowing height, turf grasses are classified into tall, medium & dwarf
5. Turf grasses which needs high mowing height of>3.5 cm are Tall fescue, sheep fescue, Canada blue grass, fine fescue, wheat grass, orchard grass
6. Turf grasses which requires medium mowing height of d” 3.5 to 1.0 cm are perennial rye grass, Kentucky blue grass, Buffalo grass, etc.,
7. Turf grasses which requires low mowing height of d” 1.0 cm are colonial bent grass, creeping bent grass, Annual blue grass
8. Turf grasses are classified based on their recuperative capacity into fast, medium & slow

Turf is an English word, which traces its origin to India from the Sanskrit word “Darbha” means “tuft of grass” or “Kusha” in hindi. Kusha has been mentioned numerous ties even in Hind mythologies (Turgeon, 1985). Turf, is a grass which is smooth, has quality texture and a soothing colour surface that is used in the golf courses, lawns, fields, nurseries, gardens, etc. Turf is a piece of earth of about 5 cm thickness with grass thickly grown over it. Turfgrass has become increasingly important in today’s society as people’s needs increase for recreation, comfort and aesthetics. Turfgrasses are considered as major component of landscape industry which provides aesthetic value. They provide arena for various functional, recreational and social activities.

Turfgrasses enhance the appearance of land and increase the utility of sports fields, lawns, parks, golf courses and other greenbelt areas in and around urban as well as sub urban centres. They improve the environment of urban centres by reducing erosion, temperatures, noise, dust and glare. And, turfgrasses improve the safety of sports fields and playgrounds by adding resiliency to the playing surface. Turfgrasses are increasingly being used by National Highway Authority of India for reducing dust pollution and decreasing vehicle glare by planting on central verge and sides. Only turfgrasses are used by airport authorities for planting besides runway. The grasses being of perennial nature also help in carbon sequestration thus helping combat climate change. The grasses which grow well on sandy soil will help to reduce the dust and control erosion and dust pollution on river banks.

The turfgrass industry is growing rapidly due to strong demand for residential and commercial property development, rising affluence, and the environmental and aesthetic benefits of turfgrass in the urban landscape. Increased area under aesthetic and utility turfs is mainly because of increasing awareness about the sports, degrading environment and the increase in real estate value. The economic value of the turfgrass industry in India is yet to be determined as there is no single government agency handling or collecting the authentic data on turfgrass cover, use or import. All the agencies dealing with turfgrasses are either private companies, nurseries or corporates. But, according to the scarce data gathered by golf associations, sports experts and Association of Indian Nurserymen, turfgrass industry covers an area of more than 30000 acres, in which around 6000 acre is under turfgrass cultivation (sod production). States leading in turfgrass cultivation and marketing are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, etc. The total number of international cricket grounds in India are 50 and 8 are under construction, more than 520 domestic cricket grounds and athletic fields are also in operation. Indian turfgrass industry is growing around 10 per cent annually. Landscape business contributes 2-3 per cent of total construction and turf has 50 per cent of landscape business.

1. Introduction

A lawn is an indispensable feature of a landscape with a sizeable proportion of space relative to other garden features. It is regarded as the heart of a garden that enhances the beauty of a landscape providing both functional and aesthetic utility. A well maintained lawn at a residential, public or institutional places can be used both for active and passive recreation. It enhance the beauty of surroundings and contribute to real estate value. The turf industry is being viewed as an integrated sector of ornamental horticulture in the developed countries like USA, Australia, China, Netherland, UK, Japan and Denmark. Globally, the turf grass industry has employed skilled workforce for maintaining more than 700,000 athletic fields and over 17,000 golf courses, with an annual worth of $ 20 million each year (Aldous and Chivers, 2002).

Introduction

Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) domestication occurred in Central Meso America at least 2000 years ago from wild turkey. Domestic turkey is a popular and it is raised throughout the world. Commercial industrial farming has made it very economical for the amount of meat produced. Commercial turkey farming is a profitable business. Turkey grows faster like broiler chicken and become suitable for slaughter purpose within a very short time. Turkey farming for meat production is very popular than egg production. Turkey farming is similar to other poultry farming like chicken, duck, quails etc. Turkey is a very social with human; and raising it is really very fun and enjoyable.

Turkey farming is a big business in U.S. and some other western countries. It is almost non-existent in India. America is leading producer (55%) and after that >France>U. K.>Netherland. It is one of the white meat choices famous for its leanness and delicacy. In India, small flocks reared in C.A.R.I., Haryana Agriculture University, Bangalore University, Kerala Veterinary University.

1) Leaf Spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves.
• Large number of spots may be found on a single leaf and as the disease advances, spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf blade.
• Severly affected plants dry and wilt.
• Black dots acervuli formed in concentric rings on spot.The grey centres become thin and get teared(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

Structure of turmeric process

Boiling

• Boiling figures in water in copper vessels/galvanized iron/earthen vessels
• If water is acidic then add NaCO₃
• Stopped boiling when froth starts coming out and white fume appears
• Then dried in the sun for 10-15 days till they become hard and brittle

Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of livestock in India. The major growth promoters used in broiler diets in the past were antibiotics, which have been found helpful in improvement of growth performance and feed conversion ratio in poultry (Miles et al., 2006). However, constant supplementation of antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in poultry feed led to residual effects in poultry products and usage of antibiotics in sub-therapeutic concentrations resulted in development of antibiotic resistant bacteria (Diaz et al., 2015) which represent a public health hazard.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South and South East Asia, from there it is spread to Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Pacific Islands

6.2. Economic importance

• Used as condiments.

• Rhizomes are boiled in water, dried, ground into a deep orange yellow powder and used as a colouring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for dyeing.

• Has a warm, bitter, black pepper like flavor and earthy, mustard like aroma.

• Yellow color is due to curcumin (3-9%)

• Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

• Protect against heart disease

• May prevent cancer

• Ease symptoms of osteoarthritis

• Treat or prevent diabetes

• Treating depression

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa Koenig non L.) is an important spice, a native of India and South East Asia. Chikarmane et al. (2003) by analyzing historical patterns of movement of South Asian and Southeast Asian people known to have used turmeric suggested that turmeric was introduced into Southeast Asia via Indian colonization in the early Christian centuries. An increase in colonization events from South India during this time was because of discoveries in navigational science and desires to expand civilizations, rather than military conquests. The cultural expansion from South India supports the introduction of turmeric cultivation to Southeast Asia via human means. These human migratory patterns are compared to a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data within Curcuma, and suggested that key locations such as the Isthmus of Kra were important not only to human movement but to species evolution in Curcuma (Chikarmane et al., 2003).

The symptom appears as numerous, circular, light yellow to dark yellow spots on both the surfaces of leaves but is more prominent on the upper surface. The spot may coalesce to form large, irregular patches and soon entire leaf turns yellow and dries. Affected leaves appear as reddish-brown in colour. Excessive spotting destroys green tissues and becomes weak and yield reduced drastically

English name : Turmeric
Botanical name : Curcuma longa L.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 3x= 63
Centre of origin : South East Asia
Turmeric of commerce is the dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa. Cured turmeric contains 5.8% moisture, 8.6% protein, 8.9% fat, 63.0% carbohydrates, 6.9% fibre, 6.8% mineral matter, 0.2% calcium, 0.26% phosphorus, 0.05% iron, 0.01% sodium, 2.5% potassium, 175 IU of vitamin A per 100 g, 0.09 mg of vitamin B1, 0.19 mg of vitamin B2, 49.8 mg of vitamin C, and 4.8 mg of niacin. It provides a calorific value of 390 calories per 100 g. The primary colouring agent in turmeric is curcumin. It is a significant spice, particularly in rice-based cuisines. Curry powder typically contains about 24% turmeric combined with coriander, cumin, cardamom, fenugreek, chillies, ginger, pepper, and dill seeds.

Turnip is the root vegetable cultivated in cooler season or temperate regions of the globe. Brassica rapa L 2n = 2x = 20 is formerly known as B. campastris subsp rapifera. Swede (B. napus var. napobrassica) is directly related to turnip.
Origin: It is originated in cooler part of Europe, presumably from biennial oilseed forms. It was known to Greeks and Romans at beginning of Christian era. It was introduced to Britain from France by Romans and into North America by the early European settlers in the 17th century.

Operculina turpethum (OT) Silva Manso, also known as Tihudi/Trivrit due to its triangular stem, is an Ayurvedic herb from India that belongs to the Convolvulaceae family. Indian Jalap/Turpeth root in English, Nisoth/Turpeth/ Panila/Pithori in Hindi, Trivrit in Sanskrit, Tegada in Telugu, Trikolpakkonna/ Triputa/Sivata in Malayalam, Sigade in Kannada, and Kumbham/Sivatai in Tamil are some of the other names for it. It grows up to 1000 square feet on Indian roadsides and is occasionally cultivated as an adornment in gardens.

Morphological characteristics

The crop is a fragrant perennial creeper with a basic stem that might be triangular or rectangular. The leaves are many and oval in shape, measuring 2 to 5 inches in length. It consists of cylindrical pieces of root and stem, 1.5-15 cm long x 1-5 cm diameter, with the central woody portion removed by splitting the bark on one side, external surface longitudinally furrowed giving the drug a rope-like appearance, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty, taste bland at first, then slightly acrid, fracture short in bark and fibrous in wood, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty. The root portions are cylindrical, twisted, and a dull grey tint on the outside. The flower arrangement is 1 to 4 inches long and includes three to four branches with white blooms. Fruit is round ½ or ¾ inch in diameter, it bears 4 shiny 2 inch long seeds. The plant bears fruits and flowers from March to December.

19.1 Python Turtle Graphics

Turtle is a special feathers of Python. Using Turtle, we can easily draw in a drawing board.

First we import the turtle module. Then create a window, next we create turtle object and using turtle method we can draw in the drawing board.

19.2 Some Turtle Method

Example

from turtle import *

t = Turtle() #object in python

wn=Screen()

wn.title(?my first graphic”)

wn.bgcolor(?yellow”) #color filling in window

t.shape(?turtle”) #turtle shape given

t.color(?red”, “green”)

Abstract

Complex industrial wastewater by using conventional treatment method is a significant challenge for its safe disposal. Recently, two step treatments by aerobic bacteria using activated sludge process followed by rhizofiltration has been recommended as a promising technology for detoxification of complex industrial waste. In activated sludge process recalcitrant compounds are biotransformed along with biodegradation of organic waste. Aerobic treatment may be activated sludge process, trickling filter or aerobic lagoon process, which one is used for treatment  it is based upon the characteristics of wastewater. Carbon and nitrogen ratio along with other organic compound is also play important role for microbial growth and degradation of pollutants. During degradation of various pollutants, metal microbes interaction play significant role for its bioremediation either through adsorption or bioaccumulation.

• In most insects, life begins as an independent egg (ovipary).

• Majority of insects are oviparous. Egg stage is inconspicuous, inexpensive and inactive. Yolk contained in the egg supports the embryonic development.

• Eggs are laid under conditions where the food is available for feeding of the future young ones.

• Production of eggs by the female’s body is called oogenesis and the egg laying process is known as oviposition.

• The outer protective shell of the egg is called chorion. Near the anterior end of the egg, there is a small opening called micropyle which allows the sperm entry for fertilization. Chorion may have a variety of textures.

• Size and shape of the insect eggs vary widely.

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and devices connected to each other. The network allows computers to communicate with each other and share resources and information. The Advance Research Projects Agency (ARPA) designed “Advanced Research Projects Agency Network” (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defence. It was the first computer network in the world in late 1960’s and early 1970’s

There is only one type of scientific research and that is to solve a real problem or to understand the universe and provide a solution –either with the experiments or by putting a hypothesis. However, we have classified the research in various types as per our comfort. But for the employed researchers, it may be a matter of concern if they are working on time bound research schemes as their services may be co-terminus with the project and they may face the problem of un-employment, after termination of the scheme. According to the scholars’ activities and type of research being carried out in the country, we can discuss the subject under following topics.

Crops are grown in soil. There are different types of soil. The soil type helps farmers decide what crops will grow best because some crops do better with particular types of soil. Testing the soil helps determine what nutrients are available or unavailable for growing certain crops. Farmers usually have local agricultural experts test the soil on their land for information on how to proceed in growing crops. The best soil has a balance of nutrients, such as potassium, magnesium, and others. Certain crops may need more of one nutrient, so farmers put back those ingredients into the soil for better crops.

Six different types of soil are listed below along with the crops which do well in these soils.

1.Loam: This type of soil helps grow the best possible crops because it provides the necessary elements for plant growth and development. Loamy sand contains mostly sand plus clay and silt. Such soils are good for root vegetables, such as carrots, radish, turnip, beets, leafy vegetables, potatoes and tomatoes.

2.Clay: Cabbage and broccoli grow well in clay soil, but it is not good for root vegetables because of its dense texture which does not allow free flow of water.

3.Sand: Root vegetables, such as turnips, parsnips, and carrots, grow well in sandy soil.

4.Silt: Silty soil is fertile and offers nutrients for plant development. Lettuce, cabbage, carrots, turnips, and many other vegetables flourish in silt. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries do well.

5.Peat: Peaty soil provides plant growth when mixed with rich organic matter, lime, and compost that reduces its acidity. Legumes, root crops, cabbage, and spinach are easily grown in soil that’s well-drained.

6.Chalk: Sweet corn, beets, spinach, and cabbage are among the vegetables that benefit from chalkier soil. It is recommended that farmers use fertilizers and balance the pH levels to deal with the alkaline that can sometimes stunt growth.

16.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the definition of plastic, its types and characteristics. For each type of plastic, its molecular structure, properties, advantages and disadvantages and applications are presented.
16.1.1 Origin of Plastic
Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanization, a process that increased rubber’s elasticity and resilience, in 1839, which resulted with the discovery of plastic. One of the earliest known polymer combinations was the creation of Charles Goodyear. Celluloid, or Parkesine was discovered in 1855 by Alexander Parkes. This substance is a blend of cellulose nitrate and camphor/lime. Additionally, it was the first thermoplastic to become rigid when cold and flexible when heated. In the years that followed, several noteworthy discoveries were made, such as the separation of PVC in 1835 by the French physicist Victor Regnault, the invention of the first synthetic polymer (or industrial plastic) in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, and the introduction of transparent food packaging in 1900 by Edward Brandenberger.
16.1.2 Plastic and its Constituents
Plastic is a class of materials that is utilised in electronics, construction, medical equipment, packaging, etc., because of its extreme versatility. This synthetic or semi-synthetic material can be moulded using a variety of methods. It is created from petrochemicals or natural materials like cellulose or starch. The basic components are chemically altered to create polymers, which are lengthy sequences of molecules. Then, these polymers can be moulded using blow, extrusion, or injection moulding techniques to create a variety of shapes. Another name for some plastics is resins. Based on their chemical makeup, plastics can be divided into two primary categories, viz. thermoplastic and thermoset/ thermosetting plastic. The thermoplastics can be moulded, melted, and remoulded repeatedly. Thermoset/ thermosetting plastic cannot be heated again. Polymers come in a variety of forms, both synthetic and natural. Among the materials most frequently used in the creation of plastic are coal, natural gas, cellulose, starch, crude oil, and salt. Plastics are mostly made by two processes that call for certain

Introduction

Green house is a structure in which external climatic factors can be controlled for cultivation and protection of crops. It has mainly two parts. (a)  a frame or the basic structure and (b) the cladding or covering material (U.V. film) Frame can be made of G.I. pipes, bamboos, woods or iron rods while the cover can be of glass or plastic films. In India the technology is primarily used. Greenhouse technology is more suited to vegetables crops (such as tomato, cauliflower, capsicum, cucumber, leafy vegetables etc.), and flowers (like rose, gerbera, carnation, etc).  This technology is mainly suitable for commercial farming, as it requires investment in setting up the entire framework.  Based on cooling systems of the greenhouse, it can be classified as naturally ventilated and fan-pad type greenhouse.