eBook Chapters

4.1. Coconut

• Coconut water is a refreshing drinks which also hygienic and nutritive.

• White flesh is a calorie rich extensively used for cookery in South India.

• From grated wet coconut kernel, good quality oil as well as protein and carbohydrate can be extracted to prepare coconut honey.

• Undesirable flavour changes in desiccated coconut are due to oxidative rancidity of the oil.

• Residual cake after the oil extraction is used as cattle food.

• Dried coconut meat is known as copra and is the source of coconut oil, which is used in enormous quantities for making fats for baking and confectionery.

• An important product used in the chocolate and confectionery industry is desiccated coconut.

• Nut is removed from hard shell and thin brown rind pared off.

Aerides

Aerides consists of more than 60 species. These are monopodial epiphytic orchids grown on trunks or branches of trees.  The stems are round, leafy and branched with aerial roots. The strap leaves are thick, leathery and bilobed. The inflorescence is auxillary and drooping. The flowers are many and 2cm in diameter closely set on the inflorescence and generally fragrant.

• Aromatic food substances, which enhance flavour are classified into spices.

• Spices are usually dried roots, barks and seeds used whole or crushed, powdered.

• Spices add a glorious touch to food with its flavour and fragrance.

• Spices add flavour, colour to food and make the food palatable.

• Stimulates salivation and acid secretion of digestive enzymes like amylase.

• Has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.

• Reduces cholesterol levels useful in preventing heart diseases.

• Kerala is considered as the land of spices.

3.1. Different types of spices and their use

• All spice or Pimento

? A small berry, size of the pea dried to a dark brown colour.

? Flavouring component is a volatile oil present at 3 -4% levels containing eugenol and other closely related phenols.

2.1. Tomato

2.1.1. Tomato paste

Steps in tomato paste preparation

Step 1 : Tomato juice (strained)
Cooking to desired consistency (Kettle/vacuum pan)

Step 2 : Judging the end point for puree or paste (Tomato solids by hand refractometer or reduction in volume by measuring stick)

Step 3 : Filling hot into bottles or canes (82-88°C)

Step 4 : Pasteurization in boiling water for 20 minutes

Step 5 : Cooling

Step 6 : Storage at ambient temperature

Step 7 : Packing and storage

2.1.2. Tomato sauce / ketchup

• It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar, with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12 per cent tomato solids and 25 per cent total solids.

Abstract

30 lines were selected from 864 germplasm lines for good biscuit making attributes on the basis of low protein content (<10.5%) and low sedimentation value (<40cc). These lines were further screened by actual baking test and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) test keeping the standard prescribed for biscuit making qualities viz., low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC and larger diameter with larger spread ratio of biscuit. AWRC had significant negative correlation with biscuit spread ratio. Positive significant correlation was found between biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. On the basis of above findings, it may be recommended that low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC may be used as criteria for better biscuit making i.e. increase biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. So wheat-breeding programme has opened up new opportunities for the end use quality product and wheat based food industry. Hence there is an urgent need for qualitative analysis of desired traits in wheat towards enhanced value addition and thereby an attempted has been made to identify suitable genotypes possessing good biscuit making attributes

Abstract

A survey was conducted in five different villages of Kangra district (HP) namely Padhiarkhar, Lachoon, Avery, Saliana and Patti. Thirty families from each village were selected. A sample of 650 subjects of different age groups was surveyed to assess their food and nutrient intake. It was observed that the food and nutrient intake was less as compared with the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA). To meet the RDA of the vulnerable section of the society some of the energy rich recipes were prepared under All India Coordinated Research Project in Home Science. The recipes prepared were weaning mix (salty), Weaning mix (sweet), Papad, Shakerpare, Mathri, Pinni, Amaranth ladoo, Methi ladoo and Panjiri. These products were organoleplically acceptable. No fat content was found in the papad but it contained good amount of the vitamin C i.e. 70mg/100g. Maximum fat content was found in the panjiri (39.3g/100g). Protein content ranged between 0.78-5.64g/100g, minimum in panjiri and maximum in weaning mix (salty).

1. Introduction

Spices play an important role in human life since time immemorial. Mainly in India, it is not only important as dietary or health product but few spices also have its religious significance. India is being not only largest producer and consumer but exporter of spices also and hence having potential to enhance the economic value of spices. According to Union Minister for Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare, Spices production in the country grew from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes around 2020-21 having annual increase of 7.90%, along with increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectares to 45.28 lakh hectares. With this increase in production and increasing demand of spices because of their health benefits, spices do have economic benefits and farmers can earn better through it.

Abstract

Self Help Group (SHG) has emerged as a new paradigm for combating poverty and self help promotion has become one of the major developmental strategy in the country today. The self help groups are motivated to take up suitable micro entrepreneurship for income generation either individually or in groups, which is dependent on the resource availability and their skills. The empowered SHG women have started different small enterprises such as papad making, malt preparation, different value added products, and other agro based industries which has increased their income. In recent years agro processing and value addition to the farm produce have attained great socio economic significance. A massive thrust to food processing and other agro based industries will add value to the product there by increasing the income of farmers, create employment opportunities, diversify rural economy and foster rural industrialization.

Value chain analysis and its management is a strategic planning tool used in analyzing the value chain of a company or sector or a product. Initially, it was used to assess the process of a company or single unit. Then, it was visualized as a holistic and integrated framework in upgrading the activities of companies as a whole with the coordinating efforts of the various units or sub-systems. It is useful in improving the existing system or through introducing a new component in the system.

Value chain

The word ‘value chain’ was first introduced by Michael porter in his book ‘Comparative Advantage’ during 1985. Value chain is defined as “the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the input of various producer services), delivery to final customers, and final disposal after use”.

Value chain comprises of full range of activities required to bring a product or service from the stage of conception, production and distribution to consumers (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2001). The study on value chain is intended to achieve comparative advantage through cost minimization and attaining consumer satisfaction. It is the preliminary step in the mapping of market (FAO, 2006).The value chain can be analyzed using Value Chain Analysis (VCA) through either quantitative or qualitative tools or both.

14.1 What is Education

Education is a systematic attempt towards human learning. All learning is subjective and self related. It is neither literacy nor information. Knowledge can never be learned. Knowledge is the fruit of experience and experience is the sensation of the individual. Individual experience is the internal function and is the function of awareness and understanding. And, one of the processes of knowledge and raising awareness is to be able to identify and clarify our values. Now values in education are essential to help each one of us directly so that we may order our relationships to the environment that lies outside us. Once we are clear about values, we shall be better able to shift and control information of the natural world, make wise choices and decisions, and be creative in our mental processes.

5.1 Introduction
One of the main methods for cost avoidance and prevention is value engineering/ value analysis. “Society of American Value Engineers (SAVE)” states that value Analysis is the systematic use of known procedures which determine the function of a product or service, define a monetary value for the function, and provide the essential function reliably at the lowest overall cost. If these are applied to a new product, it is called value engineering. By analysing the function of any product, material part, component, system, or service, it is possible to find extraneous expenditures connected with them and effectively remove them without compromising the product’s quality, functional dependability, or ability to provide services. The principles and steps of value analysis/ value engineering will supplement the effort of design thinking.
5.2 Symptoms for Introducing Value Analysis (VA)
If one or more of the following symptoms exist, starting a VA programme is expected to yield very positive effects.
i. Sales of the company’s products are declining.
ii. The prices of the products of the company are greater than those of the products of its rivals.

1. Introduction

Underutilized vegetables are essential to the lives of the poor in rural and urban areas, as they provide poverty reduction and environmental sustainability for healthy societies. Traditionally, underutilized vegetables have been known to play an important role in the nutrition of rural communities, especially during droughts, famines and the dry season. Some of these undeveloped resources have been domesticated, but most are still wild and worthless. The potential of these underutilized vegetables has been overlooked as modern agriculture has progressed. These vegetables are also called by different names including minor crops, orphan crops, neglected species, Underused Vegetables, under developed vegetables, local traditional, alternative vegetables and also promising species. Underutilized species have a lot of genetic variety, and they’re tied to a lot of indigenous knowledge. 

Introduction

Marketing sector via value addition has gained momentum with the rapidly growing flora industry. It is the ultimate way to rescue the flowers from the huge postharvest losses. Value addition in form of floral craft increases the economic value and consumer appeal of floricultural commodities and serving as a linkage between growers and consumers, it directly emphasizes the utility of flowers and a necessity for marketing of flowers. Other forms of value addition in flowers like essential oils, tinting, flower-drying, natural dye, art of floral arrangements are gaining momentum and popularising in our country as well.

Introduction

According to the definition provided by Merriam-Webster, the potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a starchy, tuberous herbaceous annual that only lasts for one growing season and is a member of the Solanaceae family. The potato, also known as the king of vegetables, is grown for its edible tubers and is the fourth largest food crop in the world after maize, wheat, and rice. It is a staple food in many parts of the world and accounts for about 2% of the world’s dietary energy supply (“Potato Pro,” 2020). It was thought that the domestication of the potato began in southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC, which is roughly 7,500–10,000 years ago (Spooner et al. 2005). Potatoes range in size, shape, color, starch content and flavor.

The concept of value, expressible in the metric units by which the character is  measured. The value observed when the character is measured on an individual is the phenotypic value of that individual. All observations of means, variance, or covariances, must clearly be based on measurements of phenotypic values. In order to analyse the genetic properties of the population we have to divide the phenotypic value into two componants. 
The first division of phenotypic value is into components attributable to the influence of genotypic and environment. The genotype is the particular assemblage of genes possessed by the individual, and the environment is all the non-genetic circumstances under the term ‘environment’ means that the genotype and the environment are by definition the only determinants of phenotypic value. The two components of value associated with genotypic value and the environmental deviation. 

The concept of value, expressible in the metric units by which the character is measured. The value observed when the character is measured on an individual is the phenotypic value of that individual. All observations of means, variance, or covariances, must clearly be based on measurements of phenotypic values. In order to analyse the genetic properties of the population we have to divide the phenotypic value into two componants.
The first division of phenotypic value is into components attributable to the influence of genotypic and environment. The genotype is the particular assemblage of genes possessed by the individual, and the environment is all the non-genetic circumstances under the term ‘environment’ means that the genotype and the environment are by definition the only determinants of phenotypic value. The two components of value associated with genotypic value and the environmental deviation.
The mean environmental deviation in the population as a whole is taken to be zero. So that the mean phenotypic value is equal to the mean genotypic value. The term population mean than refers equally to phenotypic or to genotypic values. When dealing with successive generations we shall assume for simplicity that environment remains constant from generation to generation so that the population mean is constant in the absence of genetic change. If we replicate thea particular genotype in a number of individuals and measure them under environment conditions normal for the population, their mean environmental deviations would be zero and their mean phenotypic value would congiguently be equal to the genotypic value of that particular genotype.
In principle it is measurable, but in practice it is not, except when we are concerned with a single locus where the genotypes are phenotypically distinguishable or with the genotypes represented in highly inbred lines for example, considering a single locus with two alleles. A1 and A2, we call the genotypic value of one homozygote + a, that of the other homozygote – a and that of the heterozygote d (we shall adopt

Vanda is a genus in the orchid belongs to family Orchidaceae. The name Vanda is derived from the Sanskrit name for the species Vanda tessellate. The name Vandas will be used here to cover all vandaceous orchids including Vanda, Ascocentum, Aerides, Renanthera, Rhynchostylis, etc. and hybrids between them. Although there are some vandaceous orchids that originate in mountainous areas most are low-level plants that love warm temperatures. This has contributed much to the work of hybridists producing flowers for the cut flower market. It is one of the five most horticulturally important orchid genera because it has some of the most magnificent flowers to be found in the entire orchid family. It is highly prized in horticulture for its showy, fragrant, long lasting and intensely colourful flowers.

Vanda is a genus in the orchid belongs to family Orchidaceae. The name Vanda is derived from the Sanskrit name for the species Vanda tessellate. The name Vandas will be used here to cover all vandaceous orchids including Vanda, Ascocentum, Aerides, Renanthera, Rhynchostylis, etc. and hybrids between them. Although there are some vandaceous orchids that originate in mountainous areas most are low-level plants that love warm temperatures. This has contributed much to the work of hybridists producing flowers for the cut flower market. It is one of the five most horticulturally important orchid genera because it has some of the most magnificent flowers to be found in the entire orchid family. It is highly prized in horticulture for its showy, fragrant, long lasting and intensely colourful flowers.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Vanda was discovered in 1613 by Alvin Semedo, who called it ‘tiao hua’ or ‘air plant’. It is originated from the warm islands of the South Pacific. Places like Malaysia, Thailand, Borneo and the Philippines are natural home to these orchid species. These are mostly epiphytic but sometimes lithophytic or terrestrial orchids. These orchids were distributed in India, Himalaya, S.E. Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, southern China and northern Australia. About 7 species of Vanda exist in the forest of Nagaland (Changkija et al., 1992). These species are described in Table 1.

Notch signalling is an evolutionary conserved pathway that allows cell communication through cell-to-cell interactions. Besides its established role in embryonic development, recent reports have shown its involvement in different infections and inflammations of different body systems including cardiovascular system. Sepsis, a systemic inflammatory response syndrome against microbial infection, causes multiple organ failure resulting in death worldwide in human and animals. Vascular hyporeactivity and reduced peripheral resistance is considered to be the leading cause of death in sepsis. Though Notch signalling has been studied especially in macrophages during inflammation including endotoxaemia, its role in vascular beds in sepsis is yet to be explored. Thus, present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of sepsis on aortic Notch signalling and its involvement in regulating vascular functions during late phage of sepsis. Sepsis was induced by caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) in mice and thoracic aorta was collected for mRNA expression, western blot and immune-histochemical (IHC) study. Functional study on isolated aortic rings from different groups was also performed to assess the vascular reactivity to different vasoconstrictors.

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Atlantic Coast from Mexico to Brazil.

• Vanilla comes from orchids of the genus vanilla.

• Originally came from Mesoamerica, including parts of modern day Mexico and Guatemala.

• Major vanilla producing countries are Java, Mauritius Tahiti, Seychelles, Madagascar, Indonesia, Mexico, Cameroon and Reunion.

• Madagascar and Indonesia produce two thirds of the world’s supply of vanilla.

• In India, vanilla cultivation is gaining importance in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu since early 1990s.

11.2. Economic importance

• Second most expensive spice after saffron

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Vanilla is one of the most popular and widely used flavour materials in the world and it is the most expensive spice traded in the global market after Saffron (Crocus sativus L). The major consumers of vanilla beans currently are the developed countries with the US, France and Germany absorbing about 80 per cent of the world imports. Among them, the US imports 50-60 per cent while the latter 10-15 per cent each. They are also main re-exporters of both vanilla beans and processed products. The total area under vanilla cultivation in the world during 2002 was 38,066 ha with the production of around 4956 metric tones and increased to 76,440 ha with a production of 10, 360 tons during 2005 (FAO, 2007). The major vanilla producing countries are Madagascar, Comoros, Indonesia, Mexico and Reunion (Table 1). Area under vanilla in India during 2002-03 was 2545 ha with the production of 92 tonnes. (Spices Board, 2003) and increased to 5370 ha with a production of 196 tonnes during 2004-05.

English name : Vanilla
Botanical name : Vanilla fragrans (Salisb)
Family : Orchidaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =32
Centre of origin : Mexico
Orchid (Vanilla fragrans Salisb Syn. V. Planifolia Andrews) is an orchid belonging to the family Orchidaceae. Vanilla is cultivated primarily for its beans, which are prized for their sweet scent, rich aroma, and delightful flavour. As the most expensive spice, vanilla serves as the primary source of vanillin, a key ingredient used to flavour a variety of products such as ice cream, chocolate, beverages, cakes, custards, and other confectioneries. It is also widely utilized in the perfume industry and in its medicinal applications. Vanilla beans contain natural vanillin (1.3-3.8%), resins, fats, glucose, fructose, 26 volatile constituents, 144 additional volatile compounds, and moisture. “Vanilla sugar,” derived from these beans, is crucial in chocolate production. The curing process is essential for producing vanillin, the primary aromatic compound.

Abstract

The present studies were undertaken in selfed and open pollinated seedlings of 11 cultivars namely Belrubi, Blackmore, Catskill, Chandler, Fairfax,  Fern, Pajaro, Seascape, Selva, Tioga and Torrey during the years 2001 to 2003.  The days taken to 50%  flowering varied  from 43 to 64 days, flower number from 11.8 to 22.4 and pollen viability from 77.5 to 85.2%. The pollen germination was highest in 20% sucrose solution +  5 ppm boric acid in all the progenies.  The fruit length varied from 27.8 mm to 35.5 mm, breadth 21.3 to 27.9 mm, fruit weight 8.8 to 12.2 g, fruit firmness 0.23 to 0.33 lbs force, number of achenes per fruit 176.9 to 297.9, pedicel length 6.4 to 9.5 cm, TSS 8.1 to 12.3^ºB, titratable acidity 0.58 to 1.24%, total sugars 5.1 to 7.3, reducing  sugars 4.8 to 6.8% and non-reducing sugars from 0.50 to 1.11%.  Fruit development period  varied from 32.8 to 53.6 days, total number of fruits per plant 7.2 to 17.9, fruit yield per plant 27.4 to 57.3 g and fruit yield per plot from 0.77 to 1.40 Kg in different progenies.

1. Introduction

Spices are a high-value, low-volume commodity traded around the world. Spices have played a significant part in civilisation, exploration, and commerce throughout history. Since ancient times, India has been known as the spice capital of the world, with over a hundred different types of spices grown. India has long been a traditional producer, consumer, and exporter of spices, with nearly every state producing one or more of them. India has a total area under spice production of 39,27,430 ha, which produced 95,99,900 MT in 2017-18. (Spices Board, 2020a). Due to their rich aroma, texture, and flavour, Indian spices are in high demand around the world.

Introduction

Soil is a dynamic natural body, characterized by high degree of spatial variability due to combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes that operate with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Reports have shown that there is large variability in soil properties, crop yield, disease, weed etc., not only in large-sized fields (Godwin and Miller 2003,Vrindts et al. 2005), but also in small-sized fields (Bhattacharya et al. 2008). Therefore, knowledge of hydro-physical properties of soils is crucial for management practices for all kinds of agricultural practices for efficient utilization of input resources. Plant growth and development is highly related to soil hydro-physical properties, which not only depend on soil intrinsic textural and chemical characteristics (Hamza and Anderson 2005) but also on soil management.

Soil physical properties which change with the variation in soil structure include bulk density, total porosity, pore geometry (size distribution, shape, continuity and tortuosity), penetration resistance and aggregate stability, consequently affecting soil hydraulic properties such as water retention characteristics, plant available water capacity, infiltration capacity and saturated hydraulic conductivity. These soil properties are dependent on seasonal climatic conditions, management practices, crop development and biological activity (Reynolds et al. 2007). The hydro-physical properties of soils, i.e., water retention and water permeability in both saturated and unsaturated zones not only shape soil water balance but also decide the conditions for plant growth, development and yield. They also determine water availability for the plant root system and the transfer of water with chemical compounds dissolved in it into deeper layers.

Knowledge on genetic variability of the available population is very essential for any crop improvement programme, as it will positively enhance the efficiency of selection. The variability in quantitative characters increase considerably by treating the biological materials with different mutagenic agents. It is possible to identify mutants for different characteristics which can be useful in further programme. Variability is measured by different statistics viz., phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic co-efficient of variation (GCV). GCV would be more useful for the assessment of inherent variability as it exhibits the heritable portion only.

Abstract

Considerable variation for different metric and non-metric characters was observed in seedling population of Pistachionut. The variation for non-metric characters was observed for precocity in flowering, colour of the kernel, shelling and splitting percentage. The studies have resulted in the identification of two pistillate and three staminate trees with desirable traits which can be exploited in breeding programme or used as elite planting material.

Abstract

Ten genotypes of Cenchrus ciliaris L. were evaluated for seed yield and its components under arid environment prevailing at Jodhpur. The genotypes were grown (using seeds) during July 2010 and three cuts of fodder were taken up to November, thereafter allowed to produce seeds. Fodder of re-growth was finally harvested in June 2011 after seed collection. Analysis of variance showed significant variation among the genotypes for all the characters studied, viz.

Minisatellite is a section of DNA that consists of a short series of bases 10– 60bp. These occur at more than 1000 locations in the human genome. Some minisatellites contain a central (or “core”) sequence of letters “GGGCAGGANG” (where N can be any base) or more generally a strand bias with purines (Adenosine (A) and Guanine (G)) on one strand and pyrimidines (Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)) on the other. It has been proposed that this sequence per se encourages chromosomes to swap DNA. In alternative models, it is the presence of a neighbouring cis-acting meiotic double-strand break hotspot which is the primary cause of minisatellite repeat copy number variations. Somatic changes are suggested to result from replication difficulties (which might include replication slippage, among other phenomena). When such events occur, mistakes are made, this causes minisatellites at over 1000 locations in a persons genome to have slightly different numbers of repeats, thereby making them unique. The most highly mutable minisatellite locus described so far is CEB1 (D2S90) described by Vergnaud.

Variable is any character or attribute of the given object/set of objects which varies from object to object or from one point of time to another point of time. For example height of individuals is a variable; it varies from person to person.  Kerlinger (1973) defined variable as a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.

Importance of variables: In previous sections, we discussed about formulating the research problem and development of research hypothesis. Variables are the building blocks of any scientific research problem and research hypothesis. When we consider a hypothesis to be relational hypothesis, we mean that it make claims about relationship between two or more variables. When we test hypothesis, as such we do not test the hypothesis, rather we test the significance of hypothesised relationship between two or more variables. Since variables play central role in observation, measurement and testing of relationship, it is of prime importance to understand the meaning of variables, different types and the way we define these variables.

Biometrical Genetics - Historical Background

It is a science built on the principles of Mendelian genetics and the way in which the genetic factors influence the statistical properties of traits in families and populations. The roots of biometrical genetics go back to Gregor Mendel, who first demonstrated the existence of the hereditary factors and to Francis Galton who first applied statistical methods to study biological inheritance. Galton introduced the concepts of regression and correlation for studying the continuous variation in humans, but was not aware of the principles of genetics discovered by Mendel. Galton, Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon together started the journal Biometrika in 1901, with the aim of promoting the statistical studies in biological phenomena. The differences of opinion persisted between the Biometricians and Mendelians in the early 20th Century. In 1918 Ronald A. Fisher published a landmark paper ‘The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance, in which he showed the two seemingly contradictory approaches could be reconciled in terms of a simple biometrical genetic model. Ronald A. Fisher’s paper laid the foundation for the discipline of Biometrical Genetics.

Foundation

a) Mendelian Inheritance

Mendel proposed three principles based on his work and now known as Mendel’s laws of inheritance

• Law of uniformity: if two homozygote parents of different alleles cross together, all offspring must have the same genotype

• Law of segregation: an individual receives with the equal probability one of the two genes from the genotype of the mother and similarly from that of the father.

• Law of independent assortment: the segregation of the genes for one trait is independent of the segregation of genes for other traits in the formation of reproductive cells

In association studies, the law of segregation is the basis for the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT). The possible violation of law of independent assortment forms the basis of the gene mapping technique, linkage analysis. These principles are used to check the quality of parent-offspring genetic data. Mendelian principles though developed for dichotomous traits, they can be applied to the inheritance of traits influenced by multiple genes and are fundamental to genetic analysis.

The amount of variation is measured and expressed as the variance. When values are expressed as deviations from the population mean the variance is simple the mean of the squared values. For example, the genotypic variance is the variance of genotypic values and the environmental variance is the variance of environmental deviations. The total variance is the phenotypic variance of the variance of phenotypic values, and is the sum of the separate components. 

Variation in Chromosome Structure

Natural variation exists in chromosome structure

Changes in chromosome structure include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations

The loss of genetic material in a deletion tends to be detrimental to an organism

Duplications tend to be less harmful than deletions

Duplications provide additional material for gene evolution, sometimes leading to the formation of gene families

Copy number variation is relatively common among members of the same species

Comparative genomic hybridization is used to detect chromosome deletions and duplications

Inversions often occur without phenotypic consequences

Inversion heterozygotes may produce abnormal chromosomes due to crossing over

Translocations involve exchanges between different chromosomes

Individuals with reciprocal translocations may produce abnormal gametes due to the segregation of chromosomes

Introduction

Understanding the variation in grain protein content is the pre-requisite of its improvement in modern rice varieties. The measure of quantitative and qualitative aspects of grain storage protein content includes estimation of soluble and total grain protein, quantifying various fractions, viz. glutelins, prolamins, globulins and albumins and their profiling through SDS-Page and  estimation of amino acid. As traditional chemical methods for protein content determination are destructive in nature. All these estimates comprehensively give insight into the diversity of storage protein in rice germplasm. The standard procedures followed for all these estimates are briefly stated in the  following sections.

Estimation of Total Grain Protein Content in Rice

The total protein is estimated via estimation of total N through the Kjeldahl method whereas soluble protein is estimated through Lowry method, Dumas method and Bradford method. But for estimation of large number of genotypes all these processes are tedious, time-consuming, and costly. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), as a non-destructive detection technique, can achieve rapid quantitative determination of protein contents and become an important development direction to replace traditional chemical detection methods.

INTRODUCTION

Variability in different organisms is common feature and is an important process for the continuity of life under stress conditions. Plant pathogens especially fungi, bacteria, virus and nematode show variations in their pathogenic potential (virulence) and physiological functions that support their survival and perpetuation in different environmental conditions. These variations may be largely due to genetic factors that may be conditioned by environmental factors. Various studies on genetic variability of microbial plant pathogens have shown that variations may occur in characters which affect their ability to infect host plants and also other characters that do not alter the pathogenic potential, but they may be concerned with their survival. Knowledge of variation in pathogenic characteristics is valuable in planning effective measures for disease management. In addition, development of resistant to fungicides has been a serious concern to growers, researchers as well as the administrators, since the decision to continue application or withdrawal of a fungicide can affect both the growers and industry.

10.1 Introduction

Plant breeders come across two categories of characters (traits) for improvement, namely, qualitative characters and quantitative characters. Red vs white flower, round vs wrinkled seed, determinate plant growth vs indeterminate plant growth etc. are examples of qualitative trait differences. There is no overlapping of characters and no confusion during classification. Such trait differences are usually governed by one or two gene pairs, each with large effect that can be measured even in the presence of segregation at other loci and even in the presence of effects of environmental factors. These characters are very less influenced by the environmental factors.

On the other hand, most of the traits of economic importance like yield of fruits of vegetable and fruit crops, yield of vegetative parts in fodder crops, yield of lint in cotton, yield of grains in cereals, pulses, oilseeds etc., plant height, days to maturity etc. are examples of quantitative characters. Variation observed for such traits is continuous. Again, there is overlapping of trait differences. So, one cannot assign individuals to a specific class unambiguously. Such characters are influenced by environmental factors, such that phenotypes are not same when grown over locations and/or seasons.

When different plants/lines of a species exhibit trait differences, it is called variation. Variation is essential for any improvement in a crop. It may be present in the population to be improved or else it may be created by different means such as hybridization, mutation, polyploidy, domestication, plant introduction, somaclonal variation, genetic engineering etc. Now, we shall discuss the types and estimation of variation.

As the blood returns to the heart it passes through special thin walled vessels called veins. Unlike the tough strong arteries, these vessels are easily distended. One can demonstrate by pressing the finger on a vein on the back of hand and watching it swell as the blood builds up behind it. Blood flowing from the head and upper chest flows downward toward the heart. On the other hand, blood coming from the lower extremities must flow upward. To make this possible nature has provided valves in the veins so that the blood can flow only toward the heart, never in the other direction.

In human beings there are two sets of veins. The deeper veins are located within the muscles where they are given good support. But the veins on the surface just under the skin have little support and are easily damaged. These surface veins are often subject to inflammation or phlebitis.

In some people the veins in the legs are weak and may swell easily. Varicose veins, seems to run in families. Anything that increases the pressure in the pelvis or abdomen may slow the flow of blood back to the heart from the lower extremities. One frequent cause of varicose veins is pregnancy; other is obesity. Anything that increases the pressure within the veins of the legs and thighs may weaken or break down the little valves, so that the veins become enlarged and the blood does not finds its way back to the heart as it should.

When a variety is grown under different environmental conditions, phenotype is the result of genotype+environment+genotype×environment interaction. Genotype×environment refers to the interaction effect of the genotype with different environments. Presence of this interaction leads to overestimation of genetical and biometrical parameters and thus may yield misleading results. This interaction also influences the varietal adaptation of new improved genotypes. Adaptation refers to certain varietal features (morphological and physiological) which promote survival under that environment. In production and breeding programmes adaptability is related to economic yield i.e. genotypes producing higher economic yield under different environmental conditions are comparatively more adaptive than those which produce low yield. Varietal adaptability refers to the capability of a genotype to grow normally and perform well in an environment or different environments. Adaptation of genotypes depends upon certain characters i.e. both morphological and physiological which promote survival under an environment. In natural conditions adaptation is brought by natural selection, but in artificial breeding, adaptation is induced by the breeders.

The primary purpose in plant breeding is to develop better varieties. In order to realize the potential benefit from an improved variety, it should be distributed widely and sufficient seed must be produced so that the variety can be grown on farms in the areas to which it is adopted.  Otherwise much of the breeders work would be wasted.

Variety is a synonym of cultivar and has been defined in the International Code for the Nomenclature for cultivated plants (Anon 1980.) in article 10. ‘’The international term cultivar denotes as assemblage of cultivated plants which is clearly distinguished by any characteristics (morphological, physiological, cytological, chemical or others) and which, When reproduced (sexually or asexually) retains its distinguishing characters”. Indian Seeds Act, under its sub-section 16 of section 2 defined variety as “a sub-division of a kind identifiable by growth, yield, plant, fruit, seed or other characteristic”. Both definitions emphasize that variety should be distinguishable from others and capable of retaining its distinguishable features under multiplication. Therefore production of genetically pure and otherwise good quality pedigree seed is an exacting task requiring high technical skills and comparatively more financial investment. During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic purity and other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full dividends sought to be obtained by introduction of new superior crop plant varieties.

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

Introduction

Vegetables are important constituents of Indian agriculture and play important role in nutritional security due to their short duration, high yield, nutritional richness, economic viability and ability to generate on-farm and off-farm employment. Vegetables form an integral part of staple diet in India where 42% population is vegetarian and vegetables are sources of daily requirement of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Our country is blessed with diverse agro-climates with distinct seasons, making it possible to grow wide array of vegetables. The role of vegetable cultivation in the country’s nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation is becoming increasingly important. There are vast opportunities available in export sector, which need to be harnessed to their fullest ability. Vegetable crops have high yield potential and calories per unit area compared to that of cereals in the shortest time. Additionally, vegetable cultivation creates employment in rural sector, as it is a labour intensive farming practice. Vegetables are good source of ready farm income, besides being rich in health building substances, especially protective nutrients (Kalia, 2010 and Meena et al., 2016).

Introduction
Legumes that produce dry seed suitable for human consumption are known as pulses, and they are agronomically valuable plants in the field and in the food chain. In the past ten years, grain legumes—particularly pulses—have become more popular as a means of addressing global agricultural concerns. (Bohra et al. 2015, Varshney et al. 2015).The best plant-based sources of dietary protein, as well as other minerals including iron, zinc, magnesium, and dietary fiber, are pulses. (Bohra et al.2014, Kouris-Blazos and Belski 2016, Maphosa and Jideani 2017). According to Simpson and Campbell (2015), a plant-based agricultural diet high in fruit or legume fiber helps to improve microbial diversity and has a beneficial effect on short-chain fatty acid levels, both of which are critical for preserving gut health. Because of their unique ability to fix nitrogen symbiotically with Rhizobium spp. in their root nodules, legumes not only improve nutritional health but also increase soil fertility (Graham and Vance 2003, Stagnariet al. 2017). The Leguminosae, often known as the Fabaceae, are the third largest family of flowering plants, behind the orchid (Orchidaceae) and sunflower (Asteraceae) families (Walters 1960), with 750 genera and 20,000 species (Polhill 1981).With a productivity of 1016 kg ha-1, 93.23 million tons (m t) of pulses are harvested worldwide from 91.77 million (m ha) of land (http://faostat.fao.org/). With a cumulative average productivity of 1030 kg ha-1, the major pulse crops—dry bean (primarily common bean), chickpea, dry pea (pea), cowpea, pigeonpea, lentil, and faba bean—share 92.58% (84.05 million ha) of the world’s total pulse production, or 92.82 percent (86.53 m t) (http://faostat.fao.org/). According to their ability to adapt to tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, pulse crops can be broadly divided into two groups: 1) warm season crops, such as common bean, pigeonpea, and cowpea, and 2) cool season crops, such as pea, chickpea, lentil, and faba bean (Cannon et al. 2009, Young et al. 2003, Zhu et al. 2005). Chickpea, pea, and lentil are regarded as one of the founding grain crops and helped start modern agriculture because of its early domestication (around 11,000 years ago) (Zohary and Hopf 2000).Over the past 60 years, the global area under pulses has increased from 64 to 91.77 million hectares (http://faostat.fao.org/), and numerous high-yielding varieties have been developed and released as a result of extensive research on conventional breeding for pulse improvement due to their high agricultural value (Singh 2005, Saxena 2008, Pérez de la Vega et al. 2011, Torres et al. 2011, Gaur et al. 2012).Pulses are less productive than other crops, particularly cereals, due to factors such growing in risky settings, unpredictable rainfall, extended dry spells, and susceptibility to a range of pests and diseases (Borlaug 1973, Varshney et al. 2013a).

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed colour of cv COH₂ is _____.
2. The special appendage present in castor is called _____.
3. Modified phenol test was identified by _____ for pearl millet hybrids.
4. _____ test is for the varietal identification of sorghum.

Breeding

Pomegranate is genetically heterozygous material thus there is lot of variability existent in the nature. Therefore there is scope for crossing two selected genotypes. Raising of hybrid population and identification of superior types for following major constraints in its successful cultivation.

    1.    Cracking and splitting of fruits is a severe menace due to variation in atmosphere, humidity. 
    2.    Resistance to fruit borer and stem borer. 
    3.    To develop varieties having high sugar (16%) and less acid (1.5 %).
    4.    All varieties bear some sterile flowers. This reduces the yield appreciably. Selection of varieties bearing high percentage of fertile flowers should be achieved.

Varietal release and notification comes under the purview of the Seeds Act which is intended to provide for regulating the quality of certain notified seeds for sale and for marketing and for the matters connected therewith. Released and notified varieties are offered for seed certification by the seed certification agencies which ensure that the varieties under certification meet certain prescribed field and seed standards failing which they stand to be rejected during the process of seed certification.

Purpose of Release

The purpose of release of cultivars is to introduce the newly evolved varieties to the public for general cultivation in the region in which it is suitable. It enables the farmers to choose cultivars for cultivation in a region. In other words, release of a cultivar is in the nature of a recommendation to the farmers for its adoption. Therefore, notification of a variety is linked to the release of a variety, though the release process itself does not have statutory cover.

Varietal Seed Production Technology At a Glance